History and Development in Education

UNIT 1
UNIT 1: LESSON 1: AFRICAN TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

MEANING AND NATURE
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
❖ express the concept “education” in the broad sense of the word;
❖ explain the concept ‘African Traditional Education in your own words
❖ describe the nature of African Traditional Education
Meaning of African Traditional Education

As a teacher, we are sure you have come to across the concept “education” on
several occasions. Have you taken the trouble to understand what the concept
means in broad sense? To some people, they attribute education only to the act of
going to school and for that matter there was no education in African societies
before the arrival of European settles (white men) in African countries.
However, in the broad sense of the word, education can be defined as the process
and experiences for preparing individuals for meaningful living today and the
future in their immediate environments, the community and the world at large
African Traditional Education refers to the non – specialized, informal and non –
literate form of education given in African societies that was intended to produce
useful persons for the small and largely self – sufficient communities.
In reality, African Traditional education was the system of education for preparing
Africans for meaningful life in their communities before the early Europeans
introduced school education (formal education).
Today, African Traditional Education may be explained as all the skills,
knowledge, experience and the training that individuals receive outside the
classroom (Home education). We can therefore say that most Africans are a
combination of the experiences they have been exposed to by their elders
(home) and the school.
In general, African Traditional Education had and still has the sole purpose of
introducing individuals into the society with all its institutions, taboos, cultural
norms, values and functions with the view of making the individuals a part of the
totality of the social consciousness.
Nature of African Traditional Education

We are sure that you appreciate the intelligent manner in which Africans prepare
the individual members of their societies for meaningful and useful social life
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through their indigenous form of education called the African Traditional
Education.
We also believe that you have understood that African Traditional Education did
not involve the use of reading and writing and as such all knowledge and pieces of
information, skills, values etc were passed on through word of mouth (oral
tradition).
Characteristics of African Traditional Education

▪ African Traditional Education was non – literate; it did not involve reading
and writing.
▪ African Traditional Education was indigenous in nature; the educational
goal, methods and content information to be learnt differed from one local
area to another; depending on the needs of that particular society and the
demands of its environment.
▪ African Traditional Education was incidental in nature; this means that it
was not planned to follow a particulagriculture, peace-building, industry,
environmental ;protection etc.ar structure; any incident that happened
presented a learning instance for the individual.
▪ African Traditional Education embraces all aspects of the personality of the
individual – eg. physical, economic, social, political, religious etc.
▪ Techniques essential for the survival of the individual and the society are
focused for teaching purposes eg.
▪ African Traditional Education is closely related to the kind of life in the
community; African Traditional Education is given through observation,
imitation and participation alongside the elders in productive activities,
▪ The home is the school in African Traditional Education and the teachers
are the parents and the elders in the family and the community.
▪ In African Traditional Education it was the duty of all elders in family to
train the young members so that they might bring honour and not disgrace
to the whole decent group.
▪ The whole culture of the people formed the curriculum of the African
Traditional Education.
PROGRESS TEST
1. Before the arrival of Europeans in Africa and the founding of schools there was
no system of education. True / False
2. African Traditional Education can be defined as ……………………………….
3. List any two skills or experiences people learn outside the school system.
4. Two characteristic features of African Traditional Education are:
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UNIT 1: LESSON 2: SCOPE OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL
EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you will be able to:
❖ cite at least two area of concern covered by African Traditional Education
❖ list two activities in the economic, political, religious as well as socio-moral
training of individuals under African Traditional Education.
Economic preparation in African Traditional Education

For you to understand fully the content of this lesson, it would be appropriate to
remind you that one of the characteristics of African Traditional mentioned in
lesson 1 is that African Traditional Education embraces all aspects of the
personality of the individual. It is comprehensive in scope; imparting trading and
teaching codes of behaviour all on one breath.
Preparation for political participation in Society

In African Traditional Societies both males and females have distinct political
roles to play and are therefore nurtured into the knowing and appreciation of their
political roles. In fact the politics of community involves all members of that
community both males and females
This political preparation starts from the clan level to the chieftancy level and then
to the paramountcy.
Religious preparation of individuals in African Traditional Societies

Dear learner, it was not for noting that one great writer on African Traditional
religion remarked that “the African is notoriously religious”. This means that
religion covers every aspect of the life of the African.
How African Traditional Education provides for the religious upbringing of

individuals.
▪ before Christianity and Islam were introduced, children were informally
taught about the hierarchy (order of merit) of the gods of the area.
▪ through participation in the festivals of the area, individuals learn to
respect the gods and their taboos
▪ again by listening to prayers said when performing libation, one gets to
know the gods of the area and the Supreme Being and roles each plays in
the society eg. some gods are river god of rain etc.
▪ young Africans through participation and observation alongside elders
during worship, learn that each god has its day or time of worship as well
as the processes involved in the worship of each god.
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Even with the introduction of other religions such as Islam and Christianity,
African families continue to play very important roles in shaping the religious lives
of individuals. Many people grow into the religious orientations of their families?
Socio – Moral training in African Traditional Societies
In Ghanaian communities the responsibilities for training individuals for social and
moral living does not rest on the father and mother alone. Based on the Ghanaian
concept of blood relationship (extended family system) the family plays a
paramount role to train its young so that they might bring honour to the family
group.
Ways through which social and moral values are provided under African
Traditional Education
1. elders instill in the young the concept of respect for old age
2. imparting of a set of social ethics and rules of conduct through direct instruction,
through legends and histories of real persons
3. addressing elders demanded proper manners either in words or gestures
4. insistence on cultured speech and accurate use of proverbs and idioms
5. encouraging the qualities of cheerfulness, initiative smartness, tolerance and
hardworking spirit in doing all things
6. boys and girls are taught to fetch water, clean the compound and help in other
household chores
7. the initiation rite that were common among some Ghanaian ethnic group
provided a lot of social-moral training. For example the dipo of the Krobo
people and the Bragro of some Akan tribes were good media for socio – moral
training of the young.
PROGRESS TEST
i. African Traditional Education covers such major areas likes ………………….,
………………….., …………………..
ii. Suggest any two activities used in African Traditional Education to address the
following;
(a) Economic education of individuals
(b) Religious preparation of individuals under African Traditional Education
(c) Socio – Moral training under African Traditional Education
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UNIT 1: LESSON 3: STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF AFRICAN
TRADITIONAL EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you will be able to
❖ identify at least three strengths of African Traditional Education
❖ suggest at least three weaknesses of African Traditional Education
❖ relate the strengths and weaknesses to the characteristic nature of African
Traditional Education.
Strengths of African Traditional Education

1. African Traditional Education is comprehensive in nature and therefore
holistically develops every aspect of the personality of the individual ie.
Individuals produced under this system are physically, economically,
intellectually, emotionally, potentially, socially and morally as well as
religiously and spiritually prepared for life. Such expressions like “uneducated
trained teachers” and uneducated graduate” do not feature.
2. African Traditional Education succeeded to integrate its recipients into society
from birth to death. Young people are given adequate knowledge about their
history, briefs and culture as well as good character and good health; thus
enabling them to participate fully in social life.
3. Every adult member of society had the responsibility of a teacher in African
Traditional Education, all were concerned about the proper upbringing of the
child and the whole environment was the school. Teaching and learning went on
twenty – four hours a day; non – stop.
4. African Traditional Education is assessed locally based on the performance of
the individual or the behaviour he/she put across. This made people to be
cautions in whatever they do.
5. African Traditional Education developed in the members of society, natural
collective consciousness ie. each was his brother’s keeper and support for one
another in all situations was assured.
6. African Traditional Education purposefully prepared individuals for life in their
immediate environment. For this reason, under that system, there was nothing
like unemployment in society as we find under school education.
7. again, there was much educational and moral values in the initiation ceremonies
under African Traditional Education such as Dipo and Brago. These values are
now lost to us and this has thus contributed to the weakening of the good old
traditions.
8. African Traditional Education develops special relationships between the adults
and the young and this encourages the respect for adults.
Weaknesses of African Traditional Education

Despite the advantages that African Traditional Education has, some weaknesses
can be observed. Some advantages inherent in African Traditional Education are:
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(a) African Traditional Education in its true sense of the word is indigenous and
local; as much most of the knowledge acquired through it could only be used in
the local environments and may not meet the demands of other environments.
(b) African Traditional Education is more focused on the group more than the
individual and as such no consideration is given to individual differences in
terms of interest, aptitudes and self – actualization.
(c) African Traditional Education was a hindrance to development since birth
(parentage) and environment (place of birth) determined the development of
the individual; for example a child born in a fishing locality is bound to be
fisherman; no matter his abilities and skills in other areas of endeavour.
(d) By nature, African Traditional Education was non – literate. This characteristic
feature creates a weakness for the programme. Since it was non – literate, no
figures and letters are learnt to recall events for the future generation. Every
event was to be remembered. Though the elders could remember; many details
were lost to us and even those that could be remembered were exaggerated in
some cases.
(e) Let us reason out how the more complicated systems of trade, commerce and
government could have been run without a system of recording. The use of
recall of facts and events alone would have been difficult to operate.
(f) African Traditional Education by its nature exhibits the problem of lack of the
sense of comparison and estimation. This weakness is still evident among
Ghanaian illiterates; one say: “just there” and that will be about three
kilometers away.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify three strength of African Traditional Education.
ii. State three weaknesses of African Traditional Education.
iii. Pick one weakness of African Traditional Education and describe how it has
been caused by the nature of the system.
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UNIT 1: LESSON 4: MEANING AND NATURE OF CASTLE
SCHOOL EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
❖ tell what the Castle Schools were; and why they were established
❖ describe the system of education that was provided in the forts and castles of
the early European merchants;
❖ describe the curriculum that was used in the castle school;
❖ mention two groups of pupils who benefited from that system of education.
Meaning of Castle School Education

Let us begin the lesson by taking a journey into history of our country – Ghana and
how she became known as the Gold Coast. About five hundred years ago,
European sailors started visiting the coastal towns of our country and established
trade with the local communities.
The first of these early Europeans to set foot on our land were Portuguese from
Portugal. And the records have it that they established a trade link with the people
of Edina bear Cape Coast (Oguaa). The Europeans found so much gold that they
decided to set up a permanent trading – post at Edina as gold was in high demand
in Europe.
Because of the gold that was found at Edina, the Portuguese named the town “La
Mina”, which is the Portuguese language meant “The mine”. This later developed
into the name – Elmina for which Edina is known to data.
The early Europeans traded with the local people in guns, gun – powder, strong
drinks, textile, etc, which they exchanged for gold – dust and slaves. In order to
protect their goods, the early settlers put up very big and strong buildings called
“castles” in which they dwelt and traded with the local people.
The first of these great buildings is the Elmina Castle which was completed in
1482 under the leadership of the Portuguese sailor and explorer – Don Diego de –
Azambuja.
There were forts and castles at places like: Axim, Dixcove, Cape Coast, Anomabo,
Abandze and Accra.
European traders shifted some of their attention to education when in actual sense
their main objective was trade.
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Explanations why the early Europeans established schools in the castles they
built.
(a) the early European traders had children with African women and they
considered it moral obligation to give their children (Mulattoes) the type of
education that was found in Europe
(b) again the merchants needed interpreters, clerks and trade representatives for
their trading activities and therefore needed to train such people through the
schools they established.
(c) they also saw formal education as an important tool for the spreading of the
Christian faith; also for colonizing the local people;
(d) we can explain that, the first schools or Castle schools as they were popularly
called: “were the type of schools established in the castles along the coast of
Ghana”. And it worth to note that the schools were established by the European
Trading Merchants and Companies.
Nature of Castle School Education

Let us look at the following description of the nature of the Castle School
Education
• the Castle Schools provided the western European concept of education; ie.
Schooling
• the education was provided in designated institutions called schools
• the education followed a specifically – programmed set of activities called
a curriculum
• teachers played specialized and professional role (designated educators
called teachers not parents)
• the schools had permanent / specific sites where teaching and learning took
place.
• The Castle School education focused on Reading, Writing, Arithmetic
(3Rs) and latter; Religious Instruction
• the curriculum was the same in all the castle schools and the only
difference was the same in all the castle schools and the only difference
was the language used eg.
Elmina Castle School – Portuguese language and later Dutch language was
used.
Cape Coast Castle School – English Language
Christiansborg Castle School – Danish Language
• the castle school education involved literacy; the system was literate
(involved reading and writing)
• the castle schools were opened to a selected group of pupils.
From the reasons for which the early European merchants established
schools in the castles they built, we hope you were able to write that the
castle school education benefited the following pupils:
• children with African and European parents (Mulattoes)
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• few black children from wealthy African parents
• few children of the inhabitants around the castles
PROGRESS TEST
i. The formal school system in Ghana owes it origin to the castle schools that were
established by the European merchants. True / False
ii. What were the castle schools?
iii. Suggest any three key reasons for which the castle schools were established
iv. What were the main subject areas of the curriculum of the Castle Schools?
v. List any two features that describe the nature of Castle School education
vi. The first castle school was established in ……………. at ………….
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UNIT 1: LESSON 5: LOCATIONS OF CASTLE SCHOOLS IN THE
GOLD COAST (GHANA)
OBJECTIVES
❖ locate at least two sites of castle school education in the Gold Coast (Ghana)
❖ trace the development of the castle school education
❖ describe at least two notable products of castle school education and their
contribution to the progress of the country.
Site of the Castle Schools

It is on record that almost all the castles and forts that were built in the coastal
towns of the Gold Coast (Ghana) had schools in them but notable among them
were the Elmina Castle School, the Cape Coast Castle School and the
Christiansborg Castle School.
The Elmina Castle School

Formal education at the Elmina Castle was organized by the Portuguese merchant
who settled in the castle. They started the school in 1529 based on the instruction
of the King of Portugal – Joao 111 who advised the settlers to:
“Take special care to command that the sons of the negroes living in the village to
learn how to read and write, how sing and pray while ministering in church”
Initially the pupils of the school were solely mulatto children and the maximum
enrolment did not exceed fifteen. However in 1572, four Portuguese Augustinian
Missionaries arrived at Elmina and after dividing the village of Edina into sections,
each took a section and gave regular instruction on the Catechism and how to read
and write.
The Elmina Castle School was short – lived under the Portuguese and by 1572 it
has stopped functioning because the local inhabitants murdered the Augustinian
Missionaries and again the Portuguese were driven away by the Dutch. (from
Holland or Netherlands)
These setbacks notwithstanding, the Dutch writer, Draper in 1650 counted 200
Catholic Christians at Elmina out of a population of 2,000. Dear learner, we are
sure that you appreciate this earliest attempt at introducing school education into
the country.
How the Dutch came to limelight and their contributions to the castle school
system.
After driving away the Portuguese in 1642, the Dutch West Indian company
established its headquarters in Elmina and a few years later opened a school for
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mulatto children. And to put the school on a more permanent basis, accepted the
services of Moravian Missionaries – Christian Protten and Rev. Henrich Hunkuff.
The Dutch sent a few Africans from their school at Elmina to Europe for further
studies. One of such pupils was a native of Elmina who acquired the Dutch name –
“Jacobus Capitein”. Born in 1717 he was sent to Holland in 1737 and was ordained
at the first African Protestant priest and was posted back to Elmina in 1742 to man
the castle school.
Though he died a few years later in 1747, his contribution to the development of
education was outstanding and we shall talk about them in next lesson.
Another notable product of the Dutch Castle School at Elmina was Anthon
Wilhelm Amo (Anthony William Amo) of Shama. He furthered his education at
the Wittenberg University (Germany) in 1734 and crowned his academic success
with a doctorate degree. He was appointed professor of Philosophy and Logic at
Wittenberg University and rose to become an advisor to the German King.
Some of the Dutch – educated natives from the Elmina Castle School served as
commercial and trade representatives both in the country and abroad. Others also
were trained as carpenters and masons.
Dear learner, how far are you enjoying these historical briefing? We hope these
would go a long way to enrich your understanding of developments in Ghana’s
education system.
We believe you know that Great Britain was the colonial master of Ghana and for
more than one hundred years our country was colonized by Britain. Can you guess
the contributions of England to castle school education in Ghana?
Activity
i. Did the English contribute to Castle School education in Ghana? YES / NO
ii. If yes, where was the English Castle School sited?
The Cape Coast Castle School

The English castle school established in Cape Coast in 1694 has developed into
what is known today as the Cape Coast Philip Quaque Boys and Girls Schools.
The first serious attempt at establishing a school in the Cape Coast Castle which
was controlled by the British merchant and Training Companies from England was
made by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG).
At the invitation of the British merchant the SPG sent Rev. Thomas Thompson to
Ghana in 1752 to start Christian missionaries and education work in Ghana. And it
was Rev. Thomas Thompson who persuaded Cudjoe – a magistrate of Cape Coast
to all him to send his son: Philip Quaque along with other two boys (Thomas
Caboro and William Cudjoe) to be trained in England at the expense of the SPG.
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Philip Quaque was the only survivor, (the other two boys died) and he graduated
with a MA degree from Oxford University and was ordained a minster of the SPG
mission.
In 1766, Philip Quaque arrived at the Cape Coast Castle as missionary, school
master and catechist to the negroes of the Gold Coast. Philip Quaque is better
known for the Castle school he run for well over fifty years than the missionary
work or evangelization he undertook on behalf of the SPG (Now Anglican
Church).
Philip Quaque died in 1816 and was buried at the Cape Coast Castle, but the
school he founded still lives on. One of his pupils – Joseph Smith became a
headmaster of the school, an eminent educator and later was appointed Acting
Colonial Secretary by Governor George Maclean.
The Christiansburg Castle School at Osu in Accra

At Osu in Accra the Danes from Denmark built the Christianburg Castle (now the
seat of government) to facilitate their trading activities. The Danish Merchant
established their school in 1722 on the same pattern as the Portuguese and the
Dutch.
A few of the products of the Danish Castle School were sent to Europe for further
education. Notable among them were Frederick Pederson Svane and Christian
Protten. Christian Protten, when in Denmark, converted to the Moravian Church
and later on become a Moravian Missionary and teacher in the Gold Coast.
Dear learner, do you remember that we have come across the name of Christian
Protten in this lesson? If you have forgotten do not worry; just refer to the Dutch
Castle School at Elmina and you would know the service Christian Protten and
Rev. Henrich Hunkuff provided to the Elmina Castle School.
Notable Product of Castle School Education in Ghana

• Dutch Castle School (Elmina) – Jacobus Capitein and Anthony Williams
Amo
• English Castle School (Cape Coast) – Philip Quaque, Joseph Smith, George
Blankson (first African member of the Gold Coast legislative council)
• Danish Castle School (Christiansburg – Osu) – Christian Protten, Fredrick
Pederson Svane.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify any three site of castle school education in Ghana
ii. Suggest the European power which established each of the school
iii. Describe one contribution made by a product of the castle school education to
the development of Ghana.
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UNIT 1: LESSON 6: EFFECTS OF THE CASTLE SCHOOLS ON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN
GHANA
OBJECTIVES
❖ Identify at least one way by which the castle school education helped to change
the perception of the early Europeans about Africans.
❖ Suggest at least two effects each that the castle school education had on the
following:
• Political development of Ghana
• Evangelization works
• Book and language development
• Educational development
Contributions to the political development of the Country

Most of the answers you were expected to provide in activity 1 can be attained
from the presentation below:
• Joseph Smith – appointed Acting Colonial Secretary during Governor
George Maclean’s administration.
• George Blankson of Anomabo – in 1861 became the first African member
of the Legislative council (law – making body of the colony).
• Nkwantabisa and Owusu Ansah – two Asante princes sent to the Cape
Coast school at the request of Gorvenor Maclean to keep peace with
Asante. Owusu Ansah was sent on diplomatic missions to negotiate on
behalf of the British.
• Many of the cadres of the Fanti confederation formed in 1867 as the first
movement for self – government were products of the castle school
education.
• Again the sending of some students oversea, laid a firm foundation for
nationalism and independence.
Castle School products and evangelization work

Most of the products of the castle school education took active part in the
spreading of the Christian faith (Evangelism).
We can mention the following as examples:
• Rev. Jacobus Capitein – Ordained as the African Protestant priest and sent to
Elmina Castle as Chalain to Dutch company at Elmina
• Christian Protten – Missionary of the Moravian Church sent to the Elmina
Castle
• Professor Anthony William Amo – Stayed in Germany for about thirty years as
lecturer and Chaplain at Wittenberg University
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• Rev. Philip Quaque – Appointed as missionary, school – master and Catechist
to the first Gold Coast. He was appointed the first African
priest of the Church of England (Anglican Church)
Book and language development

• Jacobus Capitein – He may be called the pioneer in vernacular literature in
Ghana because he was the first to translate the Lord’s prayer, the Ten
Commandments and the Apostles Creed into Fante.
• Christian Protten – He translated the Lord’s prayer into Ga, complied a Ga
– Danish vocabulary and a Ga grammar book.
Contribution of the Castle School system to educational development
Activity
i. List any two notable students of the castle school system
ii. Describe the contributions of one of them in the provision of education in the
country.
In response to the questions above, we believe you mentioned names like Jacobus
Capitein, Christian Potten, Anthony Willian Amo, Philip Quaque and Joseph
Smith to mention but few.
• Jacobus Capitein worked for about five years at the Elmina Castle where he
taught and administered onto the local people
• Christian Protten also accepted missionary and teaching assignments at
Elmina Castle.
• Anthony William Amo worked for about thirty years in Germany teaching
and preaching
• Philip Quaque served as schoolmaster, Missionary and Catechist in the
gold Coast for well over fifty years and the school he founded is still at
Cape Coast.
• Joseph Smith was one of the pupils of Philip Quaque and he rose to become
the headmaster of the school and an eminent educator.
In conclusion, we can say that the castle school system of education provided the
needed personnel and teaching staff which quickened the missionary educational
activities in Ghana and West Africa as a whole.
PROGRESS TEST
i. The effects of the castle school education in Ghana could be felt in the following
two areas. Name them.
ii. Describe the contributions of any notable products of the castle school system in
a giving area of endeavour.
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UNIT 1: LESSON 7: ADVANTAGES OF THE CASTLE SCHOOL
EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES THE
SYSTEM FACED
OBJECTIVES
❖ suggest at least three benefits derived from the castle school system
❖ relate the identified benefits to our present educational system
❖ identify any three challenges or problems which confronted the operations of
the castle school educational system
❖ describe how the suggested challenges still confront our educational system
Advantages of Castle School education

(a) The castle schools produced notable Ghanaians such as Rev. Jacobus Capitein,
Prof. Anthony William Amo, Christian Protten, Rev. Philip Quaque, Joseph
Smith etc who contributed immensely to the development of education in the
Gold Coast and the West – African sub – region
(b) Again, the achievements of the notables mentioned above changed the
perception of Europeans about Africans.
(c) The castle schools formed the beginning of western formal education in Ghana
(d) The castle schools introduced us to the concept of an organized system of
education and schooling away from the home environment
(e) The castle schools indicated the need for a basic curriculum made up of
Reading, Writing and Arithmetic (3Rs) which still form the core elements of
our basic school curriculum as the three key essentials for literacy and
numeracy acquisition.
(f) The castle schools introduced the concept of a full – time qualified teacher who
has to be appointed to teach and such teachers were paid wages or salaries for
their services.
(g) The castle school introduced the idea of sending promising pupils abroad for
further studies eg. Jacobus Capitein, Christian Protten, Philip Quaque, Anthony
William Amo etc.
(h) The Castle schools provided the needed personnel and teaching staff which
quickened the missionary educational activities in the Gold Coast and West –
Africa as a whole.
Problems / Challenges faced by castle school system

Let us turn our attention to the second segment of the lesson and try to identify
some of the problems or challenges, which the castle schools faced. These are the
following suggested points:
1. Very few books were available for teaching except Bibles and this gave rise to
too much religious orientation and liberal education rather than vocational or
technical education.
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2. The school were limited to the coastal town and trading centers; enrolment did
not spread beyond the castle environment.
3. Low enrolment: enrolment in the castle schools never exceeded sixteen and
there were times when there were no pupils at all.
4. Financial Problem: The Schools had very little financial support from the castle
administration and this affected their smooth running. Rev. Philip Quaque can
be cited as an example; when he died in 1816 his own salary was in arrears to
the tune of £369.
5. Political Instability: There was general political instability along the coast of the
Gold Coast and the areas into the hinterland there were frequent wars and this
affected the progress of the schools eg. the Anglo – Dutch Wars, the Asante –
Fante wars etc. scared many parents who otherwise would have sent their
children to the schools. Parents became afraid and therefore kept their children
at home and those who we attending school were prevented by their parents.
6. Interference from the castle administrations; on many occasions the castle
administrations tried to influence the running of the school eg. in 1791, Rev.
Philip Quaque was suspended for refusing to take up arms and accompany
Governor Field to defend the Anomabo fort. And again it is believed that one of
the reasons for which Rev. Andreas Riis of the Basel Mission left the
Charistianburg Castle for Akropong in 1835 was to get away from the controls
of the Danish Castle authorities.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Suggest any three benefits derived from the castle school system.
ii. Describe how one of the benefits of the castle school system impacted positively
on our present educational system
iii. Two of the challenges / problems that the castle schools faced were
iv. Explain how one of these problems still affects our educational system.
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UNIT 1: LESSON 8: CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN
THE GOLD COAST I
Let us take this opportunity to remind you that the missionary educational
enterprise in the Gold Coast was a follow – up of the Castle School educational
activities for the following reasons:
• It was the Society for the Propagation of the Gosple (SPG) which sent
Philip Quaque to England and trained him to become a priest, a Catechish
and a Schoolmaster of the Cape Coast Castle school and therefore built the
foundation of SPG (Anglican) educational works in the Gold Coast.
• It was a product of the Cape Coast Castle school whose request to England
for Bibles brought in the Wesleyan Mission (Methodist Church)
• Again it was the wish of a Danish governor at the Christianburg Castle to
put the school on a permanent footing that led to the invitation of Basel
Missionaries into the country.
Now let remind ourselves that the lesson has been broken down into the following
sub – headings:
• The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG)
• The Basel Missionary Society
• The Wesleyan Missionary Society
• The Bremen Missionary Society
• The Roman Catholic Mission
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson you will be able to:
❖ trace the origin of at least two missionary societies and their educational
works in the Gold Coast.
❖ link the particular Christian mission to particular castle school
❖ describe the area of operation of the listed Christian Missions
❖ name at least one missionary who helped in the educational activities of
each mission.
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG)

The name – Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) is not new to us. We
came across the name when we were discussing the English Castle School at Cape
Coast. The SPG was one of the earliest missions and in fact the first to have started
Christian missionary works in Ghana.
The SPG missionary and educational works started with the arrival of Rev.
Thomas Thompson at Cape Coast in 1752. Rev. Thomas Thompson was a British
Missionary who had had about five years’ experience working with African slaves
in the plantations of North America and West – Indies. And having come into
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contact with the African slaves he nursed the aim to convert Africans to
Christianity.
Another SPG minister who continued the work of Rev. Thomas Thompson was
Rev. Philip Quaque. We hope you remember how Rev. Thomas Thompson advised
the father of Philip Quaque to send his boy and two other boys to England to be
trained at the expense of the SPG. Good, you have done well. Like Rev. Thomas
Thompson, Philip Quaque worked mainly in Cape Coast.
This suggested that the SPG operated mainly in Cape Coast and when it later
evolved into the Anglican Church, its areas of operation were extended to Accra
and part of present day Eastern and Western regions.
The Basel Mission

From the lesson introduction, can you tell how the Basel Mission came to the Gold
Coast?
The Basel Missionary Society came to the Gold coast at the instance of one
Governor Major de – Richelieu of the Danish Castle at Christiansburg in Accra.
Govenor de – Richelieu was governor of the Christiansburg Castle from 1822 –
1825 and on his return to Denmark, requested that the educational and missionary
work at Christiansburg be put on a permanent basis. Thus, the Basel Missionary
Society, which was mainly German Missionary Society with its headquarters in
Basel in Switzerland, was invited to send missionaries to the Gold Coast.
In 1828 the Mission sent four missionaries to the Gold Coast and as soon as they
arrived they opened a school at Christiansburg and started educational and
missionary activities. But by 1831, all the missionaries had died. Can you guess the
cause of their deaths? Read on and you will eventually know.
A second batch of three missionaries arrived at Christiansburg in 1832 and this

time the party included a medical doctor – Dr. C. Heinze; however by 1835, the
only survivor was Rev. Andreas Riis. Dr. Heinze died first with four months of
their arrival, followed by the other missionary: P. Jaeger.
Even Rev. Riis was seriously down with fever and was cured by a native doctor. In
1835, Riis left the Christiansburg Castle for Akropong – Akuapem on the
Akuapem ridge. Can you think of the possible reasons for Riis departure? You will
not be wrong if you say health reasons ie. He wanted to move to high grounds to
escape mosquitoes. Again, as we have mentioned earlier, he wanted to get away
from the controls of Danish Castle authorities.
The efforts of the Basel Mission bore fruits when they opened a boys’ school at
Akropong in 1843, followed by a girls’ school in 1847 and then a teacher –
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training college and a catechist’ seminary in 1848. The teacher training college is
now the Presbyterian Training College (PTC) at Akropong.
Most of the Basel Schools were founded in the hinterland – Eastern, Central and
Asanti regions eg. Akropong, Aburi, Odumase – Krobo, Abokobi, Kyebi, Anum,
Abetifi, Agona – Nsaba etc. in fact by 1891 the Basel mission had only two coastal
stations – Christiansburg and Ada.
The Basel Mission school were founded as boarding institutions (Salem). The
Basel Missionary Society evolved into the Presbyterian Church of Ghana
The Wesleyan Missionary Society

The Wesleyan Missionaries from England came to the Gold Coast at the instance
of a product of the Cape Coast Castle school, one William de – Graft who had
settled at Dixcove as a trader. He was the leader of a Christian Bible Study group
and his request to the Wesleyan Missionary Society for Bibles was conveyed by
Captain Potter, who offered free passage to any Wesleyan Missionary willing to
come to the Gold Coast.
Rev. Joseph Rhodes Dunwell took up the challenge and arrived at Cape Coast on
1st January, 1835, however he was dead within six months. And his successors:
Mr./Mrs. George Wrigley and Mr./Mrs. Harrop also died shortly after their arrival.
Between 1835 and 1844, thirty – four Wesleyan Missionaries were sent to the Gold
Coast; out of which fifteen died and the rest forced by poor health to return home.
It was in 1835 that Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman, a missionary whose father was a
negro and his mother a white arrived and stayed for fifty – two years and made
substantial progress in terms of the number of schools he founded and the spread
of the Wesleyan faith in the Gold Coast and the West - African sub – region.
Rev. Thomas Brich Freeman spread Wesleyan educational activities beyond the
coast of Ashanti region and Nigeria.
The Wesleyan Mission (which later evolved into the Methodist church) became
well established in Fanteland where the mission was first established; for example:
Cape Coast, Anomabo and Saltpond.
Rev. Thomas Brich Freeman (1809 – 1890) worked mainly in Cape Coast and later
extended the Wesleyan educational and missionary activities to Mankesim,
Anomabo, Dixcove, Accra and Kumasi.
The Bremen Missionary Society

The Bremen Missionary Society came from the city of Bremen in northern
Germany and as such was called the North German Missionary Society. The
Bremen Missionary Society started missionary works in the Gold Coast in 1847
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when they sent a group of missionaries led by Rev. Lorenz Wolf to start work at
Peki in the present day Volta Region. This initial attempt was frustrated by the
early deaths of three missionaries who came with Rev. Lorenz Wolf. Two other
missionaries sent later had to return to Europe on the ground of poor health.
The Bremen Missionary Society’s efforts took roots as from 1853 when a second
major attempt was made; this time from Keta on the coast. The areas the Bremen
Mission concentrated their missionary and educational works are: Peki, Ho,
Kpandu, Hohoe, Keta and Amendzefe among others. Bremen Missionary work
took roots in the Volta Region largely through the early missionary works
undertaken by Rev. Lorenz Wolf.
The Bremen Mission evolved into the Evangelical Presbyterian Church after
having been named the Ewe Presbyterian Church. The Bremen Missionary
educational curriculum emphasized technical and vocational education as well as
the development of the local Ewe language.
Activity
Identify any two challenges encountered by the Bremen Missionary Society in
attempting to bring school education into the Gold Coast.
The Roman Catholic Mission

The Dutch defeated the Portuguese merchants at the Elmina Castle and seized the
castle from them. And by 1642 the Portuguese has signed a treaty with the Dutch
and handed over their settlements at Elmina, Shama and Axim to the Dutch and
taken over Dutch settlements in Brazil.
So with the departure of the Portuguese, what do you think happened to the
Catholic faith they introduced in the Gold Coast? Let us go on and we would know
all. Though the Portuguese left the Gold Coast the faith they introduced did not
die, and neither did they give up their desire to build a strong Catholic foundation
in the country. Can you tell what they did to sustain the faith? Let us look at one of
the effort they made.
In 1573, six Agustinian Frairs (Prests) were sent from Portugal to revive the faith
of the people of Elmina, but the monks were attacked and murdered by the local
people at Komenda and Eguafo. However in 1650, two hundred Catholic
Christians were counted at Elmina out of a population of about two thousand
people.
Dear learner, the 1880s witness the re-appearance of the Roman Catholic faith in
the Gold Coast and this added a new factor to the spread of Christianity and
education. The success of the Catholics can be looked at from three main angles.
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First, in 1880 a major attempt was made to receive the Catholic faith in Ghana
(Gold Coast) when two French missionaries – Father Auguste Moreau and Eugene
Murat arrived at Elmina and lather spread to Amissano; near Cape Coast, Cape
Coast, Ho and then Keta.
The second contribution was made by Sisters of Our Lady of Apostles (OLA) and
Fathers of the Society of African Missions (SMA) who were very instrumental in
the missionary works in the Volta Region.
The third dimension was the contributions another Catholic Missionary group
called “the White Fathers” (because of the long, white dresses they wore). They
entered the country from the north; i.e from Algeria through the Sahara desert and
were responsible for the introduction of the Catholic faith and education in
northern Ghana, especially in the Upper regions.
PROGRESS TEST
i. The first Christian Missionary Society to begin work in the Gold Coast was ….?
ii. Who was the first missionary sent by this missionary Society?
(a) Rev. Andreas’ Riis (c) Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman
(b) Rev. Joseph Dunwell (d) Rev. Thomas Thompson
iii. Rev. Philip Quaque worked in Cape Coast for the ………
iv. Suggest any two reasons which prompted Rev. Andreas Riis to leave the
Christiansburg Castle for Akropong.
v. Which Christian Missionary Societies came in the names of the following
churches?
(a) Evangelical Presbyterian church
(b) The Methodist Church of Ghana
(c) Anglican Church of Ghana
(b) Presbyterian Church of Ghana
vi. Who were the While Fathers?
vii. How different was their entry into the Gold Coast from other missionaries?
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UNIT 1: LESSON 9: CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN
THE GOLD COAST II
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe at least two contributions of the early Christian Missions towards the
development of education in the Gold Coast.
❖ discus at least two problems that the early missionaries faced in their work
❖ suggest whether the stated challenges have been resolved or not
❖ describe how the problems can be addressed if they are still there.
Contributions of early Christian Missions to education

1. Establishment of Basic Schools: All the Christian Missionary Societies
established primary and middle schools in their areas of operation. By the year
1900, three of the Missions had established a good number of primary and
middle schools with appreciably good enrolments.
2. Development of local languages: Many of the early Christian Missions made

conscious efforts to develop the local languages of their areas of operation and
reduce them into writing. Example include the following
➢ Rev. J.G Christaller (Basel Mission) – Twi
➢ Rev. Zimmerman (Basel Mission) – Ga
➢ Revs. Westerman / Schelegel (Bremen Mission) – Ewe
➢ Revs. Laing / Parker (Wesleyan Mission) – Fante
3. Promotion of Industrial and Technical Education: All the Christian

Missionary Societies helped greatly to promote industrial and technical
education. The most successful among them were the Basel and Roman
Catholic Mission who included in their curriculum an intensive programme in
agricultural and manual instruction.
4. Promotion of Teacher Education: The Basel and the Wesleyan Mission are
known to have established Seminaries to train teacher – catechists to man the
schools they established. The initiative of the Basel Mission at Akropong in
1848 has evolved into the oldest teacher – training college in the country –
Presbyterian Training College (PTC). The Wesleyan Mission on the other hand
established a Theological institute in Accra in 1842 to train teachers, but the
venture was abounded as a result of the death of the first Principal of the
Institute – Rev. Samuel Shipman.
5. Promotion of Girls Education: Efforts were made by the early missions to

encourage girls to go school, however the Basel Mission was ahead of the other
missions in this respect.
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6. Promotion of Literacy: As a result of the schools the missions established and
the emphasis they placed on the 3Rs – reading, writing and arithmetic, promoted
reading, writing and numeracy. Many young people took advantage of the new
opportunity to get school education and some became lawyers, teachers and
politicians. These were some of the achievements of the Christian Missionary
societies in the field of education. Which other achievements can you think
about? List them for face – to – face discussion.
Problems encountered by the early Missionaries:

➢ Death of early missionaries: Most of the early missionaries died after a short
stay due to malaria and other topical diseases.
➢ Hostility from the local people: In some cases, local people attacked the
missionaries, for instance the six Augustinian monks who were killed by the
people was in the area of refusing to allow their children to go to the schools
established by the missions. And this poor enrolments in the schools.
➢ Lack of funds: The Christian Missions were not fully supported financially by
their parent organizations abroad and this affected their desire for expansion.
An example was that Rev. Philip Quaque of the SPG could not raise sufficient
funds to support the Cape Coast Castle School. And his own salary was in
arrears to the tune of £369 when he died. And neither the castle authorities nor
the SPG Mission was ready to pay this mony.
➢ Lack of unity of Purpose: Though all the early Christian Missions had
common goals, they all went their separate ways. They all preached the same
faith, they represented different religious groups with each bent on establishing
itself in some part of Ghana. In some cases missions tried to get advantage over
others.
➢ Isolation of African converts from their tradition and culture
The Christian Missions preached against African traditions and cultural
practices and they did everything possible to isolate converted Africans from
their kinsmen who had not accepted Christianity. And for the purpose of
keeping converts away from their family members led to the creation of
“Salems” and “Christian Quarters”. This arrangement sowed seed of discord
among family members.
➢ Instability (Conflict) in the Gold Coast
The presences of regular and continuous inter – tribal conflicts on the Gold
Coast seriously affected the progress of the missionary and educational
activities of the missions. These were the major problems the missionaries
faced in their educational works.
➢ Family members rejected those that try to follow the Christian religion ( the
missionaries)
➢ They face a problem of Land acquisition (our forefathers were not ready to
give land to the missionaries far activities)
➢ They have problem with the language barriers
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➢ They lack problem of transportation (thus why they were not able to extend
their work done)
Have the problems of the early missionaries changed in our days? Which ones
have changed and which ones still remains? Discuss with other colleagues how the
challenges in education that have remained since the days of the early missionaries
can be addressed.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Describe any two contributions of the Christian Missions to education in the
Gold Coast.
ii. Suggest any two challenges the missions faced in their work in providing
education.
iii. Which of the problems are still with us?
iv. What can we do to get the persisting problems addressed?
24
UNIT 1: LESSON 10: ISLAMIC MISSIONARY EDUCATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson you will be able to:
❖ trace the spread of Islamic to West Africa and fort the matter the Gold Coast
❖ describe the nature of Islamic education and its level
❖ suggest at least two achievements of Islamic education in the educational
development of the country
❖ identify two challenges Islamic education faces.
The Spread of Islam to West Africa and Islamic education

Have you ever read about how Islam Spread to West Africa and for that matter the
Gold Coast (Ghana)? What is the nature of Islamic education, and how is it
different from the Western Christian education? Are there any similarities between
Islamic and western education?
It must be noted that the Christian Missionary Societies introduced the Christian
religion and western – type formal education in the country. From this, it could be
seen that Christianity and western – type formal education are foreign element that
were introduced in our society and culture.
Another set of foreign elements introduced in Ghanaian Society and culture are:
Islamic religion and Islamic education. We want to remind you that, in fact, Islam
was the first foreign civilization to be introduced into Ghana; and in effect Islam
came to the country before Christianity.
Islamic religion was introduced into West Africa in the 11th Century AD and by
the 14th Century, Islam had reached modern day Ghana. The Mende Dyula taders
who came into contact with Islam, spread the region and its associated educational
practices to Northern Ghana down to Asante. The Mende traders came as far as
Salaga, Bono, Techiman and eventually Kumasi to trade and brought the region
with them. Ghanaians living in those areas at that time accepted the Islamic faith
and for that matter Islamic education.
The nature of Islamic education and its level

Let us begin by saying that Islamic education is slightly different from Africa
Traditional Education and the western (formal/school) education that was
introduced by the Christian missionaries. Can you guess the differences?
• Unlike traditional education which is incidental and not structured, Islamic
education is structured.
• Unlike the Western formal education that is based on a broad curriculum,
Islamic education is directly based on the Quran – the authoritative source
of the Islamic faith and its religious practices
25
Orthodox Islamic Education
Levels of Education
The orthodox Islamic education has three main levels as follows:
1. Elementary or Quranic Schools (Makaranta)
2. Secondary level education (Madrasa)
3. Tertiary education (Makaranta Ilmi). The Makarantun Ilmi provided education
comparable to that provided in a university.
Text / Curriculum
The orthodox Islamic education is based solely on the Quran; in effect, the Quran
forms the source of curriculum.
Access and Participation

• Open to all – mass participation is encouraged but most especially to
Muslim males
• Not based on the ability to pay fees because every Muslim scholar has the
pious duty to pass on what he has learnt from the Quran and other Islamic
teachers are rewarded by alms giving.
• Islamic teachers are rewarded by alms giving
Course Content
• The Tafsir (Quranic exegesis or explanation)
• The Hadith (the Prophetic Tradition)
• The Figh (Islamic Law) ect
These were central to excellent Islamic education
Instructional Approach
(a) Rote learning which involved mass recitation of aspects of the Quran is the
principal method of teaching and learning.
(b) Explanation of aspects of the Quran (Quranic exegesis) is done at a higher level
(c) Reading, commentary and exegesis remain dominat at the Makarantun Ilmi
level
Medium of Instruction
Arabic language
Ahmadiyya Muslims and Islamic Education

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Islamic education was introduced into the country in 1921
with its headquarter at Saltpond in the Central Region.
Levels of Education
They adopted the educational approaches of the Christian Missionaries i.e.
• Primary level
• Secondary level
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• Tertiary level
Access and Participation

• Open to all
• They encourage all faithful’s to attain higher level of education
• They stresses on female education more than the Orthodox Muslims.
Course Content
✓ Same as done in the Orthodox Islamic School
✓ Western education and technology (Their children are therefore exposed to
other subjects in the public and secular schools in Ghana)
Instructional Approaches
✓ Rote learning is encouraged at the lower levels
✓ Learners are exposed to secular methodologies in public schools.
Medium of Instruction
English and Arabic.
Achievement of Islamic Education in Ghana

• It has produced many distinguished scholars in the country
• Many Quranic Schools have been established and the Ahmadiyya
Movement in Ghana has moved a step furthure to establish a number of
Primary and Secondary schools. Examples of Secondary schools are I.T.
Ahmadiyya Secondary School in Kumasi, Gomoa Potsin and Ekumfi
Essarkyir. Mention can also be made of the N.J Ahmadiyya Trading
College at Wa as another achievement.
• Islamic education has promoted literacy in Arabic among Muslims and
strengthen their Islamic faith.
• Islamic education has also contributed to social mobility among the Muslim
population.
• Islamic education is now provided in all parts of country. It is also based on
text, written and structured.
Problems of Islamic Education

• Islamic education has a tendency to neglect western forms of knowledge
and technology as in the case of the Orthodox Muslims. And in our modern
Westernized sector of the economy, it has affected occupational
opportunities for many young and brilliant Muslims
• The tendency of Orthodox Muslims to emphasized Arabic to the neglect of
English has also affected the educational advancement of the many Muslim
youth
• The emphasis on rote learning and memorization does not foster critical
thinking among learners
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• Non – Mislim and Non – Arbic Speakers are not encouraged to learn more
about Islam in view of the fact there are no readily available trasnsaction of
basic Islamic texts
PROGRESS TEST
i. Trace the spread of Islam and Islamic education to West Africa and the Gold
Coast
ii. Discuss the nature of Islamic education along these points:
(a) Levels of education
(b) Course content
(c) Text / Curriculum
(d) Instructional procedures
iii. Suggest any two achievements of Islamic education in Ghana
UNIT 1: PRE – COLONIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION

SUMMARY
END OF UNIT EXERCISE

i. (a) Explain the concept: African Traditional Education
(b) Discuss the similarities and differences African Traditional Education shared
with the Castle Schools and the schools of the early Christian Missionaries.
ii. Describe the relationship that existed between the Castle Schools and the
educational activities of the early Christian Missions.
iii. (a) Compare the arrival of the Christian Missions in education to their Islamic
Counterparts
(b) List any two achievements and two problems of Islamic Education in Ghana
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UNIT 2
UNIT 2: LESSON 1: EDUCATION ORDINANCES OF 1852
OBJECTIVES
• give a reason for government participation in education after 1844
• explain the education ordinance of 1852
• outline the provisions of the Education Ordinance of 1852
• give at least two reasons for the failure of the 1852 ordinance.
The need for Central government participation in education

We could sense you writing that there was no central government; that is really
encouraging. Our historical records revealed that before 1844 the people of the
Gold Coast were not one people; they lived as different groups under their tribal
chiefs. But on 6th Match, 1844 in the Cape Coast Castle, some coastal chiefs
(mostly Fante Chiefs) signed the famous bond of 1844 with the British governor
then put their people under British rule.
With the signing of the Bond of 1844, the Gold Coast Colony was created covering
the areas of the castles and the settlements around them. And governors were
posted from England to come and administer British rule in those areas.
In 1850, Governor Stephen Hill was appointed to the Gold Coast Colony alone
(Siera Leone had been separated) and he was backed with Executive and
legislative Councils. In 1852 he passed the education ordinance with the purpose
of providing better education for the inhabitants of Her Majesty’s forts and
settlements on the Gold Coast. If you are asked to explain what an education
ordinance is, how will your response be like?
An education ordinance can be described as a document backed by law stating the

direction of education in a given place.
Provision of the Education Ordinance of 1852

• Teachers were to be trained by an European couple – Mr. and Mrs. Vinall
to go out to open district schools
• Curricula of schools were to be streamlined to include technical
education.
• Provisions were to be made for girls education
• There was to be established a Board of School visitors or Supervisors
• Grant – in – aid was to be given only to government schools in Cape
Coast and Accra.
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• The whole educational programme was to be financed from the Poll Tax
Ordinance which enjoined every man, woman and child to pay one
shilling as tax.
Failure of the Education Ordinance of 1852

The education Ordinance of 1852 failed as a result of the following factors:
• The ordinance was premature and over – ambitious since the people of the
Gold Coast Colony were not physically mature to accept the provision on
taxation for education.
• The Poll Tax which was earmarked to generate about £1,000 annually was
not paid. Though it was instituted with the agreement of an assembly of
chiefs earlier in 1852, majority of the people refused to pay; and this
created a serious problem of lack of funds
• The death of Mrs. Vinall who was to take charge of the girls’ education and
the subsequent withdrawal of her husband Mr. Vinall on the grounds of
poor health affected the teacher – training component of the provisions.
• The Asante – British War of 1873 – 74 (Sagranti War) disturbed the British
colonial government to focus well on education in the colony since there
was no peace prevailing
• The British in 1865 put forward a proposal to withdraw from the Gold
Coast, and this put a halt to any further educational developments by the
government. During that period, the British settlements on the Gold Coast
were once again placed under the governor of Sierra Leone. And the time
the Gold Coast was placed under a separate governor in 1874, the only
government school that was existing in 1880 outside Cape Coast was the
one at Accra.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Why was nothing head about government participation in education in the Gold
Coast until 1852?
ii. The Education Ordinance of 18952 was signed during the governorship of ….
iii. Explain the term education ordinance in your own words
iv. List any two of the provisions of the Education Ordinance of 1852
v. Give any two reasons that suggested why the Education Ordinance of 1852
failed.
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UNIT 2: LESSON 2: THE EDUCATION ORDINANCE OF 1882
The second lesson will take us through the following steps:

i. Preliminary preparations towards the passing of a new education ordinance.
ii. The Provisions of the 1882 Education Ordinance
iii. Causes of the failure of the 1882 Education Ordinance
OBJECTIVES
❖ discuss at least one of the preliminary events that led to the passing of the 1882
ordinance in education;
❖ suggest at least two provisions prescribed under the 1882 Education Ordinance;
❖ describe any two factors that caused the failure of the 1882 Education
Ordinance
Preliminary events leading to the passing of the 1882 Education Ordinance

It happened that the period of attempted British withdrawal from the Gold Coast
coincided with a period of important educational developments that led to the
passing of England’s Parliament in education had spread beyond Great Britain
itself and in 1868, a British Parliament in education had spread beyond Great
Britain itself and in 1868, a British official – J.S. Laurie was sent out to study and
report on the state of education in the West African settlements. In fact this was the
first set of enquiry to be made about education West Africa to the British
Parliament.
Mr. Laurie’s report covered among other things, the following:

• The self – possessed and straight forward nature of African teachers, with
inborn softness of manner;
• Low earnings of teachers in West Africa;
• Poor supervision of teachers;
• Lack of appropriate skills in the commanding of attention;
• Arbitrary use of the rod (cane)
Mr. Laurie decided that the answer to all the issues raised was to set up a “Model
School” to which all teachers should go for 28 days training every year for five
years.
The Provision of the Education Ordinance of 1882

The aims of the ordinance included:
(a) Raising the standards of education in mission and private schools.
(b) Introducing a system of “Single control of education”.
(c) Creating a systematic basis for providing grants in – aid to schools. The
conditions for giving grants – in – aid to schools included: implementation of the
compulsory curriculum of the 3Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) plus
31
needlework for girls, optional curriculum of History, geography and English
Grammar, suitable buildings and equipment and finally; the use of English as a
medium of instruction.
With the above – stated aims in mind the Education Ordinance of 1882 put forward
the following provisions;
• There was to be established a general board of education comprising
personnel from the Gold Coast and Lagos
• There was to be appointed an Inspector of Schools; in the person of Rev.
Sunter (the then Principal – Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone)
• There was to be paid regular grants – in – aid to schools if they opened up
to all pupils irrespective of religion.
• The quality of training of teachers was to improved
• There was to be established, industrial schools
Causes of the failure of the Education Ordinance of 1882

• Lack of funds
• The administration of education in the Gold Coast and Lagos was too
much for General Board of Education and the Inspector of Schools.
• Government could not set up the proposed teacher training college because
of lack of tutorial staff and funding.
• The proposed industrial schools never not established.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Discuss at least one preliminary event that led to the passing of the Education
Ordinance of 1882
ii. Suggest any two of the provisions prescribed under the 1882 Education
Ordinance
iii. Suggest one of the aims of the Education Ordinance of 1882
iv. One of the conditions for granting financial aid to schools under the Education
ordinance of 1882 was ………………………..
v. Describe any two factors that led to the failure of the Education Ordinance of
1882.
32
UNIT 2: LESSON 3: THE EDUCATION ORDINANCE OF 1887
OBJECTIVES
❖ discuss one of the factors that necessitated the passing of Education Ordinance
of 1887
❖ list any two of the provisions prescribed under the 1887 Education Ordinance.
❖ describe at least one condition for financial assistance to schools under the
1887 Education Ordinance
❖ suggest at least two challenges the Education Ordinance of 1887 encountered.
Factors that necessitate the passage of the Education Ordinance of 1887

(a) Governor Brandford Griffith had to pass the ordinance for the Gold Coast
Colony alone because Lagos was separated from the Gold Coast in 1886 and
from the onwards, Lagos had its own administration and its own ordinance.
(b) The 1887 Education Ordinance was intended to amend the 1882 Ordiance in
major ways.
(c) The progressive nature of education calls for constant reviews with time
Provision prescribed under the Education Ordinance of 1887

The Education Ordinance of 1887 provided among other things, the following
guidelines:
• There was to be established a new Board of Education for Gold Coast alone
with the power to make rules for the inspection of schools and certification
of teachers.
• The administration of all “assisted schools” placed in the hands of
Managers instead of Local School Boards. The School Managers had
power to appoint Local Managers whenever the need arose. By this
amendment, the sole responsibility for the management of schools was
placed in the hands of the missions.
• Industrial Schools were to be opened where boys and girls could learn
practical subjects
• There was to be appointed a Director of Education, who was to be
responsible for recommending “Education Rules” on the payment of grant
– in – aid, apparatus of “Payment by Results”
• Institution of the system of “Payment by Results”
• Three type of schools were recognized under the ordinance viz
- Government Schools
- Assisted Schools
- Non – Assisted Schools
• The ordinance provided for a diversified school curriculum in favour of
vocational studies and technical skills
33
Conditions for financial assistance to schools
(a) Schools should be opened to all pupils irrespective of religion or race;
(b) Average enrolment should be 20 and above
(c) Teachers in the school should hold the Education Board’s certificate
(d) Subject taught in the school should include: Reading, Writing, English,
Arithmetic and Needle Work for girls
(e) No children were to receive religious instruction that their parents did not
approve of;
Factors that led to the failure of the Education Ordinance of 1887

It is on record that the Education Ordinance of 1887 achieved great progress in the
number of schools established both by government and the missions. However
there were a few constraints that seriously affected the smooth implementation of
the educational programme.
The Challenges include the following

➢ Financial constraints; as this made it impossible for the government to
extend financial aids to all schools. Many more schools remained as “non-
assisted schools”
➢ The negative effects of the “Payment by Result” system, which included:
- over – loaded time-tables in order to get more aid
- encouraging rote learning and memorization
- arbitrary use of the cane as a means of motivating children to learn
- enmity developed between teaches and school inspectors and this
brought about lack of co-operation between the two partners in
education.
PROGRESS TEST
i. One of the main goals of the Education Ordinance of 1887 was to:
ii. List any two provisions that were prescribed under the Education Ordinance of
1887
iii. Deascribe one condition for financial assistance to schools under the 1887
Education Ordinance
v. The greatest challenge to the 1887 Education Ordinance was
vi. How did the problem in Question (4) affect the implementation of the
Education Ordinance of 1887?
34
UNIT 2: LESSON 4: GOVERNOR RODGER’S EDUCATIONAL
REFORMS OF 1909
OBJECTIVES
❖ trace at least one political event that took place in the early 1900s and which
necessitated reforms in education
❖ describe at least two provisions recommended in the Rodger’s reforms in
education
❖ discuss one challenge which the 1909 educational reforms encountered
Factors that necessitated reforms in education in the 1900s

During the first five years of the 1990s, the Gold Coast experienced a steady
growth in government revenue and government was able to meet its recurrent
expenditure without recourse to the British treasury. Dear learner, this means that
the government was able to pay its expenses in terms of salaries of government
workers, budget on education and other social service without asking for help from
the British treasury
On the political front, British rule was gradually extended to Asante and the North.
Thus, an advantage was taken of the improvements in finance to take a more
meaningful share in educational activities. So in 1908, Governor John Rodger
appointed a committee “to consider various matters in connection with education
in the Gold Coast
The recommendations of the committee were accepted by the British Secretary of

State in London and the effects were far – reaching. They included the entry of the
colonial government into the field of primary education in Asante and the North.
Looking at the challenges that bothered the Education Ordinance of 1887, can you
made up one of the provisions you think will be captured by the Rodger’s reforms?
Provisions of Governor Rodger’s Reforms of 1909

The recommendations provided under Governor Rodger’s Reforms of 1909
included the following:
• End of the “Payment by Results” System. A new set of educational rules
was designed and implemented in 1909 to improve teaching methods and
to make the primary school course less bookish. And future government
grants – in – aid were to be based on general efficiency of teaching and not
on the results of the school inspector’s annual examination of individual
children. Schools were graded: Very good schools, Good, Very Fair and
Fair Schools and grants given in that order.
• Agricultural education emphasized. This led to the introduction of school
farms as was attempted by the Wesleyans in 1850
35
• Technical education was recommended and the government was urged to
take a more meaningful initiative in the provision of technical education to
supplement the efforts of the Basel Mission which was alone in that field.
In 1909 the Accra Government Technical School was opened, which was later
moved to Takoradi and now is the Government Secondary Technical School
(GSTS) at Takoradi.
• Teachers education: There was the recommendation to the government to
get actively involved in teacher – training programmes. By 1909, the Basel
Mission was the only educational body which had a teacher training college
in the country (PTC – Akropong).
On the request of the other missions (Wesleyans etc) and on the advice of the
Education Committee the Accra Training Institute was opened in 1909 as a non –
denominational teacher – training college (it was later incorporated with Achimota
School)
Challenges of Government Rodger’s Reforms of 1909

It is worth to note that every educational programme no matter how well it is
designed is bound to encounter some difficulties and we have observed this since
the 1852 Education Ordinance.
Now, taking a look at the Rodger’s Reforms of 1909, can you think of a challenge
that was likely to beset the reform programme? Do not answer, but read no keenly
and you would find out.
Some of the weaknesses inherent in the Rodger’s Reforms included the following.
• The end to the “Payment by Results” and the introduction of the new set of
educational rules in 1909 gave some professional freedom to teachers,
however the new system did not kill “parrot learning” in schools.
• The Agricultural education that was introduced suffered serious set-backs
because of the reasons listed below:
(i) The school farms were not cultivated on any better system than what the
local farmers were doing
(ii) The fertility of the soil could not be maintained over a longer period by
the crop rotation method
(iii) Agricultural schools could not be maintained over a longer period by
the crop rotation method;
(iv) Agricultural schools could not cope with mechanized farming because
of lack of funds.
• Lack of funds; the local councils found it very difficult to provide and
maintain capital inputs for the school farms.
36
PROGRESS TEST
i. Trace the two major events that led to the passing of Governor Rodger’s
Educational Reforms in 1909.
ii. Describe any two of the provisions that were prescribed under the Rodger’s
Reforms of 1909
iii. What concrete efforts did the government make in the following areas under the
1909 reforms in education:
a) Agricultural education ……………………………….
b) Technical education …………………………………..
c) Teacher education …………………………………….
d) Improvement in teaching at the basic school level …..
v. List any two challenges which frustrated the implementation of the 1909
educational reforms initiated by Governor Rodger.
37
UNIT 2: LESSON 5: GOVERNOR GUGGISBERG’S
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS (1919 – 1927)
OBJECTIVES
❖ give two reasons that put Governor Guggisberg in an advantage position in
providing education for the people of the Gold Coast.
❖ describe the Educationist Committee report of 1920 and how its
recommendations influenced Guggisberg’s educational plan;
❖ suggest two contributions the Philips Stokes Reports and the report of the
Advisory Committee on Education in the colonies had on Guggisberg’s
educational plan.
Background to the governorship of Gordon Guggisberg

Let us remind our self that when Governor Gordon Guggisberg was appointed by
the British Government in 1919 to the Gold Coast, he was not a stranger to the
country. The newly – appointed governor – a Canadian by birth and a British
Army officer by training had worked in the Gold Coast before the first World War
(1914 – 1918) and a few months in 1914 had been Director of Public works.
It can therefore be noted that the new governor had a lot of high ideas of service
and first – hand knowledge about educational events in the country before he
assumed office.
Another characteristic of the new governor that made him achieve so much was his
commitment to education as the key to development. Soon after assuming office,
Guggisberg declared that his government regarded education as “the first and
foremost step in the progress of the races of the Gold Coast and therefore as the
most important item in its work
Dear learner you can see in this man a high sense of commitment to the
educational development of the people and the country
Guggisberg was a lucky man and luck shone on him during his governorship. Just
after the war, the country experienced a period of exceptional economic prosperity
and he took advantage of this fortune to invest in education.
We hope you remember how Governor Rodgers took advantage of a similar

happening and did so much in education for the people of the Gold Coast
During the first part of Guggisberg’s reign, priority attention was given to
developing the country’s land and sea communications in order to allow trade to
grow and bring in revenue from import and export duties to pay for social services
including education.
38
The last but not the least of the background events for Guggisberg’s educational
plan was that he sought the best available advice on education, so as to ensure that
his educational programme was built upon the surest foundations. This was done
through the setting up and receiving reports from various education committees.
The Educationists Committee – 1920

One way by which Governor Guggisberg looked for good advice and guidance for
preparing a good and durable educational programme for the country. Before 1920,
a committee had already been appointed to plan post – war educational
development, but Guggisberg considered its report inadequate. And he set up a
new committee under Mr. D.J. Oman (the Director of Education) and who had
been in the country before the war.
The committee included for the first time an African member in the person of Mr.
Joseph Spio – Garbrah – Headmaster of Government Boys School in Cape Coast.
The Committee started work in March 1920 and produced its report in May, the
same year and their recommendations were considered to be the outcome of the
most through and valuable enquiry made into education during the colonial period.
The report of the committee include 52 recommendations and 53 suggestions

which included the following:
• the introduction of English as a subject of instruction as early as possible
and the use of the vernacular as a medium of instruction (nationalizing
children)
• preparation of vernacular textbooks in line with the policy of the old Basel
Mission and a special Publications officer was appointed for that purpose.
• need for better training for teachers and greatly improved conditions of
service
• recommended the establishment of a secondary, boarding school for boys
on a one – and half miles site due east of Achimota.
The Phelps – Stokes Report

Educationists Committee appointed under the chairmanship of Mr. D.J. Oman.
That committee travelled to the United States of America to study the Hampton
and Tuskegee educational experiments provided for African Civil War to help
Blacks to acquire manual manipulative and vocational Skills.
Another attempt Guggisberg made to relate his education proposal to the social and
cultural experiences of those who were to receive it was that he used part of the
recommendations of the Phelps – Stokes reports. Have you heard the name of this
report before?
39
The Phelp – Stokes was an American lady who set up a million – dollar fund under
her will to be devoted to advancing the education of black Americans among
others. A commission was set up by American Missionary bodies working in
Africa in conjunction with British Missions financed by the Phelps – Stokes fund.
The Phelps – Stokes Commission was under the chairmanship of Dr. Jesse Jones
with Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey (who was then doing advanced studies at Columbia
University) as one of the members.
The commission visited West Africa in 1920 and later toured South and East
Africa.
Among the recommendations of the commission that were captured in

Guggisberg’s educational plan were the following:
• making education less bookish and bringing it in tune with the life of the
community;
• bringing the rest of the community in line with what was being taught in
the schools, particularly in matters of hygiene
The Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies

The educational plan of Governor Guggisberg received a further boost from the
recommendation of the Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies. Can
you guess what this committee was set up to do? Let us find out the inputs the
committee provided for the drafting of the final sixteen principles of education
prescribe under the Guggisber’s reforms.
Before the setting up of the Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, the
Colonial Office had consulted the English Board of Education from time to time
on specific educational matters in the Gold Coast, nut there was clearly a need for
permanent body with grater knowledge of varying local conditions. This demand
culminated in the setting up of the Advisory Committee of Education in the
Colonies.
The Committee produced its Memorandum on Education in British Tropical Africa

in 1925 and it embodies.
• many of the Phelps – Stokes suggestions
• emphasized many of the educational goals of Guggisberg.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Two of the conditions in the Gold Coast that helped Governor Guggisberg to
achieve much in education were ……………………….
ii. One of the recommendations of the Educationists Committee of 1920 was:
……..
iii. Describe the Phelps – Stokes Commission its work.
40
UNIT 2: LESSON 6: THE SIXTEEN PRINCIPLES OF GUGGISBERG’S
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS (1919 – 1927)
OBJECTIVES
❖ list at least four of the sixteen principles on education prescribed under
Guggisberg’s reforms.
❖ Deduce which education committee’s recommendation culminate in a particular
principle;
❖ Give one example of a principle that affected the establishment of an educational
institution in the Gold Coast;
❖ Identify at least four of Guggisberg’s Sixteen principles that are relevant to
education today.
Guggisbeg’s Sixteen Principles in Education

With “Educational adaptation” that is adapting the education given Africans to their
social, political and economic environments at the back of his mind, and with social,
political and economic environments at the back of his mind, and with the assistance
from various bodies, Guggisber announced his sixteen principles to the Legislative
Council in 1925.
The Sixteen Principles of Education were as follows:

1. Primary education must be thorough and be from bottom to the top.
2. The provision of secondary schools with an education standard that will fit
young men and women to enter a university.
3. The provision of university
4. Equal opportunity to those given to boys should be provided for the
education of girls.
5. Co-education is desirable during certain stages of education
6. The staff of teachers must take an important place in education
7. Character training must take an important place in education
8. Religious teaching should form part of school life
9. Organized games should form part of school life
10. The course in every school should include special references to the health,
welfare and industries of the locality
11. A sufficient staff of African inspectors of school must be trained and
maintained.
12. Whilst an English education must be given, it must be based solidly on the
vernacular.
13. Education cannot be compulsory nor free.
14. There should be co – operation between government and the Missions; and
the latter should be subsided for educational purposes.
15. The Government must have the ultimate control of education throughout the
Gold Coast.
41
16. The provision of trade schools with a technical and literary education that
will fit young men to become skilled craftsmen and useful citizens.
Some aspect of education that were influenced by Governor Guggisber’s
educational
• In response to the first principle, efforts were made to improve primary
education; inferior teachers were driven out of the profession and about 150
“bush schools” were closed down.
• The second principle, the 4th and the 5th resulted in the establishment of
Achimota School as a co-educational secondary school in 1927.
• The 2nd principle was responsible for the provision of good quality secondary
education that made it possible for the University of Ghana to be founded in
1948.
• The most important of the principles in Guggisberg’s mind was the sixth on
the raising of the status of the teaching profession. The salaries of teachers
were considerably increased and a register of teachers was opened and only
those who were qualified were allowed to register. Some training colleges
were opened.
• In fact, the present country – wide popularity of football, in particular, is
mainly due to the efforts made in the schools in the 1920s to put
Guggisberg’s ninth principle into practice.
• The use of the vernacular as the medium of instruction during the first three
years of public primary school education had its root in the 12th principle.
• In Guggisberg’s time, technical education at a lower level (his 16th principle)
was greatly expanded by the opening of four government Trade Schools in
1922 at Yendi, Mampong, Kibi and Asuansi. (The Yendi School was later
moved to Tamale). At the secoundary school level, an Engineering School
was opened at Achimota in 1931.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify any four areas in education that were captured in Governor Guggisberg’s
sixteen principles on education
ii. Comment on Guggisberg’s 13th principles in relation to the current policies on
education, especially the FCUBE, the Capitation Grant and School Feeding
Programme.
iii. List any three educational institutions that were opened as part of the
implementation of the 16 principles on education
Educational Institution Principle(s) responsible for its
opening
42
UNIT 2: LESSON 7: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION UNDER
THE ACCELERATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN
I (1951)
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe at least two events that necessitated the implementation of the
Accelerated Development Plan in education;
❖ suggest at least two of the proposals prescribed under the Accelerated
Development Plan of 1951;
❖ comment on the rationale behind the individual proposals of the Accelerated
Development Plan.
Events that necessitated the formulation of the Accelerated Development Plan

in Education (1951)
Picking up from Governor Guggisberg’s contribution to educational provision in the
Gold Coast, let us go on and find out things that occurred in education during the
last stage of colonial rule in the country. After the Second World War (1939 – 1945)
there were a lot of agitations for self – rule or independence from the British.
The political event that took place were inspired by a new vision from a new
leadership that was Ghanaian and African; and this made a lot of difference in the
field of education. In 1995, as a result of agitations, demonstrations and local
elections conducted. The elections brought into being a new government purely
composed of people of Ghana led by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his Convention
Peoples Party (CPP)
In the same year, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah laid before parliament an Accelerated
Development for Education. Can you guess what the Accelerated Development Plan
for Education was and what it was intended to do?
An ‘accelerator’ is a part of a vehicle that makes it run faster; so when the accelerator
pedal is pressed by the driver it changes the speed of the vehicle. The vehicle then
begins to run faster than previously.
With this knowledge about acceleration at the back of your mind, can you tell why
Dr. Nkrumah named his educational plan that was intended to prepare the people of
the Gold Coast for self – rule as the Accelerated Development Plan of Education?
In the first place, the new government saw education as the key to the rapid
development of the new nation, and for the country to progress at a faster rate there
was the need to quicken educational provisions to the people.
So you see, the Accelerated Development Plan was intended “to develop a balanced
system working towards universal primary education as rapidly as consideration of
finances and teacher – training allowed but maintaining at the same time
43
proportionate facilities for education for those fitted to receive it”. (Graham, 1976,
p.112)
Main Proposals of the Accelerated Development Plan of Education (950)

Graham (1976 – pp. 113 – 114) identified the main proposals of the Accelerated
Development Plan as follows:
• A six-year basic primary course for all children of school going aged at
public expense;
• Infant – junior schools were to be known as primary schools and Senior
Primary schools were to be known as Middle Schools and were to be
regarded as part of the post – primary system;
• Facilities for the training of teachers were to be increased by the addition of
ten new colleges and the doubling in size of six existing ones;
• Four Secondary – technical school were to be provided including the
conversion of the Government Technical School at Takoradi. Technical
schools were to be established at Tarkwa, Accra, Kumasi and Secondi –
Takoradi,
• All teachers in training except those possessing a school certificate, were to
take the Certificate ‘B’ Course and entry to the Certificate ‘A’ course was to
be made from among Certificate ‘B’ teachers who taught for a period;
• The middle schools in the Northern Territories were to be increased in
number as quickly as possible, and more potential teachers were to be
provided.
A new training college was to be opened at Pusiga near Bawku (now Gbewaa
Training College). Primary schools in the North were to be increased in
number as teachers become available.
• The salaries of teachers trained and untrained were to be reviewed. It was
proposed that in future all teachers in training would be treated as if on study
– leave and would draw the salaries they would have received if they had
been teaching in school;
• Considerable increases in scholarships to secondary, technical and trade
schools were recommended.
PROGRESS TEST
i. State any two events in the Gold Coast that necessitated the implementation of the
Accelerated Development Plan.
ii. The main aim of the Accelerated Development Plan was …………………
iii. Identify any two of the main proposals of the Accelerated Development Plan of
1951.
iv. List any four educational institutions that were established as a result of the
demands of the Accelerated Development Plan.
44
UNIT 2: LESSON 8: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION UNDER
THE ACCELERATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN
II (1957)
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe two areas of achievement the country enjoyed under the Accelerated
Development Plan
❖ discuss at least two challenges our educational system suffered under the
Accelerated Development Plan
❖ suggest two challenges that have beset education in Ghana since the days of the
Accelerated Development Plan.
Achievements of the Accelerated Development Plan

(a) Access to elementary school education (Basic Education)
The implementation of the provision of the Accelerated Development plan led
to the opening of many primary and middle schools, in the Gold Coast. This
created many more vacancies and thus increased access to school. By 1952;
one year after the implementation of the Accelerated Development Plan, there
were as many as 3, 115 and 718 public primary and middle in colonial Ghana
respectively.
(b) Participation in elementary school education

With the increase in number of schools in the country, many more children of
school – going age also got enrolled in schools. In 1952, there were 3115
public primary schools throughout the colony and by 1966 total enrolment of
pupils in public primary schools had shot up to 1,137, 494. In terms of middle
school enrolment, there were 115,831 pupils in middle schools by 1957. And
there were 9,860 students in 38 Secondary Schools receiving government
assistance by 1957.
(c) Teachers Education / Conditions of Service of Teachers
With the increase in number of schools and pupils, there was the need to train
more teachers and to make the conditions of teachers attractive. Many more
training colleges were established with the number of colleges growing from
12 Certificate ‘A’ and 19 Certificate ‘B’ in 1961 to 82 Certificate ‘A’ College
in 1966 (Mc William and Kwamena – Poh, 1975, p. 102)
During the period, nearly nine thousand trained teachers qualified and the total
number in the field rose by 28%. Again the CPP government introduced the
system whereby teachers in the training college were treated as if they were on
study leave, and thus paid their salaries or allowances. The system was stopped
after the 1966 coup, but was reintroduced in 1986.
45
(d) Curriculum Development
The CPP government’s efforts to Africanize the curriculum yielded results.
African History, Geography and Religion were made part of the secondary
school curriculum. These subjects were also taught at elementary school level.
In addition, Ghanaian languages such as Ga, Ewe and Twi became subjects that
secondary school students could offer at the General Certificate of Education,
Ordinary level (GCE ‘O’ level) conducted by the West African Examinations
council (WAEC)
(e) Scholarships
Many scholarship opportunities were created for students. Students from the
North, most especially benefited from the Northern Special Scholarship
Scheme (NSSS) that was instituted by the CPP administration
(f) Funding Tertiary Education

The tertiary level of our education system received a big boost under the
implementation of the Accelerated Development Plan. The CPP Government
funded the University of Ghana at Legon with lots of money and established
Science and Technology University in Kumasi and Cape Coast
(g) Technical Education

In order to ensure greater variety than in the past, technical education was
made the responsibility of separate department under its own Chief Technical
Education Officer. The government opened seven technical institutes in
addition to the Tarkwa School of Mines. In addition, technical courses were
made examinable for technical students to have a chance to go on to the
University of Science and Technology.
(h) Reading and Listening

In order to ensure that the Ghanaian population became literate under the
Accelerated Development Plan, the government resourced the Ghana
Broadcasting Corporation and the Ghana Library Board to play very important
roles in this direction. The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation popularized the
use of radios and part from general broadcasting, mounted special broadcasts to
secondary schools and training colleges. In the 1960s Secondary Schools and
Training Colleges received interesting television programme as is the case
under the President’s Special Initiative on Distance Education (now on Ghana
Television)
The Ghana Library Board opened many branches throughout the country and
many books were brought in for school – children and adults. There were
conducive arrangement like home – reading and library Vans, bringing library
books to colleges, schools and other subscribers.
46
Challenges of the Accelerated Development Plan
One area for which the CPP government (1951 – 1966) continued to be
remembered is the introduction of the Accelerated Development Plan and the great
advances that were made in the field of education. However there were a few
problems that are worthy of noting
❖ Over – stretched economy
In fact, tackling educational provision at all levels and throughout the
whole country and at an accelerated pace overstretched the finances of the
country
❖ Failing Standards in education
In an attempt to get as many children in schools, classes were held under
trees and makeshift structures, and many teachers were turned out through
emergency arrangements and all these led to falling standards in education.
There was also a massive recruitment of untrained teachers.
❖ The education sector expanded more than the economy
When one considers the number of pupils and students who entered into
schools within the period of the Accelerated Development Plan at all levels,
it could be seen that a lot of people came out of schools. But the economy
of the country could not grow at such a fast rate to create employment for
the teeming numbers of graduates from the different school levels. And this
led to unemployment in the country.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Describe any two of the achievement areas of the Accelerated Development Plan
of Education (1951)
ii. Suggest any two challenges in education that were encountered as a result of the
implementation of the Accelerated Development Plan.
47
UNIT 2: LESSON 9: IMPORTANCE OF COLONIAL
GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION IN
EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to
❖ suggest two key areas in education in which colonial governments participated
❖ discuss how relevant these areas are still today for the government to
participate in
❖ describe two importance of colonial government participation in education in
the Gold Coast
Areas of educational provision participated in by Colonial Governments

The first six lessons of this unit were devoted to the attempts of various colonial
governments to ensure the provision of adequate of various colonial governments
to ensure the provision of adequate and quality education for the people of the
Gold Coast.
Some of the key areas in education where colonial governments participated

including the following:
(a) Provision of policy – guidelines for streamlining educational activities in the
country. These guidelines have continued to guide and influence educational
provisions to date.
(b) Provision of infrastructural facilities in the form of classroom accommodation,
workshops etc.
(c) Provision of financial support to other stake – holders in education like the
missionary societies and private educational providers
(d) Building collaboration between the state and other educational providers for the
benefit of the people
(e) Designing and diversifying school curriculum to meet the needs and aspirations
of the people and the country at specific times
(f) Respect for and development of local languages
(g) Providing linkages between educational provisions in the Gold Coast, England
and other parts of the world.
(h) Preparation of the people of the Gold Coast for leadership positions in the
country in the future.
Importance of Colonial Government participation in education

In the preceding lessons, we tried to discuss the reasons why colonial governments
participated in the development of education. We have also examined a number of
policies that were implemented during the colonial period and how these affected
education in the colony.
48
Let us go further by noting some of the facts that made the colonial government
participation in education important:
• By participating in the development of education, the Colonial
governments were able to put in place a number of measures that
guaranteed a high standard of education in the Gold Coast
• Colonial governments provided quality school structures, some of which
are still in good conditions
• Colonial government participation in education was a great assurance of
grants in aid to the Missions once they satisfied the prescribed conditions.
• A sense of direction was given to all who participated in the development
of education the colony and this ensured that our entire educational system
became organized and more effective
• In many of the educational programmes under the colonial governments
especially Governor Gordon Guggisberg’s 1919 reforms in education
conscious efforts were made to project the vernacular as a pre – condition
for a holistic form of education.
• By providing linkages between educational provisions in the Gold Coast,
England and other parts of the world ensured the borrowing of experiences
from other parts of the world e.g. The “payment by Results” system which
was introduced as part of the 1887 Education Ordinance was borrowed
from a practice in Britain and Guggisberg’s reforms made use of
educational experiences from Britain, United States of America and some
parts of Africa.
• Colonial government used educational reports from outside the Gold Coast
to improve educational practices.
• Colonial participation in education brought into being types of schools
government, government – assisted and non – assisted
• Government Guggisber’s period in particular witnessed the establishment
of a secondary School since its establishment became one of the best
secondary school since in colonial Ghana; a status it has maintained to date.
• The educational provisions of the colonial education systems provided
directions for successive educational programmes in the country.
PROGRESS TEST
i. List any three key areas of colonial government participation in education in the
Gold Coast.
ii. How are these key areas of participation still relevant for government support
today?
iii. Give three reasons why colonial government participation in education in the
Gold Coast is important
49
UNIT 2: LESSON 10: STATUS OF EDUCATION IN GHANA AT THE
END OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe the status of education in the Gold Coast at the time of independence
in respect of the following:
- Access and participation in primary and middle schools
- Infrastructural development
- Curriculum development
- Secondary School education
- Technical education
- Tertiary education
- Establishment of educational bodies to support education
- Control and Management of education
Access and participation in Primary and Middle Schools

As a result of earlier educational plans including that of governor Guggisberg and
more specifically the Accelerated Development Plan of education, a large number
of new classrooms were built and many temporary accommodation were erected
for use
With these developments, enrolment levels in primary and middle schools rose
considerably and by 1957, at the attainment of independence there were well over
450,000 children in primary schools in the country. The figure was about twice the
number of primary school children in schools by 1951.
As far as middle schools were concerned, the figure stood at about 115,831 middle
school pupils in schools throughout the country.
Infrastructural development
In an attempt to provide a universal primary education for all children of school –
going age, there was expansion in the number of primary and middle schools. In
addition, with the abolition of tuition fees in schools, many parents sent their
children to school. And as a result, a large number of new classrooms were built
and other temporary structures were created to create room for the teeming number
of pupils in schools.
Curriculum development
At the end of the colonial period, the curriculum implemented in Gold Coast
primary, middle and secondary schools was substantially modeled on that of
British schools. The subjects taught were geared towards academic and literary
education, however, mention can be made of the Basel and Roman Catholic
50
missions which helped greatly to promote technical, vocational and agricultural
education.
Secondary School Education

By the end of the colonial period, there were about 38 secondary schools with a
total enrolment of 9,860 students. All the schools were receiving government
assistance. The secondary school curriculum yet by 1950, that initiative had almost
disappeared.
Technical education
Under technical education, we wish to emphasize that by the end of the colonial
period it had been made the responsibility of a separate department under a Chief
Technical Education Officer. In addition, seven technical institutions had been
opened and the Tarkwa School of Mines (now University of Mining Technology)
The Kumasi College of Technology was opened in 1952 to provide courses of

technological and vocational training. Some of the courses stated in the earlier
years were Pharmacy, Agriculture and Architecture. Until 1957, Advanced and
Specialist Teacher Training was an important part of the college’s structure.
Teacher education and training

With the expansion in educational provision discussed under access and
participation, it is clear that many more teachers were needed to attend to the
growing numbers of school children.
To address the problem of lack of teachers, “Emergency Training Colleges” were

opened at ten centres to train pupil – teachers for six weeks to prepare them for
teaching. The two – year post – secondary teacher – training programme was
added to the four – year post – middle course as a result of a growing number of
secondary school entrains into teacher – training colleges.
Again, the number of training colleges grew from 12 Certificate ‘A’ and 19
Certificate ‘B’ in 1961 to 82 Certificate ‘A’ college in 1996. And to entice more
qualified applicants into teaching, teaches in training were treated as if they were
on study – leave, and thus paid their salaries or allowances. This system remained
until the 1966 coup.
Tertiary Education
In 1943, the British colonial government set up two committees to advise it on the
development of universities in the colonies. On the strength of the
recommendations of the committees and other political and social developments in
the Gold Coast led to the opening of the University College of the Gold Coast
(Legon) in 1948 to meet the increasing demand for higher education.
51
It can therefore be seen that, by the time of independence the education structure in
the Gold Coast stretched from the primary level to the University level.
Establishment of Educational Bodies to Support Education

One great contribution the CPP government under Dr. Kwame Nkrumah made as
part of the Accelerated Development Plan was the establishment of important
educational bodies to support education. The bodies included; the West African
Examinations council (WAEC), the Ghana Library Board and the National
Teacher Training Council.
Now let us look at the three bodies more closely.

• The West African Examinations Council (WAEC): The West African
Examination Council was set up in 1952 and by 1954 the Council began to take
over the running of the West African School Certificate Examination which
was then in the hands of the Cambridge University Local Examination
Syndicate. By 1960 the takeover was complete. Apart from conducting various
public examinations, it was also involved in the drawing up and revision of
syllabuses of many pre – university institutions.
• The Ghana Library board. The Ghana Library Board was set up in 1950 and by
1960, it had fifteen branches with over 30,000 readers with nearly 20,000 of
them being school children. Travelling book van brought books to schools,
colleges and other subscribers. All these were intended to make the Ghanaian
population literate.
• The National Teacher Training Council. Before 1958, the Education
Department conducted examinations for the award of teachers’ certificate.
Under this arrangement, training colleges were allowed to conduct their own
final examinations. But with the increase in the number of teacher training
colleges as at the time of independence, it became more difficult to achieve
uniformed and satisfactory standards throughout the country
In 1958 the National Teacher Training Council was set up to perform among other
things, the following functions:
• Plan and prepare courses of study to be pursued at various levels of teacher
training, determine the course structure and course duration.
• Supervise, control and maintain uniform standards in all teacher training
colleges
• Co – ordinate all forms of teacher training under its control.
• Arranged with the West African Examination Council to conduct on its
behalf common examinations for both the entrance and final certification of
teachers
The National Teacher Training Council has now evolved into the Teacher
Education Division of the Ghana Education Service. (TED)
52
Control and Management of Education
Council and Management of education could be classified as one of dual control.
This means that both the church and state exercise control over education. The
State made the policies affecting education and the churches, the government and
private individuals who owned the schools implemented the policies
At the end of the colonial period, a lot had been done in the field of education, a lot
more still remained to be done. Access and participation remained limited and
many girls of school going age were still out of school. Again access and
participation was very low in the Northern parts of colonial Ghana.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Describe the status of education in Ghana at the end of the colonial period in
terms of the following:
(a) access and participation in primary and middle school education
(b) Secondary education
ii. Suggest any two developments that had taken place in the provision of technical
education at the time of independence
iii. Identify any two educational bodies that were established before independence
to promote education in the country.
53
UNIT 2: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION DURING THE
COLONIAL PERIOD – SUMMARY
i. Discuss the efforts that were made under the 1852, 1882 and 1887 Ordinances to
improve the quality of teachers in the country
ii. Describe five of the factors that caused the failure of the Education Ordinances
of 1852, 1882 and 1887.
iii. “The educational principles of Guggisberg’s reforms in 1919 had great effects
on development of education in the Gold Coast up to the period of
independence”. Identify any four of Guggisber’s sixteen principles that
reflected on educational practices in the country.
iv. (a) Discuss any four areas of colonial government participation in education in
the Gold Coast.
(b) Suggest any four importance of colonial government participation in
education in the Gold Coast
54
UNIT 3
UNIT 3: LESSON 1: THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1961 – MAJOR
PROVISIONS
OBJECTIVES
❖ identify at least two deficiencies in education at the time of independence that
needed to be addressed through a new educational programme
❖ suggest at least two reasons why the Education Act of 1961 was enacted
❖ describe at least two of the provisions that were prescribed under the Education
Act of 1961
We want you to take note of the following important landmarks in education and
policies in the Gold Coast
In 1951, the first nationalist government under Dr. Kwame Nkrumah came to
power in the Gold Coast and initiated the Accelerated Development Plan for
education. Then, six years was later (1957) the country attained political
independence from colonial rule.
Ten years after the introduction of the Accelerated Development, the Education
Act of 1961 was passed. Can you establish some links between the historical
happenings? Read on and you will know everything.
The need to reform education after independence

• To improve standards in education;
• To enhance access and participation at the primary level
• To supervise schools more closely;
• To give the state greater oversight responsibility.
The Education Act of 1961 was a legal instrument passed in parliament stating
what the government policy was regarding the development and promotion of
education in republican Ghana. The act clearly spelt out the way education was to
be organized and who should exercise control and judgment on and over some
educational issues.
The reason why the Education Act of 1961 was passed included the following:
- The Accelerated Development Plan had run for ten years and as such there
was the need to introduce innovations (after 10 years, an educational
programme must be received)
- Ghana had come out of the period of colonization into an independent state
and then became a republican country and son these was the need to tune
55
up education to meet the philosophy and aspirations of the government and
the citizens.
- To give the government a greater say in the control and management in
education.
- To ensure that all children of school-going age go to school
- To make education more secular so that people are not denied education
because of their religious beliefs or affiliation
The major provisions of the Education Act of 1961

The Education Act of 1961, the Minister of Education was given sweeping powers
to do all the following:
a) make regulations which had the force of law
b) make regulations affecting the examination and appointment of teachers, the
curriculum, keeping of school records, the admission and promotion of pupils
and the duties of school managers
c) exercise general oversight of the finances of education and all financial matters
d) the power to close down a private institution if he is satisfied that it is dangerous
or potentially dangerous to the physical or moral welfare of the pupils attending
it or that its continued existence is against public interest
v) the power to prohibit through writing the use in schools of textbooks or orhter
materials used for teaching
Fee-free Compulsory Education

A provision of fee-free compulsory education was prescribe to ensure that all
pupils who had attained school – going age as determined by the Minister of
Education went to school. Parents who refused to comply with important
prescription were to be fined.
Local Education Authorities

The Act prescribed that the Minister of Education in Consultation with the
Minister responsible for Local government may appoint any local authority to be a
Local Education Authority. The Local Education Authority was to do the
following:
i. build, equip and maintain all primary, middle and special schools in its area
ii. such schools must be approved by the Minister of Education and the
Minister of Local Government
iii. advise the Minister of Education on all matters relating to primary and
middle school education in its area
iv. while the Central Government paid teachers, the existence of the schools
themselves depended totally on the vigour, effectiveness and efficiency of
the Local Authorities.
56
The School and the Churches
The act tried to give expression to the concept to “freedom of religious belief” and
“individual right”. As a result, the act tried to ensure that children of school going
age were not denied access to particular schools because of their religious
background or the churches they attend.
Section 22 of the Education Act of 1961 state that:

i. “No person shall be refused admission as a pupil to or refused attendance
as a pupil at any school on account of the religious persuasion, nationality,
race or language of himself or of either of his parents”
ii. “No test or enquires shall be made of or concerning the religious beliefs of
pupils or students prior to their admittance to any school or college”
iii. “No person attending school as a pupil shall, if his parents object, be
required to attend or to abstain from attending, whether in the institution or
elsewhere, any Sunday school, or any form of religious worship or
observance, or any instruction in religious subjects”.
iv. Establishment of Board of Governors for all non – government secondary

schools and training colleges
v. Setting up of a teacher’ council; whose duty was to ensure high standards

of professionalism in the teaching profession
PROGRESS TEST
i. State three of the provisions in the Education Act of 1961 and show how
essential they were in providing education in Ghana
ii. To what extent do you think that these provisions are still relevant in Ghana
today?
iii. Suggest any two reasons why the Education Act of 1961 was enacted.
57
UNIT 3: LESSON 2: THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1961 –
ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe any two achievement chalked by the Education ACT of 1961 in the
following areas:
- Access and participation in primary education
- Teacher education
- Tertiary education
❖ identify two challenges that emerged from the implementation of the Education
Act of 1961
Achievements of the Education Act of 1961

(a) Access and participation in education
With the implementation of the Education Act of 1961 and its compulsory fee
– free primary education, enrolments went up. The immediate effects of the
introduction of compulsory primary education were even more dramatic than
was expected. In September, 1961, 2,493 new primary schools were opened
and 2,194,380 children were enrolled in the first year classes and by 1966,
there were 1,137,494 children attending 8,144 schools.
By 1966 the number of middle schools had grown to 2,346 with 280,866
pupils. This means that more middle schools had to be opened to meet the
effect of the large primary school intake
As far as secondary school enrolment was concerned, the government planned

to increase annual intake in secondary schools from 2,500 in 1958 to about
6,000 in 1964. The main instrument by which this was to be done was the
Ghana Education Trust, which succeeded in building 24 out of the 68 public
secondary schools that were in existence by 1961. By 1961, secondary schools
enrichment rose from 5,033 in 1952 to 14,000 in 1961.
Teacher education and teacher proficiency

To train more teachers for the increasing number of schools more teacher training
colleges were set up. The number of training colleges grew from 12 certificate ‘A’
and 19 Certificate ‘B’ colleges in 1961 to 82 Certificate ‘A’ colleges in 1966.
In order to entice highly qualified applicants into the teaching profession the CPP
government introduced a system whereby teachers in training were treated as if
they were on study – leave. They were paid their salaries or allowances. This
system remained by 1966 and continued to be practice sometime after 1966.
58
Again, under the 1961 Education Act two committees were set up to recommend
ways of improving the salaries, terms and conditions of service of teachers and to
ensure high professional discipline among teachers.
Tertiary Education
The increase in the number of secondary school and training colleges called for a
good number of well – trained and highly qualified teachers. To address this
problem, the following arrangements were put in place to increase access to
university education.
1961 - University College of the Gold Coast became autonomous ass the
University of Ghana and began awarding its own degrees
1961 - Kumasi College of Technology was transformed into an
autonomous University of Science and Technology
1962 - University of Cape Coast opened to train graduate teachers in the
arts and science subjects for secondary schools, teacher – training
colleges, polytechnics and technical institutes in Ghana
Challenges of the Education Act of 1961

• Insufficient funds/money to carry through with the new projects from
primary schools, middle schools, secondary schools to the universities.
• The lack of trained teachers in sufficient qualities led to the massive
recruitment of many untrained and uncertified teachers. And the
consequence was a fall in the standard and quality of education.
• Three remained gross inequality between the southern and northern parts
of Ghana: the south remained advantaged while the north remained
disadvantaged.
• The power vested in the Minister of Education by the Education Act of
1961 raised serious concerns from the churches. Of particular concern to
the churches was the right of the Minister to constitute and dissolve school
boards and again the churches were concerned about the few
representative they had on the New School Board constituted by the
Minister of Education.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Describe two achievements of the Education Act of 1961 in the given areas:
a) Access and participation in primary education
b) Teacher Training / Teacher proficiency
c) Tertiary education
ii. Identify any two challenges that come out during the implementation of the
Education Act of 1961
59
UNIT 3: LESSON 3: CURRICULUM INNOVATIONS DURING THE
PERIOD: 1966 – 69
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe at least two provisions prescribed by the Kwapong Education Review
Committee
❖ suggest a reason each why provisions describe were appropriate
❖ suggest two recommendations made to government by the Mills – Odoi
Commission
The Kwapong Education Review Committee

In 1966, the government set up an education review committee under the
Chairmanship of Professor Alex Kwapong (then of the University of Ghana) to
study the country’s educational system and make recommendations for change.
The committee submitted its report in July, 1967.
The Committee recommended the following:

• the introduction of textbook fees at the basic level at the rate of ¢1.50 per
primary school child and ¢3.00 per pupil in the middle school;
• that the system of six years of primary education followed by four years of
middle school course should be replaced by an integrated basic eight – year
course for children between the ages of 6 and 14, and at the end of the 8 –
year course , pupils were to proceed secondary schools through a Common
Entrace Examination to be conducted by the West African Examinations
Council (WAEC)
• that pupils who were unable to gain admission into secondary schools were
no pursue a two-year Continuation School Courses
• that the Continuation School programme that was to begin in the 1968/69
academic year was intended to equip pupils who could not have the
opportunity to enter secondary school with skills and right attitudes that
would make them ready for absorption into the various occupational
enterprises or gainful self-employment
• that the vocations which the continuation schools were to teach should
include farming, poultry-keeping, annual husbandry, fishing, woodwork
and metalwork.
• that some middle schools should continue to run the 6-year primary and 4-
year middle school course
• that there should be considerable expansion in public secondary school
system (the total number of secondary schools rose from 103 in 1966 to
108 in 1969
• that teacher education needed to be improve upon; elementary school
teachers were to be trained for four years (in the case of post-middle or
post-primary candidates) and two years for post-secondary candidates
60
• that the duration of secondary education was to be five years leading to
school Certificate at GCE ‘O’ Level, followed by two-years sixth form
course leading to GCE ‘A’ Level
• that the specialist courses in basic school subjects:
- English, Mathematics, Geography, History and General Science which
were offered in nine teacher – training colleges be transferred to the former
Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute at Winneba (Advance Teacher
Training College)
Mills – Odoi Commission

The Mills – Odoi Commission, in 1967 the government appointed the Mills Odoi
Commission to investigate among other things
✓ the organizational set up of the public sector and to make recommendations
on it
✓ the relationship between, the Prison Service, the Civil Service and the
Teaching Service and the government and to make recommendations;
The Commission, after a comprehensive study, recommended that there should be

✓ decentralization of the management of secondary schools and teacher –
training colleges from the Ministry of Education to the regional and district
authorities;
✓ the establishment of a Teaching Service Division of the Public Services
Commission (now – Ghana Education Service)
✓ an improvement of teacher remuneration and other conditions of service
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain any two provisions prescribed by the Kwapong Education Review
Committee
ii. Identify one of the recommendations of the Mills – Odoi Commission that
affected the organization and administration of education in the country
61
UNIT 3: LESSON 4: THE DZOBO COMMITTEE REPORT ON
EDUCATION (1972) – MAIN FEATURES
OBJECTIVES
❖ list two aims of the educational plan proposed by the Dzobo Committee
❖ suggest three principles underlying the New Structure and Content of
Education for Ghana
❖ describe the new structure and content of education that were proposed by the
Dzobo Committee.
Dzobo Committee’s Report on education

The education system in Ghana by the 1970s was generally accused of being too
academic in content and being almost wasteful. Therefore in Mach 1972, the
Dzobo Committee on education was appointed to consider the proposals of the
Ministry of Education alongside other proposals and submit a report.
The committee came out with the New Structured and Content of Education in
Ghana having considered the following aims
• Making education less bookish and lending academic with Vocational and
Technical Skills;
• Reducing the duration of pre-university education (at that time it was 17
years from class 1 to university)
• Making the education system relevant and adaptive to the aspirations,
occupations, institutions and traditions of the people
The Dzobo Report on the New Structure and Content of Education was
published in July 1972 and after the Ministry of Education’s consideration was
accepted for implementation in September, 1975.
The Basic Principles Underlying the New Structure and Content of Education
Principles are rules, guidelines or procedures that explain how something is or
works. So, having gone through the aims upon which the new educational
programme was built let us consider some of the principles or procedures that
underline the new educational programme
The basic principles that underline the new educational programme were as
follows
• every child should be given the chance to education
• 18 – 24 months of Kindergarten education to enable children benefit
from formal schooling
• 6 years primary education plus 3 years Junior Secondary School
education; thereby cutting down the basic education period by one
year;
62
• introduction of practical activities leading to the acquisition of skills
and development of leadership and self-reliance
• encouraging indigenous and foreign languages, science and
mathematics to ensure pupils’ overall development
• provision of teacher education capable to enhancing their quality
discipline and adaptability
The New Structure and Content of Education proposal by their Dzobo

Committee
The following was the structure of education proposed in the New Structure and
Content of education for Ghana.
• Kindergarten education – 2 years – for children 4 – 6 years
• Primary School education – 6 years for – children 6 – 12 years
• Junior Secondary School education – 3 years – for students 12 – 15 years
• Lower Senior Secondary education – 2 years – for students 17 – 19 years
• Upper Senior Secondary education – 2 years – for students 17 – 19 years
The New content specified the subjects and activities children were to go through
in order to make them more adaptive to their socio – economic and political
environments.
The subjects prescribed included the following
• Academic e.g mathematics, science, history, geography
• Vocational and Technical e.g catering, sewing, agriculture etc
• Art
• Music and dance
• Culture studies
• Indigenous and foreign languages
PROGRESS TEST
i. Suggest one of the developments that necessitated changes in education during
the 1970s
ii. List any two aims on which the New Structure and Content of education was
built
iii. Identify any three underlying principles on which the Dzobo Committee on
education based their proposal
iv. Outline the structure of education proposal under the New Structure and content
of education
63
UNIT 3: LESSON 5: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
RECOMMENDATIONS OF DZOBO COMMITTEE
REPORT
OBJECTIVES
❖ state the implementation date for the New Structure and Content of education
❖ describe the initial efforts that were made to implement the reform programme
❖ suggest any two challenges that delayed the implementation of the programme
until 1987
The Implementation date of the Dzobo Committee Report

The Dzobo Committee, set up to reform education started work in 1972 and having
studied so many proposals submitted to them, came out with what has been
described as the most comprehensive, elaborate and learn – centred educational
package ever produced.
The proposal or recommendations were forwarded to the Ministry of Education in

1974 and the implementation date was set for September, 1957. When the time did
come, the recommendations and proposal of the Educational committee could not
be implemented on a national scale. A limited number of Experimental Junior
Secondary Schools were designated to start the new educational programme on
pilot basis. The delay continued until 1987 when the PNDC government
implemented the programme but with some minor modifications.
Challenges that Frustrated the Implementations of the New Structure and

Content of Education.
As we have already stated the New educational progamme could not start on the
schedule date and some Experimental JSS schools were set up on pilot basis and
for well over ten years the programme had not been fully implemented. And by
1987 when it was eventually implemented, almost all the Experimental Junior
Secondary schools has collapsed.
Some of the challenges that frustrated the implementation process were as follows:
✓ Lack of funds: The country could not realize the amount of money that was
needed at the time to implement the programme. At that time Ghana was
spending about 25% of her Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on education.
This percentage was not sufficient and it was also, not economically
advisable to increase our expenditure on education.
✓ Lack of political will: The government that was elected in 1979 lacked the
political will to push the programme ahead
✓ Parents and pupils looked down on the practical, commercial and
agricultural education because they thought those who go through such
64
education are directly prepared for manual work which is also looked down
upon
✓ Negative attitude of some educational personnel: Even some personnel
wthin the education sector were not interested in the new programme that
was fashioned to make education more oriented to the Ghanaian situation.
PROGRESS TEST
i. The implementation date for the Structure and Content of Education was set for
…..
ii. Describe the initial efforts that were made to start the Programme
iii. List any two challenges that delayed the implementation of the reform
programme until 1987
65
UNIT 3: LESSON 6: THE 1987 NEW EDUCATIONAL REFORM
PROGRAMME I – MAIN FEATURES
OBJECTIVES
❖ describe the state of education in the country before the implementation of the
1987 reforms;
❖ state at least two objectives envisaged in the 1987 Educational Programme
❖ suggest two features of the new programme
The State of Education in Ghana before 1987

As was mentioned in lesson 5 the New Structure and Content of Education in
Ghana should have been implemented in September, 1975 but due to the
circumstances that were described in the last lesson, the implementation delayed.
Only 113 Selected (Experimental Junior Secondary Schools) were mandated to run
the programme on trial basis. So the irony of the situation was that the
Experimental Junior Secondary Schools co-existed with the old system it was
supposed to replace. Many parents too continued to send their wards to schools
that operated the old system. In some cases, students from the Experimental Junior
Secondary Schools were adsorbed into the old system.
The deficiencies that existed in education before the reforms of 1987

• the educational system in existence was too academic and did not provide
school leavers with employable skills
• there was the need to take care of science and technology as integral part of
modern education
• the duration of pre-tertiary education was too long (17 years)
• there was the urgent need to use our education system to develop the
cultural identity of the country
• there was the need to use the school system to address such problems like
deforestation and low agricultural productivity.
The objectives of the 1987 Junior Secondary School Reform Progamme

The objectives included the following:
• to reduce the duration of the pre – university education from the then
seventeen years to twelve years
• to increase access to education at the basic and secondary school levels;
• to improve the quality, efficiency and relevance of pre – university
education by expanding the curriculum of both primary and junior
secondary school.
66
The structure of education system that was introduced under the 1987
reforms
▪ Provision of 2 – year Kindergarten education for 4 – 6 years old
▪ Provision of 6 – year Primary school education for 6 – 12 years old
▪ Provision of 3 – year JSS education for 12 – 15 years old
▪ Provision of 3 – year SSS education for 15 – 18 years old
▪ Provision of 4 – year tertiary education (University)
The main features of the 1987 Reform Programme

• changing the structure of the education system from seventeen to 12 years
of pre-university education
• increasing access to education
• improving curriculum content
• total replacement of the old pre-university educational system
• community involvement in educational provision
• use of continuous assessment as part of final assessment of pupils.
PROGRESS TEST
i. In one sentence describe the state of education in Ghana before the
implementation of the 1987 reforms
ii. Two of the objectives of the 1987 Educational Reform Programme
67
UNIT 3: LESSON 7: THE 1987 NEW EDUCATION REFORM
PROGRAMME II
(IMPLEMENTATION AND CHALLENGES)
OBJECTIVES
❖ suggest three achievements of the 1987 Educational Reform Programme
❖ describe any two challenges encountered in the implementation of New
Educational Reform
Major achievements of the 1987 New Educational Reform Programme

• ensured the opening of more primary, junior and senior secondary school
(Community Day Secondary Schools);
• involvement of communities in the opening and running of schools;
• improvement in the supply of educational inputes such as books, stationery
and equipment
• organization of in – service training courses for teachers
• re-structuring of teacher – training programmes and increased intake into
teacher – training colleges;
• improvement in the supervision of teaching and learning; at the district
levels as a result of the appointment of Circuit Supervisors;
• reduction in the duration of pre – university education;
• the introduction of Basic Education Certification Examination (BECE) and
the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination now the West Africa
Senior Secondary School Examination (WASSCE) to replace the General
Certificate of Education Examination (GCE); expansion of the curriculum
of the JSS and SSS to provide for broad-based education for the youth
Challenges faced by the 1987 Educational Reforms
Like most educational reform programmes, the 1987 New Educational Reform
Programme faced the underlisted challenges
• schools in rural areas suffered disparity in the provision of educational
inputs like textbooks equipment and buildings;
• the large numbers of untrained teachers in the rural areas negatively
affected the effective implementation of the reforms;
• the existing Senior Secondary Schools were not able to absorb majority of
JSS graduates;
• there was anxiety among parents, educational personnel and other
stakeholders about the quality of products of the new programme (JSS and
SSS graduates)
• the much-trumpeted skills development did not materialize in the case of
many students from the new programme
68
PROGRESS TEST
i. Suggest any 3 achievements chalked by the 1987 New Educational Reform
Programme
ii. Spell out any two challenges that were encountered in the implementation of the
new educational Reforms of 1987
69
UNIT 3: LESSON 8: THE FCUBE EDUCATIONAL
INTERVENTION OF 1995 – 2005
OBJECTIVES
❖ give a short historical background information about the FCUBE programme
❖ identify at least two challenges in education that the FCUBE programme was
intended to address;
❖ describe at least two ways by which the FCUBE programme was used to
address challenges in education
Historical Background of the FCUBE Programme

In 1992, Ghana returned to constitutional rule and the 1992 Constitution became
the guiding document that spelt out how the country should be governed.
The 1992 Constitution of Ghana under the article 39(2) demanded that: “Within
two years after sitting of Parliament, the government should draw and implement a
free, compulsory and universal basic education programme for Ghanaian children
of school-going age by 2005”. This educational programme is what has become
known in educational circles as the FCUBE Programme.
When the National Democratic Congress (NDC) party won power in 1992,
Parliament sat for the first time on 7th January 1993; and for that matter two years
later (1995) the government had to implement the FCUBE Programme in order to
avoid infringing on one of the demands of the 4th Republican Constitution
Challenges in education that the FCUBE Programme sought to address

We want to remind you that despite the achievements of the educational reforms of
1987 – 1995, there were still some problems in education that the FCUBE
Programme sought to address.
The challenges included the following:

• Access to basic education was still limited and so many children of school-
going age especially in the northern parts of Ghana and girls were not in
school,
• The management of schools was not efficient enough to be able to use the
human and material resources available to achieve quality education and
increase access to education;
• The quality of teaching and learning in schools was not efficient to equip
school children with literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills.
70
Ways by which the FCUBE Programme was used to address challenges in
education
(a) Access to education
Encouragement to girls to go to school; Girls-child Education Units have been
set up at the national, regional and district levels to among other things
encourage parents to send their female children to school.
- organize Science, Technology and Mathematics Education (STME) clinic
for girls in the district in order to promote the interest of girls in the
Sciences
- construction of new classroom blocks and rehabilitating old ones to
provide accommodation for pupils and teachers in school;
- provision of incentives to teachers who accept posting to deprived areas
- sponsoring of teacher – trainings by district assemblies to make sure that
every district in the country gets a good number of qualified teachers
- encouraging communities to participate in school administration through
the formation of school management committees (SMCs) for each school
and District Education Oversight Committee (DEOC) for each district.
(b) Improving quality of education

- organizing in-service training programmes for teachers at all levels to
update their knowledge and skills for effective teaching;
- revision of curriculum materials (syllabuses, textbooks etc)
- ensuring regular assessment and evaluation of the performance of pupils
- enforcing the code of conduct for teachers to regulate the professional
conduct of teachers and check the misuse of instructional time
(c) Efficient Management of Resources

- Mounting training programmes for District Directors, Regional Managers
of education units, Circuit Supervisors and Head teachers in School
Management and Supervision.
- Formation of School Management Committees (SMCs) in schools to
support the Head teacher and staff in the running of the school.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Why was the FCUBE Programme implemented in Ghana in 1995 and no other
time?
ii. Identify two concerns the FCUBE Programme sought to address.
iii. Suggest one way by which the problem of access and participation was
addressed
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UNIT 3: LESSON 9: PARTNERSHIPS IN EDUCATION
OBJECTIVES
❖ name two forms of support that the DFID provides under the whole School
Development Process
❖ explain what the ILP (Improving Learning through Partnership of the USAID
is)
❖ list two forms of support which USAID provides under the ILP Programme
❖ describe two ways through which the Japanese International Co – operation
Agency (JICA) supports Ghana’s education delivery.
Whole School Development (WSD)

There is an agency from the United Kingdom called the Department for
International Development (DFID) which is working through the Whole School
Development process to bring about improving in the quality of education in
Ghana.
The aim of DFID is to make available to districts and schools their own funds for
running their programmes with the help of zonal co-ordinators appointed
throughout the country. It must be noted that every step DFID take is meant to
ensure that schools and communities get the resources to improve the quality of
teaching and learning in the various classrooms.
The Strategies include the following:

• improving initial teacher training
• providing support and in-service training to serving teachers and head
teachers through the district teacher support programme. (DTST)
• rewarding competent teachers and head teachers
• providing accommodation and welfare services for teachers especially
those in the deprived areas
In summary, we can say that the Whole School Development Process of DFID
helps Ghanaian Schools to;
• get competent teachers
• motivate pupils
• make effective use of resources
• motivate teachers
• improve upon the leadership competencies of head teachers
The USAID and the ILP Programme

Another agency that has been of great help to educational delivery in Ghana is the
United State Agency for International Development (USAID) through its ILP
programmme
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The ILP prommme (Improving through Partnership) is a programme to help
teachers, head teachers and circuit supervisors to identify assets, values and
strengths of staff at each partnership school. ILP facilitators work in partnership
with schools to deal with the challenges facing the schools in a more positive,
active and creative way.
Some of the services which USAID provides to its partnership schools under the
ILP programme include:
• school-base in-service which training on lesson notes preparation, lesson
presentation, preparation of teaching and learning materials, classroom
management , assessment of pupils and teachers’ behaviours
• residential in-service training where two major workshops are offered to
partnership schools for teachers, headteachers, Circuit – Supervisors, District
Directors, District Training Offices, Assistant Directors and Regional Training
Officers on Leadership and Training Skills
• a reading programme to help teachers to develop the reading skills of their
children
• formation of teacher – training teams consisting of master trainers who work
with the teachers, headteachers and Circuit Supervisors of partnership schools
Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA)

It is important for you to note that JICA was founded in 1974 to carry out Japan’s
technical co-operation under the Oversees Development Assistance (ODA)
Programme. JICA’s basic technical co-operation activities for Ghana is the training
programme for tutors in training colleges to obtain knowledge and technological
skills in a wide variety of fields
After training, these tutors are expected to help improve the teaching of Science
and Mathematics in Primary and Junior Secondary Schools. At the moment, JICA
carries out such activities like:
• training of personnel at the basic schools
• provision of equipment
• granting of aid
PROGRESS TEST
i. Name two forms of support that the DFID provides to Ghanaian Schools under
Whole School Development process.
ii. Describe two ways by which JICA helps schools in Ghana to improve upon
teaching and learning
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UNIT 3: LESSON 10: THE NEW EDUCATIONAL REFORM
REVIEW PROGRAMME OF 2007 – 2015
OBJECTIVES
❖ give two reasons for the 2017 reforms in education
❖ describe the structure of the basic and secondary education levels in the new
programme
Reasons for the 2007 reforms in education

Some of the pertinent reasons for the 2007 reforms in education include the
following
• The FCUBE programme has ran its ten – years full term by 2005 (1995 -
2005)
• The government has to review education to address current needs and
aspirations
• A review is needed to address the weaknesses in the existing programme
• The governments visions of: Positive Change, Making Ghana a middle –
income country by 2015, making the private sector the engine of economic
growth etc demand a new approach to our educational provision
Proposed Structure and Content of the New Education Reform Review

Programme (2007 – 2015)
Basic Education (First Cycle)

(a) 2 – year Kindergarten education for 4 to 6 years olds to provide them with
pre-school learning skills.
(b) 6 – years Primary School education in basic literacy, numeracy, Science
and Social Studies
(c) 3 – years Junior High School education (General Curriculum for entry into
Grammar, Technical, Vocational or Agricultural course at the Senior
School)
Secondary Education
(a) 4 – year Senior High School Education in Grammar, Technical, at the
Senior High School)
(b) The entry into the Senior High School will be through an externally
supervised examination in the core subjects of English, Mathematics,
Science, Social Studies and a Ghanaian Language.
(c) After Senior High School, students who do not want to continue further
could terminate and enter into apprenticeship training.
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Tertiary Education (Third Cycle)
(a) Colleges of Education / Teacher – Training College
(b) Professional Institutes
(c) Polytechnics
(d) Universities
Proposed Medium of Instruction

The medium of instruction proposed to be used at the various levels are as follows
- Kindergarten and Primary levels – the Child’s home language and English should
be used as the media of instruction;
- Junior High School – Pupils at this level should attain good working proficiency
in English
- Senior High School – Enrichment of Communication Skills in English rather than
spending so much study time in the remedy of basic deficiencies that have been
carried over from the primary level
Envisage Challenging Factors

• The need to train sufficient numbers of teachers at the diploma level in
order to be able to post professionally qualified teachers down to the
Kindergarten stage
• To provide Kindergartens with appropriate infrastructure and materials in
order to provide children with the needed experiences and skills for a
smooth transition to the primary school.
• The Kindergarten should be seen and accepted as an integral part of the
formal school system and not as an appendage
• Orientating and energizing the commitment levels of teachers;
• Promotion of quality teacher training
• Enforcement of educational standards in all schools
• Development and printing of adequate books and other educational
materials
• Maximum conscientization of the citizenry on the prospects and challenges
of the new programme
PROGRESS TEST
i. Give any two reasons for the government’s intention to review education in 2007
ii. Describe the Structure of Basic school education under the new educational
proposal.
iii. Identify any two critical factors that may pose problems to the successful
implementation of the new programme.
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UNIT 3: POST – INDEPENDENCE DEVELOPMENTS IN
EDUCATION SUMMARY
EXERCISE
(a) Discuss the factors that have necessitated reforms in educations from 1961 to
1987
(b) Suggest five challenges educational reform programmes have faced under the
1987 Reforms and the FCUNE.
(C) How similar and different is the New Educational Reform Review Programme
from the 1987 New Educational Reform Program on the basis of the following:
- Kindergarten education
- Duration and structure of Basic Education
- Duration and names of components of basic education
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UNIT 4
UNIT 4: LESSON 1: EXPLANATION OF EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson you will be able to;
❖ give at least one definition of the concept management
❖ describe management as a process involved to achieve set goals in an
institution
❖ explain the term educational management
Meaning of the Concept of Management

According to Adesina (1990) Management is the organization and mobilization of
all human and material resources in a particular system for the achievement of
identified objectives in the system. In a similar way Trewarth and Newport (1982)
define management as a process of planning organizing, actuating and controlling
an organizer’s operations in order to achieve co-ordination of the human and
material resources essential in the effective and efficient attainment of objectives.
Finally, Sherleker (1984) says that management is the guidance, leadership and
control of the efforts of a group of people towards some common objectives.
Have you notice anything common in the above definitions? Good:

The various definitions given suggest that management is a process that is a
sequence of co-ordinated events which involve planning, organizing, Co-ordinated
and controlling or leading in order to use available resources (human and material)
to achieve a desired outcome in the most efficient way.
In the School situation, management can be associated with the ways and means of
reducing lateness to school. For example, the school head can sit down with the
other teachers to come to agree on the need to halt lateness.
He can also design appropriate strategies to use for example; he will tell the pupils
the negative effects of lateness and what they can do to come to school early. He
also talk about teachers themselves coming to school early.
Finally, he can think of establishing a reward system for those who come to school
early.
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What is educational management?
Educational Management is generally considered to be concerned with the
planning and formulation of educational policies or programmes with the aim of
achieving educational goals
Educational Management can also be considered as the process of planning,

organizing, directing, co-ordinating and evaluating human and material resources
in order to achieve stated educational goals or objectives.
Some human resources that can be organized to achieve educational goals are;
• Teachers
• Pupils
• Non-teaching Staff
Some of the institutions where management takes place are

• Hospitals
• Factories
• Banks
• Police service
• Etc
PROGRESS TEST
i. Cite one authoritative definition of the concept Management
ii. Describe the concept Management in your own words
iii. Identify any two institutions where management works
iv. Define Educational Management in your own words
78
UNIT 4: LESSON 2: EXPLANATION OF THE CONCEPT
ADMINISTRATION
OBJECTIVES
❖ explain in your own words the meaning of the concept administration;
❖ list not less than three institutions involved in administration
Meaning of Administration
We defined management as a process that is a sequence of co-ordinated events,
which involves planning, organizing, co-ordinating and controlling, or leading in
order to use available resources (human and material) to achieve a desired outcome
in the most efficient way.
Shall we now look at the definition of administration by some writers?

According to Nwankwo (1987) administration is a careful and systematic
arrangement and use of resources (human and material) situations and
opportunities for the achievement of the specific objectives of a given
organization. Miewald (1978) on his part defines administration as the means by
which formal goals are achieved through cooperative human effort
In their definition of administration, Segiovanni et all (1980) point out that

administration is the process of working with and through others to efficiently
accomplish organizational goals. Can you give your own definition of
administration? Good!
The above definitions suggest that the administrator does not do the work himself
but makes it possible for others do the work. Can we liken this to the work of your
head teacher? Your head teacher does not teach class 1 but makes it possible for
the class 1 teacher to teach by providing him/her with textbooks, chalks, TLM,
information and guidelines. Your District Director gets reports from the schools
through his/her assistant directors, unit managers, and head teachers.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Define administration in your own words.
ii. Name two institutions or organizations involve in administration.
79
UNIT 4: LESSON 3: MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
OBJECTIVES
It is our hope that by the end of the lesson you will be able to:
❖ define the concept educational administration in your own words
Meaning of Educational Administration

According to Nwankwo (1987) educational administration can be regarded as the
systematic arrangement of human and material resources and programmes that are
available for education and carefully using them systematically within defined
guidelines or policies to achieve educational goals.
Educational Administration can also be said to involve the use or application of the
theories and principles of administration to solve educational problems.
According to Drost (1971), Educational Administration is concerned with the

overall direction of the school. It includes the immediate leadership of the
instructional head, the specialized skills of the business manager, curriculum
coordinator and other staff specialist. The subject matter of Educational
Administration is the problems of education are many and varied.
They range from meeting parents to acquiring materials.
For human resources we mentioned the school head, the teacher and
pupils/students and for material resources we mentioned, classrooms, furniture,
textbooks, chalks etc.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Mention three human resources that educational administrators use to facilitate
their work
ii. List three materials resources that are used in educational administration
80
UNIT 4: LESSON 4: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT AND EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
OBJECTIVES
It is our hope that by the end of the lesson, you should be able to
❖ mention two differences between educational management and educational
administration
❖ identify one similarity between educational management and educational
administration
Differences between Educational Management and Educational Administration

• Educational Management operates at the top of an Educational
Organization for example Ghana Education Service Head teachers whiles
educational administration operates at the bottom; for example the school
level.
• Educational Management is responsible for the formulation of educational
policies and programmes, whiles educational administration is responsible
for the implementation of these policies and programmes.
• Management is also said to be concerned with profit making organization
such as banks, companies etc while administration is concern with non-
profit organizations such as ministries and other voluntary organizations.
Now let us try to identify these differences in educational management and

administration
In Ghana, the Ministry of Education and Ghana Education Service forms the
management. They formulate the educational policies and progrmmes whiles the
schools are involved in educational administration. They implement the
educational policies and programmes.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain the differences between education management and educational
administration
81
UNIT 4: LESSON 5: MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL
HEAD
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to
❖ list three management functions of the school head
❖ explain at least three management functions of the school head
Management Functions
In every managerial position whether administrators, directors, department heads,
or supervisors all persons are required to perform certain basic functions that will
ensure effective and efficient running of the organizations. Many writers have
classified these functions differently.
We shall be using classifications given by Gulick and Urwick with the acronym
POSDCORB which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting to explain the management functions of the
school head.
Management Functions of the School Head

❖ Planning
It means anticipating the future and working out in a broad outline the
things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish
the purpose set for the organization. In the school, the head carefully sets
up the objectives and establish school policies, rules and procedures of
implementation that help the school to realize the set objectives or goals.
The school head may do these by looking at the subjects to be taught and
considering the availability of teachers and instructional materials as well
as preparing a time table to ensure smooth implementation of the policies
and programmes.
❖ Organizing
This refers to the establishment of the formal structure of authority through
which work sub-divisions are arranged, defined and coordinated for a
defined objective.
The school head in performing this function may appoint an assistant head
teacher, section teacher, school prefects as well as assigning responsibilities
such as that or sports and sanitation and providing the resources for
carrying out such responsibilities.
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❖ Staffing
It refers to the whole personnel function of bringing in and training staff
and maintaining favourable conditions of work in the school even though
the head does not recruit teachers, he informs the education office the types
of teachers he/she needs. He assigns teachers to specific duties, classes and
sees to their welfare. The school head also supervises and evaluates the
performance as well as provides opportunities for their professional growth.
For instance, the school head encourages members of his/her staff to attend
courses and in-service training in order to always improve upon their
professional skills and competencies.
❖ Directing
This involves the continuous task of making decisions and putting them in
specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the
establishment. In performing this function, the school head tells his
subordinates (teachers and students) what to do and he tries to motivate,
influence, guide or stimulate their actions towards the achievement of the
desired institutions to guide the conduct of both students and staff and to
supervise them effectively.
❖ Coordinating
This function involves interrelating the various sections or works of the
institution. The school head in performing this function coordinates the
activities of the various classes, the departments and teachers of the school
in order to avoid any clashes or conflicts so that there will be harmony. The
school head can do this by drawing a duty roaster, time table and delegation
of duties.
❖ Reporting
The school performs this function by keeping informed both his superiors
(director of education) and his subordinates (teachers and pupils) as well as
parents and other stake holders about the activities of the school. The
school head performs this through records, research and inspection. It also
involves preparing reports for the school boards, district education
oversight committee, the Parent Teacher Association etc on issues such as
enrolment, student’s performance, school equipment and infrastructure as
well as the schools achievements and failures. Students and teachers must
also be duly informed about all correspondences concerning them which
they need to know.
❖ Budgeting
This function refers to all that goes with budgeting in form of fiscal
planning, accounting and control. The school head performs this function
by preparing the school budget and preparing annual estimate to the
83
Ministry of Education the District Education Office. It also involves
administering and monitoring school purchases, providing for a system of
internal accounting and control and providing funds to help keep the school
office running smoothly in order to achieve any other function of the
school.
PROGRESS TEST
i. What is the full meaning of POSDCORB?
ii. List and explain two managing function you know
84
UNIT 4: LESSON 6: MANAGEMENT FUNCTION OF THE
TEACHER
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you will be able to;
❖ list three management function of the teacher
❖ explain three management functions of the teacher in the school
Management function of the teacher
Planning Teaching / learning Activities

One of Management function is planning. If a teacher therefore is to succeed in his
effort of imparting knowledge to pupils effectively there is the need for him/her to
plan. At the beginning of every term the teacher will plan all what he/she intends
doing with the class he/she is going to teach. For effective planning, the teacher
needs to consider the objectives to be achieved based on the syllabus he/she has to
follow. Facilities and materials available for teaching and ability and background
of the pupils to be taught should also be considered. The teacher’s planning also
involves breaking the syllabus into scheme of work and finally lesson plans.
The syllabus consists of a description of what subject matter or content is to be

taught in each of the subjects. A scheme of work on the other hand is more detailed
than a syllabus and not only dos it contain what is to be taught but it also describes
how the teaching should take place for effective teaching and learning. It is hoped
that effective students control will help avoid chaos and anarchy in the classroom
to enable teachers and pupils to go about their duties without hindrance.
Controlling Pupils and Activities

Controlling students involve formulating policies, rules and regulations that will
guide pupils behaviours. Again controlling students involves accounting for them.
This requires that the teacher keeps up to date and accurate information or record
of every student. One of the functions of the teacher therefore is to check the
attendance register before the first lesson of the day.
It also involves keeping the record of work of students and recording students’
assignments and test marks. In addition, it involves instituting rewards and
punishment to encourage desirable behaviours of students
Policy Making (Decision Making)

Taking decision and embodying them into policies, rules and regulations to guide
the behavior of pupil is a central responsibility of the teacher as a manager of the
classroom.
The teacher is expected to make decisions or policies concerning resources,

teaching strategies, and discipline. The teacher makes policies governing student
85
behavior, class organization, work standard, the use of equipment etc. for example
the teacher can come out with certain forms of punishment for students who
misbehave or commit certain offences, students who fight in class for instance can
be suspended for some days.
In the classroom the teacher is also required to implement policies established by
the school or the Ghana Education Service
PROGRESS TEST
i. List three functions of the teacher
ii. Explain three functions of the teacher
86
UNIT 4: LESSON 7: DECISION MAKING IN SCHOOLS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to
❖ explain the concept decision making
❖ list some decisions made in the school
Decision Making In School

Decision – making, which is central to administration and management, is the
selection of action from available alternatives, a process of developing a
commitment to some course of action.
Decision making is also defined as a sequential process that culminates in single

decision or series of choices that stimulates actions. The result of our decision
processes is policies notes or regulations that guide the subsequent behavior of
members of the organization.
As teachers we make decision on what lesson we want to teach, how we are going
to teach it to teach it. We also make decision on the students’ behavior and how to
help them learn better. Let us now consider some decision making process in the
school. Decision-making processes are said to involve a series of interaction of
events.
Stages of decision making

• Stage 1. Study carefully the existing situation
This stage involves the studying of your environment as a teacher. You
will have to study your pupils, the school head will also have to constantly
be aware of what is happening in the school. This requires him/her to know
quite a lot about the school. The school head needs to know such things as
students’ performance in their teaching assignments, and availability of
teaching/learning materials school discipline and school community
relations.
• Stage 2: Recognize and Define the Problem

All decision making begins with the identification of the problem in the
organization. Once a difficulty or an undesirable situation in the system
has been identified, we can start to think about rectifying the situation or
solving the problem. Thus an effective school head is always sensitive to
the actions of both teachers and pupils that do not measure up to the
prescribed standards. This means that the school head must constantly be
alert to issues or situations that might become problem in order to adopt a
course of action that will prevent the problem from developing. The
recognition and understanding of the problem are therefore crucial to the
process of decision making and very often do not receive adequate
87
attention. The way a problem is understood has immense importance
analysis and solution
• Stage 3: Examine the Detailed Make-Up of the problem in the Existing

Situation
This stage of the decision making process is related to stage 2. Here
however, the school head has to classify the problem. This means that
he/she has to decide whether the problem is really unusual or whether it is
a new development of a typical difficulty for which an action pattern has
already been developed.
• Stage 4: Decision on the Criteria for Resolving the Problem:

When we have finished describing, analyzing and specifying the problem,
then as decision makers we must decide on what constitutes an acceptable
resolution. It is advisable at this stage for the decision maker to rank the
criteria with their possible out-come along a
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain briefly the concept decision making
ii. Describe briefly three stages of decision making
88
UNIT 4: LESSON 8: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

❖ explain the concept communication
❖ list four channels of communication
The concept communication

The term communication refers to the means by which we exchange information.
Communication can either be through writing, pictures, signs, or verbal means
Channel of communication
There are many people we communicate with in and outside the school. The school
head communicates with his/her teachers, the pupils, parents and educational
authorities. Teachers and pupils also communicate.
The following channels of communication are used in the school
• Notice board
• Letters
• Morning assemblies
• Speech and prize giving day
• Dining hall
• Classroom
• School journal
• Cumulative records
• Terminal reports
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain briefly the term communication
ii. List four channels of communication used in this school.
UNIT 4: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION –

SUMMARY
End of unit exercises

Try your hands on the following exercises to help tie you tie up all that you have
learnt in the unit and prepare adequately for end-of-term examination.
i. (a) Define the concepts: Management and Administration
(b) Explain how the two concepts in (ia) operate in the school setting
ii. Distinguish between Educational Management and Educational Administration
iii. List and discuss any four management functions of school head
iv. Suggest and describe any three ways by which you improve upon decision-
making process in your school.
89
UNIT 5
UNIT 5: LESSON 1: MEANING AND NATURE OF AUTHORITY
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to
❖ define authority in your own words
❖ list two types of authority
❖ explain two (2) types of authority
Definition of Authority
Authority may be defined as the right to do something. In our organization, it is
the right of a manager to require a subordinate to do something or act in a way in
order to achieve the goals of the organization. In the school those with authority
are the Head teacher and the Classroom teacher.
The Head teacher has authority over everyone in the school. The teachers are the
subordinates of the head teachers. The teachers have authority over the pupil.
Authority usually shows a kind of relationship between two individuals, one being
a superior and the other a subordinate. In the school context the head teacher is the
superior. He takes decisions and expects that they will be accepted and
implemented by the teachers and pupils who are the subordinates.
Authority is often associated with power. We can, however, draw a distinction

between authority and power. Power is the ability to do something or act, but
authority is the right to do something or act.
Types or sources of authority

There are three types of authority. These are traditional authority, legal-rational
authority and charismatic authority
Traditional Authority
It is the kind of authority given to a person because of traditionally transmitted
rules or beliefs. In other words, it is the respect and obedience given to a person
who inherits a position established by tradition or the customs of the society. An
example is the authority of the chief.
Charismatic Authority
The exercise of such authority is based on the attractiveness and appeal of the
leader. A person is able to command respect and obedience from his or her
followers because of his or charming and loving personality.
90
Legal – Rational Authority
It is a rightful authority or kind of authority which may be imposed on someone by
law or formally established procedures. For example, the head teacher may be very
young person but the elderly teachers on the staff must obey him or her because he
or she holds authority in the school.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Define authority in your own words
ii. Authority usually shows a kind of relationship between two individuals.
True or False
iii. List two types of authority you know
iv. Under which type of authority will you place the following people:
(a) Teacher (b) King (c) President (d) Film Star
91
UNIT 5: LESSON 2: MEANING AND NATURE OF DISCIPLINE
OBJECTIVE
By the end of the lesson you will be able:
❖ define the term discipline in your own words
❖ identify and explain two types of discipline.
❖ list and explain two causes of discipline
Definition of Discipline
According to Adesina (1990) discipline can be defined as readiness or ability to
respect authority and observe conventional or established laws of the society or
any other organization.
Discipline can also be regarded as a means whereby people are trained in

orderliness, good conduct and the habit of getting the best out of themselves. From
these and many other definitions we may say discipline connotes the idea of
submission to rules or some kind of order. In this sense when a child achieves
discipline, he does what is right and avoid wrong without any external guidance.
With special reference to the School, we often talk of discipline when pupils are
taught to respect the school authorities, standard of behavior.
It is important for us to note that in the school, discipline cannot be referred to

students alone but teachers as well. Thus, we can make reference to student
discipline as well as teacher discipline.
Types of discipline
Basically, two types of discipline may be identified. These are; external imposed
discipline and self – imposed
• External Imposed Discipline

It is the kind of discipline, which is imposed on an individual by an
external authority or laws. In this sense discipline is exhibited because of
the fear of punishment. Here, the acceptance of rules springs from other
people’s desire and not the person’s will. This means that if the external
force or authority is no more present then the person is likely to return to
his or her natural behavior.
For instance, in the school there are some students who as soon as they see
the teacher in the classroom keep mute and comport themselves very well
because of the fear of punishment but in the absence of the teacher they
will fool about and make a lot of noise or cause trouble
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• Self-Impose (Internal) Discipline
Discipline from within the individual which does not require the presence
of an external force, that is it is intrinsic. In other words, self-discipline
results from an individual’s own self-control as a result of his acceptance of
authority.
Are you a discipline teacher, under which type of discipline do you fall?
The Purpose of Discipline

According to Adesina (1990) in general the purpose of discipline is to create a
Community of people who would freely and willingly learn the norms, principles
and ways of life of that community.
In the School situation the purpose of discipline would be to produce well behaved
pupils or student who will not only develop respect for themselves and the society
at large but also respect for school authorities and school regulations. Teachers are
also expected to comport themselves very well and perform their duties as required
of them. All this is to ensure the smooth running of the school for it to achieve its
set goals.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Define the term discipline in your own words
ii. Explain briefly two types of discipline.
93
UNIT 5: LESSON 3: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF INDISCIPLINE IN
BASIC SCHOOLS
OBJECTIVES
❖ list three causes of indiscipline in basic schools.
❖ explain three causes of indiscipline in basic schools
Causes of Indiscipline in Basic School

So many factors contribute to the breakdown of discipline in schools. These may
be classified into four (4) broad headings. They are school management related
causes; teacher (staff) related causes; student (pupil) related causes; and parents or
society related causes.
• School Management Related Causes

These include lack of proper communication between head teachers’ staff
and pupils. For instance, if teachers or pupils do not understand why certain
rules and regulations have been introduced they may not be willing to
conform to such regulations. Another cause is lack of facilities and
equipment. Pupils, for example, may be fighting for chairs if they are not
sufficient in the classroom and that can disturb lessons. Other causes
include lack of sufficient moral and religious education; restricted powers
of school heads; admission of stubborn children with poor academic
standards into school; and lack of integrity firmness and fairness on the part
of the school head.
• Teacher / Staff Related Causes

Some of the factors under this include lack of sincerity and devotion to
duty. If teachers are not devoted to duty they may not help to implement
school regulations and children will be encouraged to do their own thing.
Also, when there is moral laxity on the part of teacher it can lead to
indiscipline.
For instance, if a teacher is seen to be flirting with school girl the pupils
may lose their respect for him and he will find it very difficult to control
them. Finally, we may talk about the teacher’s incompetence. If a teacher
cannot teach well, students may be inattentive or even be disturbing in the
course of a lesson and in some cases even walk out of class.
• Student / Pupil Relation Cause

One important cause of student indiscipline is immoral behavior. Immoral
behavior such as the abuse of drugs like marijuana (wee) and cocaine can
influence students to be stubborn and disrespectful to school authorities.
Student’s poor attitude to learning is also another important cause of
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indiscipline. As the adage has it, “the devil finds work for the idle hands; so
if the student is not interested in learning he or she may channel his or her
energies into immoral behavior such as drug abuse, truancy, gangsterism
and so on.
Student indiscipline may also be attributed to the student’s personality (i.e
the individual’s unique behaviours). Because of some student’s home
upbringing or training they may tend to be stubborn, thieves or
disrespectful and so on and these undesirable behaviours are
carried/transferred to school.
• Parent / Society Related

Indiscipline in Schools can be attributed to the general breakdown of
discipline in the society. There has been general increase in moral
decadence and breakdown of law and order in the society and these are
transferred to the school. The attitude of parents or the public to the school
and teaches is also a contributing factor. The way parents insult teachers in
the presence of their children and how some even go to the extent of
visiting the school to assault teachers who attempt to discipline their
children, encourage children to disrespect school authorities.
Also apathy on the part of parents can lead to indiscipline in schools. Some
parents care less about the proper education of their children and therefore,
fail to cooperate with the school in disciplining children.
Equally, important is the fact that some, influential parents may unduly
interfere with school administration. Parents, for example, may interfere
with punishment being meted out to students, such attitude does not auger
well for school discipline.
PROGRESS TEST
i. List three causes of indiscipline in our schools
ii. Explain two causes of indiscipline in our schools.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 4: ADDRESSING INDISCIPLINE IN BASIC
SCHOOLS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
❖ identify two ways of dealing with School Management related causes of
indiscipline in basic schools.
❖ identify two ways of dealing with student / pupil related causes of indiscipline
in basic school.
❖ identify two ways of dealing with parent/society related causes of indiscipline
in basic schools.
Dealing with the Problem of Indiscipline

One of the greatest challenges that face the head as the chief administrator of the
school is how to deal with the problem of indiscipline. This is very necessary if the
school is to create the kind of congenial atmosphere that will enable it achieve its
goals.
In dealing with the problem, one responsibility of the school head is to involve his
teachers and pupils in the decision – making process. This means that students
should be given the opportunity and encouraged to take part in decisions
concerning discipline in the school. It is believed that if students themselves help
in setting up a form of discipline they will understand the need to observe that
willingly instead of being forced to do so. In fact, the approach should be a break
from the past where by the school head attempted to discipline by force; the use of
the cane or by instilling fears in pupils.
Another way of maintaining discipline is the appropriate use of rewards and

punishment. Rewards should be used to encourage good behavior. For example, a
pupil who is always punctual can be praised at school assembly while a pupil who
shows rudeness to a teacher may be punished by doing ground work. What is
important is that the child must be made to understand why he or she is being
punished and that the punishment must be commensurate with the offence
committed.
To help deal with the problem of indiscipline the head teacher and his or her staff
should set good examples for students to emulate.
Another effective means of dealing with the problem is by establishing guidance

and counseling programme in the school counselors, for example may actually
teach pupils the meaning of self-responsibility and the importance of self-
discipline and respect for authority. Apart from this, the school Counselor can be
an effective communication channel or link between students and school
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authorities. This can help avoid any misunderstanding, which may lead to acts of
indiscipline.
One other way of resolving the problem of indiscipline is for the head to motivate
his staff and promote cordial working relationship with the staff. This encourages
the staff to be committed to their duties and responsibilities and see to it that
students conform to school rules and regulations.
Finally, to effectively deal with indiscipline in the school, it is expected that the
head would develop cooperation between the school and other stakeholders or
agencies of education. These include the home, mass media, the church or mosque
and so. If the child is to be brought up properly then all these stakeholders need to
collaborate their efforts. This means that cordial relationship should be established
between the school and the community which can better be achieved through the
formation of Parent-Teacher Associations (P.T.A)
PROGRESS TEST
i. Discuss two ways of dealing with school management related caused of
indiscipline in basic schools.
ii. Discuss two ways of dealing with student/pupil related causes of indiscipline in
the basic schools.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 5: MEANING OF LEADERSHIP
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
❖ explain in your own words the meaning of leadership
❖ identify three bases of leadership
Meaning of Leadership
Musaazi (1978) sees leadership as the process of influencing the activities and
behaviour of an individual or group in efforts towards goal achievement.
According to Middlemist and Hill (1981) leadership is the process of providing
direction and influencing individuals or groups to achieve goals.
Stoner (1978) describes leadership as the process of influencing others to work

willingly towards an organization’s goals and to best of their capacities.
From the foregoing definitions of leadership there are four basic elements or
implications that we can identify. The first is that leadership involves other people
that are the followers or subordinates. What this means is that without followers
there cannot be leadership
The second is that leadership involves unequal distribution of power, between

leaders and group members. That is leaders usually have more power than
subordinates or followers.
The third issue is that leadership involves the use of influence. Here it means a
leader uses various forms of power to influence follower’s behaviour in a number
of ways.
The fourth is that, leadership focuses on the achievement of goals. For instance, the
head teacher can influence his staff to make personal sacrifices for the good of the
school.
There are four different ways by which leaders emerge.

• By appointment as in the case of the head teacher
• By elections; for example a school prefect
• By popular choice as for example one who automatically emerges as a
course prefect.
• By imposition as in the case of a military leader who comes to power by
force through the use of the gun.
Bases of leadership power

French and Raven (1960) have identified five bases or sources of a leader’s power
and influence.
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• Reward power
This is power based on the ability of the head to control and administer
rewards to those who obey his or her orders. For instance, a teacher may
submit himself or herself to the authority of the head so that he can be
promoted or praise by head.
• Expert Power: This is derived from a leader’s superior competence or

special skills or knowledge. The Subordinates see the leader as having
relevant expertise, which is believed to exceed their own therefore accord
him/her all the needed respect and obedience.
• Coercive Power: This type of power is based on fear and on the ability of
the leader to use punishment for not obeying his or her orders. Such
punishment can be suspension, dismissal and son on
• Referent Power: This is the type of power based on the attractiveness and
appeal of the leader. This type of power is often associated with
Charismatic leader.
• Legitimate Power: This can be considered simply as the power of

individual’s position or role in the organizational hierarchy. Examples are
head teacher or headmaster.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain in your words the term leadership.
ii. Identify three ways leaders emerge
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UNIT 5: LESSON 6: LEADERSHIP STYLES
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson you should be able to;
❖ list the three leadership styles we have in the basic schools
❖ explain two leadership styles
Leadership Styles
There are indeed many theories, which have been formed to explain leadership.
These include the trait theory, behavior theory and contingency theory. However,
we shall concentrate our discussion on the behavior theory that talks about
leadership style.
The behavior theory tries to describe what leaders actually do and how they carry
on their task. In order words the focus is on leadership functions and leadership
styles. In fact there are many different classification of leadership styles but
perhaps the one which has gained more popularity is that classifies leaders as
autocratic, democratic and laissez fair. Any of these style adopted by the school
head has significant impact on the management of schools.
Democratic leadership style

This is a kind of participatory leadership where by everybody in the system is
actively involved in the administrative process. The leader considers first the
needs, interest, right and freedom of the workers or subordinates. Thus,
involvement in decision-making and freedom are guaranteed.
All members of the group or their representatives are always in the formulation of
policies. The leader influences the subordinates but does not dominate their
thinking and offer suggestions rather than always issuing orders that must be
obeyed. The leader tries as much as possible to make each individual feel that he or
she is an important member of the group who has some skills or talents to offer
towards the success of the school.
Critics however, maintain that involving workers delays the decision-making

process. It is also believed that giving workers freedom will make them start taking
things easy and making them lazy. Though it appears a lot of people consider the
democratic leadership style as the best, the question you need to ask yourself is
whether it is always desirable to have democratic leadership.
The laissez-fair leadership style

Laissez-fair is a French expression which literally means ‘Let people do what they
wish!
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Thus, this approach to leadership implies that things should be left to sort
themselves out and that everybody may do what he wants. The Laissez-fair leader
tries to satisfy everybody in the system and in the end fails to satisfy anyone. He is
in fact, indifferent on certain critical issues. He or she is also not able to exert his
or her authority and therefore becomes mere figure head.
The advantages are that people have the freedom to do what they want which may
promote initiative and creativity. Also, decisions are easily accepted. On the other
hand its short-comings are that, because the institution has no clear leadership
there is no sense of direction. That is the institution may not know where it is
moving to. Also, because there is too much freedom there is always anarchy, chaos
and conflict.
The result of all these is that teachers will not work effectively and there will be
complete breakdown of discipline. This will definitely affect the academic
performance of the school adversely.
Autocratic leadership style

With this type of leadership everything is centred on the leader. He alone takes
decisions determine policies and assigns tasks to members without consulting
them.
Usually, subordinates are required to carry out directives without questions. The
leader is often interested in the achievement of the goals of the institution and cares
less about the welfare of the workers or staff. The interests of the members of the
group do not normally count as long as the interest of the leader is well catered for.
On the negative side, since the leadership is authorization and power is centralized,
the work to be done is strictly structured and does not promote worker initiative
and creativity. The authoritarian leader is feared but not respected hence there is
usually breakdown of discipline. Another negative aspect of it is that the needs of
the workers are ignored leading to frustration and low moral hence low
productivity. Lastly, conflicts between administrators and staff arise constantly.
In spite of the above shortcomings, autocratic leader has some good elements.
Firstly, the leader is able to succeed in making the subordinates work without the
use of rewards to motivate them. Secondly, it compels the workers to work quickly
for high productivity. Thus, in school situation students may pass well. Thirdly,
decisions are taken more quickly for implementation.
In conclusion, it could be said that though some leadership styles appear to be

better than others, a leader should not restrict himself or herself to one particular
style. A particular situation or environment will dictate the kind of leadership
suited to it.
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MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR
ATTITUDES – THEORY X: Y AND THEORY Z
Douglas McGregor studied the attitude people have toward work and his study
revealed certain assumptions (beliefs) people (workers) have towards work. He
categorized these assumptions into two groups which he called Theory X and Y.
These are regarded as two types of management philosophies which guide their
actions.
THEORY X
McGregor based his Theory X on assumption generally associated with the

classical of management thought, as suggested by adherent of Taylorism. The
assumptions of the theory are
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it
if possible.
2. Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most employees
must be coerced controlled, directed and threated with punishment to get
them to put forth adequate effort towards achieving organizational
objectives.
3. Most people are not ambitious, have desired for responsibility, and prefer
to be directed or led.
4. The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible.
5. Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational

problems.
6. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.
7. Most people are inherently self – centred, indifferent to organizational
needs.
8. Man is by nature resistant change
The outlined assumptions of theory X have wide application to all organizations.
1. Rigid patterns: Theory X result in rigid pattern of control which may be

applied in many ways. First the theory advocates close and careful supervisions;
Second, it relies on many detailed directions such as demanding compliance
from the workers. Third, if employees feel the workers do not perform their
duties they threaten them with faring and withdrawal of pay.
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2. Insistence on centralized power: All decisions are made and channeled from
top. The workers do not have any say in matters which affects them. Thus, it
leads to authoritarian leadership. In the school, it may show up in teachers –
dominated classroom where student do not have any say. He might arbitrarily
decide to punish students by giving them undeserved low grades.
3. Another problem with Theory X is that, it concerns it’s self exclusively with
high productivity of the organization at the expense of the workers they are
exploited and their moral becomes low.
4. Administrative who use Theory X approach adopt wrong attitude towards the
workers, considering them to be unreliable, irresponsible and immature, the
workers are therefore not given any important responsibilities or involved in
decision making. In sum, what is fundamental to theory X is a philosophy of
direction, close supervision external control and authoritarian and directive style
of leadership.
THEORY Y
Theory Y’s assumptions represent a much more positive assessment of human

behaviour and therefore relate to the human relations theory, the assumption are;
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play

or rest.
2. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of
bringing about efforts towards organizational objective to which they are
committed.
3. Commitment to objective is a functions of the rewards associated with their
achievement seek responsibility.
4. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imaginations, ingenuity
and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely and not
narrowly distributed in the population.
5. Under the condition of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities
of the average human being are only partially realized or utilized.
In practice, Theory Y’s assumptions reflect the following

1. Administrators who are Theory Y oriented seek information from their
workers and listen to them. They will be concerned with the welfare of
their workers and willingly listen to their problems. In the classroom, the
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teacher who is Y oriented will be student – oriented and give them freedom
to express their ideas, and give them support in their class work.
2. The belief in Theory Y also lead to decentralization of activities or power

and delegation of authority. That is responsibilities are shared among
workers. Besides, the workers are given authority to a cetain extent. For
example the workers are given a large measure of self – control, self –
direction freedom to act (participate) responsibility and recognition for
achievement. By this the worker becomes highly motivated.
3. Workers are regarded as responsible and mature and therefore treated with
due respect.
4. Finally a Theory Y managerial behaviour would reflect a less authoritarian

or democratic leadership style.
THEORY Z
While Theory X and Theory Y were proponed in the early 1960’s, Theory Z was
developed in the early 1980’s, Theory Z is the term coined by William G Ouchi to
characterize the Japanese approach to managing a business. Like Theory Y,
Theory Z emphasizes concern for people and participative or consultative decision
– making.
The most significant aspect of Theory Z however, is the importance it place on the
traditional mechanisms. The main features of the theory are;
1. Life time employment
2. Collective decision-making
3. Collective responsibility
4. Slow evaluation and promotion
5. Implicit control mechanism
6. Non – specialized career paths
7. Holistic concern for employees as a person.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify and discuss three leadership styles in the basic school.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 7: QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
Objectives
❖ list four qualities of a good leader.
❖ explain at least three qualities of a good leader
Qualities of a good leader

It appears there is no complete agreement on what constitute the qualities of a good
leader. What is certain, however, is that whether in the army, in politics or in
school, leaders are expected to exhibit specific qualities which makes out from
other people.
Adesina (1990) has classified these qualities under two major headings; which is
tangible and intangible.
• The tangible qualities are more obvious and easy to evaluate. They
generally have to do with acquired skills, demonstrated experience or
techniques and other intellectual qualification. For example, in appointing a
head teacher or principal, it may be necessary to known whether the
candidate has the requisite academic and professional qualifications. It may
also be necessary to find out whether the candidate has enough experience.
• The intangible qualities have to do with what guides the leaders general
understanding and interpretation of life and are less obvious. One of such
qualities is the leader’s imagination. This means that a leader should be
able to think and bring out new ideas. This also means that leaders are
people with a purpose and a vision that will motivate them to achieve real
success.
A leader should also have good human relations and the ability to get others
cooperate with him or her. Furthermore, a leader should have courage and self-
confidence to enable him or her act as if it were impossible to fall.
Again, a leader should be wholly committed to a single purpose. This means

that the leader must be somebody who cannot be easily swayed away from his
course. This does not suggest that he or she should not listen to the suggestions
of his or her followers. The true leader is one who is able to win the support,
goodwill and loyalty of is his or her followers by helping, motivating and
guiding them.
Lastly, a leader is one who is able to maintain effective communication in an

organization. This he or she can do by keeping the channel of communication
in the organization open for a free flow of information.
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In conclusion, it could be said that, it is under effective leadership and the spirit
of co-operation that both teachers and students can put their maximum efforts
towards the realization of institutional goals.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify and explain four qualities of a leader.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 8: NATURE AND MEANING OF SCHOOL
CLIMATE
OBJECTIVES
❖ define the term school climate in your own words
❖ give a definition of school climate by an authority
❖ identify four factors that influence the climate of a School.
Nature and meaning of school climate

Have you head of the word climate, try to give your own definition of the term
school climate.
Meaning of school climate

According to Gibson etc. (1977) an organizations climate is a set of properties of
the work environment perceived directly or indirectly by the employers who work
in the environment, and is assumed to be major force influencing employee job
behaviour.
Another definition by Hoy and Miskel (1977) consider school climate as a set of
internal characteristics that distinguish one school from another and influence the
behaviour of people in it. They point out that, the climate is an end product of the
school grip – students teachers, administrators (the formal and informal
organizational, leadership and personality of participants) as they work to balance
the organizational and individual aspects of a social system. Their end products
include shared values, social beliefs and social standards. This means that as the
various groups (teachers, students, and administrators) interact under certain
conditions; they are able to come up with certain values, beliefs and social
standards they commonly share and cherish.
From the above definitions the climate of the school might be viewed as the
enduring characteristics, which describe a particular school, and on the other hand
as the feel which teachers, students and visitors have of that school.
Now let us look at some factors that can influence the climate of any organization
such as the school. And as teachers and prospective school administrators we need
to identify and understand the influence of these factors.
• The size and the structure of the school.

If the school is very small it may be very easy to control the students, on
the other hand if the structure is very complex, like the University where
we have so many faculties and departments effective control of students
becomes a problem.
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• The leadership style of the head. For instance, if the head is autocratic, the
morale of his/her teachers will be low and they may not be able to help
with the implementation of decisions the head takes alone. The opposite
may occur where the head is the democratic type and actively involves his
subordinates in decision making process.
• The communication network used to convey messages: if the administrator

does not use the right channel to convey message and this can lead to
speculations and confusion.
• The goals or nature of the organization: If unobtainable goals are set,

workers or teachers may be discouraged and not work hard as expected.
• The complexity of the system: At times if the institution is very complex it

may take long time to get things done because of the bureaucratic bottle
necks. This can lead to confusion and chaos.
• Decision – making practices: The extent of subordinates involvement can

influence their attitude to work in the school.
• Concern for employees: Where the head shows much concern for his or her
teachers they will be happy and work hard. Thus there will be peace and
harmony in the school.
• Technological adequacy: Here the concern is whether equipment and other

resources are available well managed and improved methods are quickly
adopted. For example, in this era of computer technology if the
administrative staff are still using manual typewriters they will be
complaining and not have the job satisfaction.
• Motivation: if workers are well motivated their morale is boosted and are
prepared to work hard towards the achievement of institutional goals.
• Economic conditions of the organization: If workers are well remunerated

or if their economic needs are well catered for they are likely to work very
hard.
• Organizational policy: Certain unfavourable policies in any institution may

lead to agitations, resistance, confusion and chaos.
• The characteristic of members such as age, sex etc. for instance if the
teacher in a school are relatively younger they may be very radical and
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challenge the authority of the head. This may generate a lot of conflict in
the school.
• Life style of the organization (whether young or old); For example, if the
school is new it may be beset with a lot of problems which affect its
smooth operations.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 9: TYPES OF SCHOOL CLIMATE
OBJECTIVES
Types of school climate
1. Open climate
It indicates an atmosphere where both the headteacher and teachers are genuine
in their behaviour and nothing is hidden from any worker. The teachers are
sufficiently motivated and obtain considerable job satisfaction and every teacher
feels satisfied with his personal contribution to the general life of the school.
The headteacher is democratic and dictates no decision; rather there is

participation in decision-making and group action. The headteacher however,
has the liberty to suggest lines of action independent of the staff without
suspicion. Generally, the group members enjoy friendly relations of intimacy
and the atmosphere is marked by honesty of purpose.
Everybody is aware of what goes on in the school and work goes on well,
making student life happy and democratic. Teachers work very hard and there is
high academic achievement on the part of student.
2. Autonomous Climate
This describes an atmosphere of almost complete freedom for teachers to
conduct their work and fulfill their social needs as they wish. Such a school is
run by consensus and everyone has reason to believe that he is part of the
leadership of the school. Here there is much group leadership with the head
teacher having little control, generally, there is satisfaction and co-operation
among staff members. It must be noted that this type of climate is similar to the
open type except that the leadership of the head teacher is easily recognized in
the open climate.
3. Controlled Climate
It portrays an atmosphere of hard work at the expense of social life. The
headteacher is mainly concerned with the work the school has set itself to do
and all co-operative tasks are directed towards achieving.
In general, personal problems of the teachers and students are given little
attention by the head. Teachers therefore do not actually feel happy even though
they tend to cooperate well in such circumstances. Good academic results are
therefore usually achieved.
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4. Familiar Climate
It describes an atmosphere of congenial sociability at the expense of task
accomplishment. Every teacher satisfies his personal needs at the expense of the
task which the school has set itself to perform. The headteacher himself is
indifferent to the main purpose of the school and does not emphasize
productivity or supervise the work. For example the teachers may be conversing
under a tree when they are supposed to be in the classrooms teaching, but the
head will not bother to promote them to go to class. Teachers do not work hard
and there is poor co-operation. The external losers are the students and parents.
5. Paternal Climate
This generally exists in schools where the head is on the average older than the
teachers. Though the teachers are free to do what satisfies them personally and
are not overburdened with busy work, they have little or no opportunity to
influence decisions as a group. The making of decision tends to be the
monopoly of the headteacher alone. Even though he listens to suggestions, he
does not apply them since he appears to know all the answers to the school’s
problems.
6. Closed Climate
The closed climate describes a situation whereby every centre on the head,
making him/her the autocratic type of leader. The head is ineffective in directing
the activities of the teachers, at the same time; he is not much concerned about
their personal welfare consequently group members have little. Satisfaction with
respect to either task-achievement or social needs.
In general, there is apathy and lack of commitment to work in the school. The
head emphasizes high productivity or achievement of institutional goals but will
be high aloof and impersonal in directing and controlling teacher activities such
a head sets rules which are often arbitrary and goes strictly by the book. He will
also not get personally involved with his teachers and their problems. This
negatively impact on the school’s academic and other achievement.
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UNIT 5: LESSON 10: FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH
GOOD/HEALTHY SCHOOL CLIMATE
OBJECTIVES
❖ state four factors associated with good/healthy school climate.
❖ explain four factors associated with good/healthy school climate.
❖ explain four importance of school climate
Factors Associated with Good/Healthy School Climate

• Goal Focus: In a good school the goals must be very clear, appropriate
achievable and generally accepted by all members. These will ensure that
there is a common purpose and that things are not done haphazardly.
• The General Well Being of Pupils: In a healthy school, everything

possible is done to promote the academic and social well-being of pupils.
• Teacher Commitment and Morale: This implies a sense of well-being or

satisfaction as opposed to feelings of discomfort and dissatisfaction.
• The Quality of Teaching and Learning: In every good school it is

expected that teachers will effectively teach to ensure high academic
standard.
• Participation in Decision – Making: Both teachers and students are given

the opportunity to participate actively in the activities of the school and
assume responsibility.
• Cohesiveness: This means a sense of belonging and a sense of identity and

pride in the school. The members feel attracted to membership in the
school and will want to stay with it and be influenced by it. In other wards
there is collaboration.
• Innovativeness: A healthy system should possess self-renewing properties.

This means that the system should grow, develop and change rather than
remain reutralized and standard.
• Autonomy: A school with good climate would not respond passively to

demands from outside. Instead, it would tend to have a kind of
independence from the environment. What this means is able to take the
necessary measures to overcome the problems of its environment.
• Communication, adequacy: A healthy, Organization has well developed

structure for sensing the existence of problems, for inventing possible
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solutions, for implementing them, and for evaluating their effectiveness.
This means such school should be able to identify possible problems, find
solutions to them before they escalate into say demonstrations and rioting.
The Importance of School Climate

The following are some Importance of School Climate
• There is evidence to suggest that some climates are likely to yield better
results for specific tasks than others. Consequently, knowledge of this will
help the administrator to know which type of climate he has to work to
achieve his goals
• It is clear that how the individuals is able to fit well in the organization
plays significant role to determine the individual’s performance and
satisfaction within the organization, hence the needs for administrators to
be concerned about organizational climate.
• Improving on School’s Climate can be a useful strategy to improve group

relations within the institutions and help avoid inter-group conflict.
• There is also an evidence that an educational administrator will have a

difficult time exercising his educational leadership role without a sufficient
supportive climate within which to work.
• There is again evidence to support the fact that climate affects students
outcomes. For example, it is believed that closed climate breed close
learning climate while good climate also promote discipline and conductive
teaching and learning environment.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Identify and discuss four factors associated with good/healthy school climate.
ii. Discuss three importance of school climate.
Unit Summary Exercise

1. Write down the meaning and nature of the following concepts:
(a) Authority
(b) Disciple
(c) Leadership
2. List and describe four causes of indiscipline in basic schools in Ghana and
suggest strategies you would use to address them.
3. a) Describe the three leadership styles found in Ghanaian basic schools

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b) Suggest any four qualities you are expected to exhibit as a good leader.
4. a) Explain the concepts – school climate

b) Describe any three types of school climate you know
c) Suggest any three factors which go to make a good or healthy school climate.
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UNIT 6
UNIT 6: LESSON 1: TYPES AND USES OF SCHOOL RECORDS
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to,
❖ list four school records you know
❖ explain the uses of four school records you know
❖ explain four importance school of records
Types of School Records

School records are written accounts of data, facts, events and all other information
about the schools. Such information is recorded or preserve as authentic or genuine
evidence.
One major reasons for the keeping of school records is to provide accurate and up-
to-date information about the resources and activities of the school.
This is to enable the headteacher of the school give proper account of the school
activities to all stakeholders in the educational enterprise. These stakeholders
include parents, PTA’s school board, direct education oversight committees’ the
GES and so on.
We shall consider the school records under two main sub-headings; Financial
Records and Administrative Records. Financial records are those records which
deal with the use of money, whiles administrative records are the non-monetary
records which are kept and used for the day-to-day running of the school.
➢ Keeping and using administrative records

Can you think of any principle which underlines the keeping of records in
the schools? There are a number of them. Below are some of these
principles;
School records;
• Must give true and honest information
• must be easy to keep and available when needed
• should be easy to understand
• should provide sufficient details for effective decision-making should
be neatly kept.
We can categorise administrative records into pupils’ records, staff records and
other records. Detailed discussion is as follows:
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Pupils’ records
We will discuss the following records. The
• admission register
• class attendance register
• continuous assessment record
• cumulative record books
The admission register

So far as pupils are concerned this is one of the important records kept by the
school. The admission register/book is used in keeping very useful information
about pupils in the school. First, any pupil who is admitted to the school is given a
serial admission number, which serve more or less as his or her registration
number.
The admission or registration number is kept by the pupil throughout the whole
period he or she remains in the school. Any child without an admission number is
by law not considered officially or properly admitted. It is important to note that a
pupil who had been previously or properly admitted to the school but left for
another school on his or her return retains the old admission number. The letter ‘R’
indicating, ‘Re-admission’ is however, written again the name of the pupil. Other
important information kept in the admission register include the pupil’s full name,
sex date of birth and names, occupations, addresses of parents and guardians.
They also include details of date of admission and address of last school attended if
the pupils was transferred to the school. Details of the reasons and date a pupil
leaves the school are also provided. A specimen is here for your careful study.
Admission register
Admission Pupil’s Sex Year of Date of Parent’s Occupation Remark
number Name Birth Admiss Name and
ion Address
248 Amadu M 1974 4/8/96 Amadu Famer 1997/1998/
Alhasan 1999
Box 2 Bole Promotions,
Tansfers
and
Withdrawal.
249 Mohammed F 1974 8/8/96 Mohammed Businessman
Fadila Lukman,
Box 76,
Yendi
250 Adjei M 1976 15/8/96 Adjei Manu Civil Servant
Mensah Box 22,
Brekuma
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Now, let us turn to briefly consider the importance of the admission register. In the
first place, we may say that the admission register give both the school and
educational authorities an idea of the enrolment of the school. Such enrolment
figures can give an indication as to whether the enrolment is growing or falling
because pupils are dropping out of the school.
For instance, high enrolment figure may necessitate the sitting of more schools in a
particular area Furthermore, since they keep records of all pupils in the school,
information about past pupils can easily be obtained from it when demanded. This
is particularly important in recent times when old students (alumni) associations
have become very important in the administration of schools.
Attendance / Class Register

The attendance register is very common record kept by every class in the school
and we hope you are very much familiar with it. As you are aware, the register is
kept by all classes to help record the daily attendance of the pupils in the school.
Some of the entries in the register include names of pupils, their registered
numbers, age and sex. Columns are also provided for recording of school fees paid
by students, particulars of the class teacher and the head teacher as well as the
particulars of the authorities managing the school (e.g. Islamic Education Unit,
local Authority, Catholic Education Unit).
The attendance register is usually marked before the beginning of the first lesson
of the day. In Ghana, the general practice is to mark those present with a slanting
stroke (/) and those absent with zero (0). Ideally, the register may not be closed
immediately to give a little room for those pupils who might come late for one
reason or the other. A child who reports but later leaves without permission, should
have the stroke mark crossed and circled like this (X). It must be noted that one or
two columns may be provided depending on whether the school is operating on
one session or two sessions such as the morning and afternoon sessions. It is
important to note that the names are arranged alphabetically with the list of the
girls usually separated from that of the boys, I hope you can give a few reasons
why the attendance register is relevant. Among other things, we may say that, it
gives information as of whether pupils attend school regularly or they are truants.
If it is detected that a child is a truant, that may serve as the first step toward
finding a solution to the problem. For instance, the child’s teacher or head teacher
can consult the child’s parents to help find a solution to the possibly counsel the
pupil himself. The attendance register may also help in taking a decision whether
to promote a child or not. It may be advisable to repeat a child who is a truant.
Also, in times of crisis especially those with legal implications, the register may
serve as authentic evidence. For instance, when a child is marked present and is
knocked down by a car while the school is in session, then it means that the school
or the teacher did not take good care of the child.
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Cumulative Record Cards
They serve the same purpose as the admission register except that they are more
adaptable than a book. This means that it can easily be carried around. For
instance, if a child is transferred to another school a copy of his cumulative record
card can easily be sent to the head teacher of the new school. Like the admission
register, the record card gives comprehensive information such as name, age, sex,
physical characteristics, vocational interests, health records, and academic
performance in the different subjects as well as achievements in school. Thus, a
child’s achievements in sports and quiz competition s can be recorded. Information
on parents with regards to their names, occupation, health, socio-economic status
and addresses are also provided.
The cumulative record card is very important for a number of reasons. The first as
noted earlier, is the fact that the card can easily be sent to the head teacher of a new
school where the child has been transferred. This makes it possible for class
teachers to know the background of pupils transferred to their schools so that they
can build upon that. It also provides information for counseling.
Information on children’s interest and academic performance can be used by

teacher and school counsellors to counsel pupils themselves and parents on the
future of their wards with regard to their choice of subjects or courses.
Furthermore, it helps the teachers to know the strengths and weakness of their
pupils to enable them provide the necessary remedial actions. Finally, the
cumulative record provides information about pupils who have special academic,
emotional, health, social and economic problems thereby effectively dealing with
them.
Other Records
Other records concerning pupils include the hospital book, punishment book and
pupil’s reports or what we often refer to as ‘Terminal Reports’ which provide the
parents or guardians information on the general behavior, academic performance
and progress of their wards.
Teacher Records
Now let us consider some records that relate directly to teachers. This include Staff
Record book, Staff Attendance Book and Staff Meeting Minutes which we will
discuss in detail.
Staff Record Book

This contains the list of the teachers in the school and all the necessary information
about them. These include their name, sex, registration numbers, professional
qualifications and status. Other information provided incudes institutions of
training, further course attended, teaching class and the time of joining and leaving
the school. Also, when a teacher joins the staff the authority or his or her
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appointment or transfer should also be given. The authorization and the reasons for
leaving the school should be recorded.
The staff record is very useful to the head teacher as it helps in planning in the
teaching programme, particularly with regard to allocation of teachers to the
various classes. It may help in recommending teachers for particular courses that
relate to their qualifications. It is also useful in guiding the head teacher to write
letters of commendation or testimonials for his/her teachers.
A specimen is provided below for your careful study

Name Sex Year Institution Qualification Professional Join Left Reason Class
of trained Status Staff Staff for
birth leaving
Sofo M 1958 Tamale Cert. ‘A’ Prin. Supt Sept. 5A
Ali TTC Post Sec 1990
Amoah M 1960 Fosu TTC Cert. ‘A’ 4yr Supt. Sept. Aug. Study 6B
David 1993 2000 leave
Kanco F 1963 Tumu Cert. ‘A’ Asst. Supt. Sept. 2A
Rebecca TTC Post. Sec 1996
Staff Record Card

The staff record is often prepared on a chart and pasted on the wall at the head’s
teacher’s office.
The Long Book

Your head teacher enters all important events in the school including your presence
in the school in the log book. What other event do you consider important to be
recorded in this book? Check if your responses include the following;
• Staff list showing their qualifications, subjects they teach, their social
security numbers and other personal data.
• School terms and vacation dates
• Dates when school was not in session for various reasons such as sports,
culture, rainstorm and public holidays.
• Absence of teachers from the school with reasons
• Achievements of the school in culture, games and sports
• Visits to the school by officials of the Ministry of Education and Ghana.
The Staff Attendance / Time Book

The staff attendance/time book can help the head teacher in so many ways. Below
are some of its functions. This book;
• help the headteacher to know which teachers are present and which are
absent
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• shows whether teachers are punctual and regular at school
• helps to identify the class which had no teacher for a particular day
• helps the headteacher to get information for filling the log book
Below is a Specimen of a staff attendance/time book

Date Name Class Time of Signature Time of Signature Remarks
of arrival Departure
teacher
24/07/06 Razak B6 7:00 am 2:30
Issah
The Stock/Inventory Book

Do you have a list of the items in your class? If you don’t, you should prepare one.
Such a list of the items in your class? If you don’t, you should prepare one. Such a
list is called a class inventory. A class inventory is made up of consumable stock
and non-consumable stock.
For the consumable stock, you will list items likes like chalk, stationary and other
materials which you have to replace regularly. You must put items like furniture,
farm tools, sports equipment and radio under non-consumable stock. Your head
teacher may use a tally card on which he/she will record all items he/she issues to
you before you enter them in your class inventory book. The head teacher keeps an
inventory/stock book for the school. You can see how record will help you protect
school property and ensure regular supply for materials for the school.
An example of a tally card is presented below

Article: Exercise books Stock no……………………………
Unit single ………………………… Minimum stock……………………
Date From whom received Invoice or Receipt Issues Balance Initials

or from whom issued Regn no.
11/06/006 District stores 001 500 500
03/07/006 M. Alidu P6 40 460
The visitors’ book

Which of the visitors who came to your school are permitted to write in the log
book? We hope you have not forgotten that only officials from the Ministry of
Education and Ghana Education Service can write in the log book. Very Good. For
all other visitors you will get the names and addresses of all those who show
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interest in the school. You can contact such people to take part in open days and
other school functions. You should keep the visitors book at a place that will make
it possible for every visitor to sign.
A specimen page of a visitor book

Date Name Address Purpose of Time Time of Signature Remarks
of Visit of Departure
Visitor Arrival
22/07/006 Alice Aseidu To visit 11:00 1:00 am A very
Aseidu Enterprice, daughter am clean
Kumasi compound
Staff Meeting Minutes

This may contain decisions taken at staff meetings as well as the names of teachers
present at such meetings. The date and place of the meeting are also recorded. The
minutes may be recorded personally by the head teacher or an appointed staff
secretary. Basically, the importance of the staff meeting minutes is that it serves as
a source of reference for decisions taken.
Financial Records
We will discuss only the cash book
The Cash Book

Some of the visitors who came to your school, may donate cash, you may also be
asked to collect fees from the pupils. How do you keep records of monies you
received and spent? You must remember to enter all monies you receive and all
monies you spend in the cash book. You must record the monies you receive on
the income side and those you spend on the expenditure side. You must write the
date and describe the items for income or expenditure.
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A Specimen of a cash book is shown below:
Date Income Amount ȼ Expenditure Amount ȼ

05/06/06 PTA Dues 400,000 - -
24/07/06 - - Purchase of 2000,000
School Jersey
25/07/06 School Fess 1,500,000
04/08/06 - - Prizes for 600,000
Outstanding
pupils
07/08/06 Sale of Farm 600,000 - -
Products
Total 2,500,000 800,000
PROGRESS TEXT
i. List four records used in the basic school
ii. Explain in your own words the use of four school records.
iii. Where will you record the purchase of dusters for your school?
iv. When a parent visits your school, in which record book will he/she write the
purpose of his/her visitsc
v. List four importance of school records.
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UNIT 6: LESSON 2: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATION IN
MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
❖ explain the need for good school-community relations
❖ identify, at least, four channels of school-community relations
❖ identify, at least, four services that the school can render to the community.
❖ describe, at least two ways by which the community can promote good school-
community relations.
The need for cordial school-community relations

The need for cordial school-community relations is based on the following
principles:
• The school can rely on the resources of the community to carry out its
activities and programmes.
• The pupils who attend school are to be socialized by the school to fit into
the community,
• The school has to help the community to progress and therefore, needs to
be aware of the community’s aspirations.
• There is also the need for proper child development; this could be done
through proper interaction between the school and community.
• It is the community which established the school and so it is responsible for
it sustenance.
• The school’s proramme must address the needs of individual pupils. As a
result; parents have the right to be informed about what goes on in the
school so that they can support their children at home.
Channels of school-community relation

For the school and the community to have good relations, the school should
organize:
✓ Parent-teacher association (PTA) meetings which will provide a forum for
discussing the needs of both the school and the community, and how the
two can work together to support each other.
✓ Speech days during which the school’s achievements, problems and future
programmes can be brought to the notice of the community for comments
and assistance.
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✓ Sports and games to which the public should be invited, this will play a
dual role to first, entertaining the public and secondly, showing them the
skills of their wards.
✓ Drama and culture displays in the school or at public places within the
community.
In addition, the school should

✓ Encourage home visits by teachers. Teachers can visit parents at home to
collect information that will help them to solve pupils’ problems.
✓ Invite resource persons from the community to participate in the
instructional process of the school.
The community’s services to the school
There are a number of services that the community can render to the school. These
include:
• Providing furniture and other equipment
• Providing accommodation facilities for teachers
• Releasing land to the school for farming, sports and games and other
activities.
• Making available to the school certain facilities in the community which
can be used for instructional purposes, examples of such facilities include
the community library, the community farm, and the community centre.
• Encouraging professionals and artisans in the community to occasionally
go to the school as resource persons to help in teaching. People like pastors,
linguists, masons and mechanics can assist the school in this direction.
How the school can serve the community

The school can, on its part, help the community by;
• Undertaking clean-up campaigns in areas in the community that need
cleaning. Such clean-up activities should include sweeping in streets,
scrubbing gutters, cleaning the hospital and weeding around the town.
• Undertaking tree-planting at vantage positions in the community to give
shade or serve as wind breaks.
• Assisting in carrying water, blocks, sand and other building materials when
the community is putting up a public building such as the chief’s palace, a
market building, a community centre or a hospital.
• Filling potholes or gullies in town to check erosion
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• Educating the community on personal hygiene and environmental
cleanliness.
• Allowing the community to use its facilities and premises for such social
activities as religious services, weddings and funerals.
PROGRESS TEXT
i. Give three reasons why the school and the community should work together.
ii. List three channels of school-community relations.
iii. List three services that the community can render to school.
iv. List three services that the school can render to the community.
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UNIT 6: LESSON 3: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCHOOL
AND IDENTIFIABLE GROUPS IN THE
COMMUNITY
OBJECTIVES
❖ explain the various ways by which the school can establish cordial links with
religious organizations, traditional opinion leaders, NGOs and Unit committees
❖ identify the roles of these four bodies in the development of the district in
which you teach.
The school and religious organizations

Religious organizations play a very important role in the education of the child.
They preach sermons of morals to our children. They also teach them how to lead
acceptable life in society. What are some of the organizations in these religious
institutions? Some of them are Catholic Youth Organizations (CYO), Boys’
Brigade, Girls’ Brigade, and Muslim Youth Organization.
There are other organizations within the various religious bodies, which provide
free social services to the community. You can therefore use them to the advantage
of your school. Some of these organizations are;
1. Catholic Relief Service (CRS)
2. Adventist Relief Agency (ADRA)
3. World Vision International (WVI)
4. Action Aid International (AAI)
It is important for the school to maintain cordial relationship with traditional

opinion leaders like chiefs, elders and unit committee members in your traditional
area. They can be of help to your school. They can offer help in many ways
including;
• Organizing communal labour to put up school structures
• Settling disputes involving teachers and members of the community
• Helping to solve accommodation problems of teachers
• Releasing land for a school farm, playing fields and other projects
Your school can also undertake some activities for these groups to bring about
good school-community relations. These may include;
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• Visiting the chief, elders, opinion leaders and unit committee members
from time to time to discuss the problems of the school with them.
• Inviting the chief, elders and unit committee members as special guests to
such functions as open days and speech and prize-giving days
• Organizing clean-up campaigns and literacy programmes.
Why are some organizations referred to as being non-governmental? What are

some of the services they provide to communities? As the name implies NGOs are
bodies which do not belong to the government. They are voluntary or charitable
organizations which seek to assist the government in its development efforts.
NGOs give voluntary assistance to communities to undertake projects like school
buildings, clinics and toilets. They provide social and humanitarian services to
communities from their own resources. Some of these organizations we have in
Ghana are;
✓ Catholic Relief Service (CRS)
✓ Adventist Relief Agency (ADRA)
✓ Rotary club
✓ Lions club
✓ World Vision International (WVI)
✓ Valco Fund
✓ Care International
✓ Plan International
✓ Action Aid International
PROGRESS TEXT
i. Name three NGOs that operate in your community.
ii. Mention three types of projects that NGOs support
iii. Identify three religious organizations in your community and describe how they
have been assisting your school.
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UNIT 6: LESSON 4: DELEGATION OF DUTIES
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to,
❖ explain delegation of duties in your own words
❖ describe three benefits of delegation
❖ describe three ways of delegating duties
The Meaning of Delegation

According to Muzaazi (1982) delegation of authority include assigning duties and
responsibilities to those who the administrator or head teacher expects to help
him/her in doing work in the school.
Brech (1976) also defined delegation of authority as the passing on to other of a

share in the essential elements of the management roles.
Delegation has the following benefits in the school;

• It reduces the workload of the head teacher and enables him to devote more
time to more important matters concerning the school.
• By delegating work to ‘specialist’ who possess the detailed knowledge for
realistic decision-making, tasks are performed effectively and efficiently
• Delegation permits the making of decisions with least delay. Thus, teachers
can take decisions without referring each and every decision to the head.
• Delegation prepares teachers and pupils to handle higher and more
challenging responsibilities in future. Therefore, it is a way of developing
them.
• Delegation also help in job enlargement that is, it enlarges the scope of
responsibilities.’
• It helps in avoiding autocrats within the school organization.
• It also reduces indispensability. That is, it easy for the next person in line to
have the vacant chair.
It is clear from the above discussion that as our schools grow in size and
complexity delegation of authority and responsibility becomes increasingly
important. Failure to delegate may have some adverse effects on the school
organization. For instance, there would be poor head teacher relations resulting in
the following:
• Teachers will be suspicious of the intentions of the head
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• Low co-operation and participation from teachers
• Confusion prevails in the absence of the head
• Pupils and teachers will do what they like
• Order and discipline is likely to break down
• Teachers will often be displeased with heads and might lead to quarrels or
squabbles between them.
• Headteacher will be over tasked, which will affect efficiency.
How to delegate
The head teacher should do the following things to make delegation effective;
• Job descriptions should be carefully spelt out
• Ensures that you take into consideration teacher’s area of interest
• Establish a time for receiving feedback through discussion
• Teachers in charge of various duties should report on their work at staff
meetings periodically
• Establish time frame for delegations of position to be held for one year etc.
• Encourage and motivate teachers entrusted with duties
• There should be effective oversight supervision by the head.
PROGRESS TEXT
i. Define the term “delegation” in your own words
ii. Mention and explain three benefits of delegation
iii. What three steps will you take to ensure efficient delegation in your school?
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UNIT 6: LESSON 5: MANAGING SCHOOL RESOURCES
OBJECTIVE
❖ identify the types of resources that we have in the school
❖ explain the effective ways of using these resources
School resources include the following;

• School building
• Furniture
• Stationery
• School library
• Equipment and tools
• School suppliers
• School compound
• Instructional materials (TLM)
• Text books
• Syllabus
PROGRESS TEXT
i. List four materials available in your school
ii. Describe three ways in which you can effectively use your school material
resources.
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UNIT 6: LESSON 6: MANAGING INSTRUCTIONAL TIME
(TIME TABLING)
OBJECTIVES
❖ explain the effective ways of managing instructional time in your school
❖ explain ways of avoiding time wasting in your school,
Making effective use of instructional time

In managing facilities in the school, time comes up as an important factor. Doing
things at the right time brings about efficiency in an organization. Your school can
plan its calendar for the academic year by preparing a timetable. You must
remember that the preparation of a timetable helps teachers to use their
instructional time effectively.
Preparations you will make before the beginning of a new term or week
You must prepare your scheme of work and lesson notes before classes begin.
When you do this, you can put instructional time to very good use.
To ensure effective use of pupils’ learning time, you should know how to manage
instructional time in the classroom.
You should start class work just after morning assembly. You should mark the
class register and close it on time at the end of each day. You should hand all
registers over to your headteacher soon after you have marked them.
Lesson Plan
It is important you follow your lesson plan as much as possible. Check whether
your lesson plan contains the following.
• A proper introduction
• A logically-ordered presentation
• Appropriate pupils activities
• Well-thought out questions
• Well-prepared teaching learning aids
• An evaluation component to check whether you have achieved your stated
objective
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Systematic presentation of your lesson can help you to manage instructional
time in the classroom.
Group Work
Remember that group work can help pupils learn better in some lessons. Group
work is very useful if pupils need to:
• Learn at different rates or levels
• Use different sets of materials
• Share and examine items
• Observe something
• Perform an experiment
• Solve problems
• Talk about things together
How can you manage instructional time for the whole class?
To be able to use instructional time effectively it is helpful to;
• Ask pupils questions
• Call upon pupils randomly to do some activities
• More round in the class to assist individuals
Sometimes, as teacher, we lose a great deal of instructional time because we use

class time to mark pupils’ exercises. When do you make your pupils’ exercise?
Planning the School Timetable

As has been discussed earlier, the G.E.S. has suggested blank timetables for the
head teacher to fill, and in the process, adapt the periods to suit local situations. For
example, a head teacher has to consider the local conditions in deciding when the
school day will begin.
The following are examples of occasions when the headteacher may have to
modify his/her timetable.
➢ During the rainy season when the school may have to open late because of
morning rain, the headteacher should make up for lost of time by closing
late than normal.
➢ Sometimes certain local ceremonies or annual festivals take place in the
morning. On such days in order to solve the problem of mass lateness, it
will be necessary to open late and close late.
➢ In some instance the festivity may take place in the afternoon. Unless you
start and close school early, you may find yourself in the situation where
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many children will absent themselves from classes. As a result, they lose
valuable instructional time.
➢ On market days, some children come to school late because they help their
parents with wares to the market. The headteacher can open school late on
market Days to enable the pupils to give this help to their parents and yet
come to school on time. This may encourage the children who always
absent themselves on market days to stop that habit. However, head
teachers must remember to seek the prior approval of the District Director
of Education about any amendments they intend to make in their timetable.
The headteacher should prepare a general timetable and display it openly in his/her
office. (Teachers should then copy their individual class timetable and display it
prominently in their individual classroom). Thus, the head teacher can at a glance
see what is happening in every class. This can help him/her to monitor what is
going on in each classroom.
Principles of time tabling

To come up with appropriate timetable we need to be guided by certain basic
principles.
• All subjects should be fully covered or adequately catered for as expected
• The timetable should be pupil-centred to maximize learning opportunities.
In this connection it must be arranged with a variety of activities and
subjects spaced to sustain the children’s interest and motivation. Also it
must take into consideration age, concentration span, ability range of pupils
and so on.
• The timetable should be flexible taking into consideration some local and
environmental conditions. For example, pupils can be made to come to
school late and close late on market days. Also a good timetable should
allow adjustment to be made with the minimum disruption to school life.
• Allowance should be given within the timetable for non-teaching time such
as time for marking attendance, registration, assemblies, break periods,
time between periods for change lesson etc.
• Teachers should be deployed vertically and horizontally across the
timetable. This suggests that teachers should not be allocated period only at
the beginning of classes or at the end of classes. It must cut across different
levels.
• As much as possible teachers should be made to teach subjects for which
they received professional training.
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• There should also be a balance in the timetable such that for instance not
too many double periods or practical subjects follow one after the other.
Time Table Preparation in Primary School

Step 1.
Collect and have available all relevant Ministry directives on tie and subject
allocations as it is important that the timetable meets all the requirements of these
directives.
Step 2.
List all the teaching areas in your school e.g classrooms, science room, library hall,
playing fields, gardens etc.
Step 3.
How many class teachers are on your staff? Allocate teachers and class to
classrooms or teaching space.
Step 4.
Special education teachers, if available will have a timetable separately to serve the
needs of pupils with special needs whilst they are part of a class. Individual class
timetables will have to be consulted and possibly adjusted to remove clashes.
Preparing a timetable for the primary school where under normal circumstances
there is one classroom and one teacher for each class is somehow different from
that junior secondary school where teachers are not allotted to just one specific
class. Let us therefore specifically took at the step of timetable preparation in
junior secondary schools.
Time Table Preparation in Junior Secondary School

Step 1.
List the number of teaching areas in the school; e.g. classrooms, laboratories,
workshops, hall etc.
Step 2.
Note any limiting factors, e.g. the teaching space commonly accommodate half a
class or can only be used for certain types of lessons.
Step 3.
List the number of teaching subjects e.g English, Maths, and Science.
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Step 4.
Ensure that the time allotments prescribed by the Ministry of Education are
adhered to; i.e., 40mins a period and with periods a day adding up to 40 periods a
week.
Step 5.
List the teachers by name and subject as well as the classes to be covered and the
expected teaching loads.
Step 6.
Collect data on pupil reference in optional subjects.
Step 7.
Using the above information adjust your optional subject programme to ease the
teacher shortage if this is possible.
Step 8.
Meet subject department heads to find their timetabling needs with regard to
preferred teaching time during the day, single double or triple periods and study
time requirements etc.
Step 9.
Identify the amount of non-teaching time which should be time tabled, to allow for
registration, assemblies, break and so on.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Explain briefly three effective ways of managing instructional time
ii. Discuss three ways of avoiding time wasting in your school.
135
UNIT 6: LESSON 7: MANAGING INSTRUCTION:
CHECKING LESSON PLANS
OBJECTIVES
❖ list the various components of the lesson plan
❖ explain at least three components of the lesson plan
❖ prepare a lesson plan in any subject
Components of a good lesson plan

A good lesson plan should have;
• General information/preamble; tis includes the date for the lesson, the
subject and references sometimes with page of books from which you made
the reference.
• The lesson topic
• Objectives
• Core points
• Evaluation
Lesson topic
You must necessary state the topic of your lesson. The topic is a small area of
learning or subject-matter you are to cover in a lesson. Your topics should be short
and concise.
Objective
Your objectives must state the value of the lesson to your learners. In other words,
the objectives must state what skills, knowledge and attitudes your learners are
expected to acquire. Your lesson may have more than one objectives, depending on
the time available. When you state more than one objectives, you give yourself the
opportunity to look out for other outcomes in the different domains. We hope you
are quite familiar with the following features of good objectives.
• They must state clearly the behavioural change you expect in your pupils
• They must be achievable within a specified time
• The change in the pupils’ behaviour must be that which you can observe
and measure
136
You must remember to use performance or action verbs like list, state, write,
discuss, name, sort and identify in stating your objectives. If you do that, you will
see that your lesson is well-focused.
Relevant Previous Knowledge (R.P.K)

The R.P.K consists of knowledge, skills, ideas and experiences which your pupils
have already acquired. This is the basis upon which you are going to build your
new lesson. The R.P.K must not necessarily come from a previous lesson. It could
be some general knowledge they have acquired from daily experience. If you build
your lesson on the experiences of your pupils, their responses will be very
encouraging.
Core Points
You will agree with us that as a practicing teacher, one major problem you face
when preparing lesson notes is how to identify your core points. The core points
are the skills, attitudes, knowledge, ideas and other behavioural outcomes you want
to develop in your pupils. They may simply be the subject matter you expect your
pupils to be conversant with. Your core points must be related to the objectives
you have stated.
Evaluation
Do you ask questions in the course of your teaching? Do you give exercises in the
course of your lesson? What about after the lesson? Do you give written or oral
quizzes to pupils? We hope you do all these. These constitutes the evaluation of
the lesson. They form the basis for your remarks after the lesson. Evaluation helps
you to tell whether you have achieved your stated objectives or not.
PROGRESS TEST
i. List and explain the components of a lesson plan
ii. Prepare a lesson plan in any subject of your choice.
137
UNIT 6: LESSON 8: PROMOTING GNAT ACTIVITIES IN BASIC
SCHOOLS
OBJECTIVES
❖ state the years in which GNAT was formed
❖ list at least three functions of GNAT
❖ state three achievements of GNAT
The Ghana Association of Teachers (GNAT)

All workers in Ghana belong to an association or Union. These associations or
unions serve as a mouth piece of the workers in any organization. They mediate
between workers and their employers for better working conditions. The
membership of GNAT is for all qualified and registered teachers in the Basic
School and second cycle schools. However, a teacher in a private school can opt to
be a member. Teachers working in the National, Regional and District offices as
officials are members of GNAT.
Functions of GNAT
• It complies and registers new teachers as members of the association
• It organizes at specific times, teachers training and up-grading course for its
members. (Seminars, refreshers courses, conferences)
• GNAT is affiliate to many World Teachers’ Associations, and these
affiliations give GNAT world wide recognition e.g. World Conference of
the Organization of the Teaching Profession (WCOPT), All African
Teachers Union (AATU)
• GNAT resolves grievances of teachers arising from internal rifts and out
from the existing conditions of service.
• GNAT advise Ministry of Education generally on pre-university Education.
• GNAT holds negotiations concerning salaries and conditions of service for
its members.
• It supports subjects associations
Achievements of GNAT
The achievements of GNAT include the following;
• GNAT has been able to secure progressive improvement in salaries and
conditions of services and pension scheme.
138
• It introduced the new hierarchy in the G.E.S where an ordinary classroom
teacher can rise to the grade of assistance Director or Director.
• Members for further studies enjoy study leave with pay
• It has been able to provide welfare services for it members. e.g. Teacher’s
fund, Hostels
• It runs orientation and general purpose courses for its members to update
their skills and professional competence.
• It has formed credit unions and cooperative for teachers
• In times of death of a member, it makes customary donations (provision of
coffin to the bereaved family)
• It investigates complaints made by teachers as regards their social security
benefits, conditions of service etc. it settles cases and secures redress.
PROGRESS TEST
i. Discuss four functions of GNAT
ii. List and explain four achievements of GNAT
139
CHAPTER 6: MANAGEMENT TASKS OF SCHOOL HEADS
Exercises
i. (a) List any six records that are kept in basic schools in Ghana
(b) Describe the nature and outlines of any of the two records mentioned in i(a)
ii. As headteacher, suggest any four things your school can do to promote good
relationships with identifiable groups in the community
iii. (a) As a school head, suggest four reasons why you need to delegate parts of
your duties
(b) State two ways you would use to ensure proper delegation
iv. Describe any four factors you would consider when planning a timetable for
your school.
v. Discuss the Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT) along the
following points
(a) history/origin
(b) any four functions
(c) any four achievements
(d) two ways of promoting GNAT activities in basic school
140

History and Development in Education

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UNIT 1

UNIT 1: LESSON 1: AFRICAN TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

Meaning of African Traditional Education

Nature of African Traditional Education

Characteristics of African Traditional Education

Economic preparation in African Traditional Education

Preparation for political participation in Society

Religious preparation of individuals in African Traditional Societies

How African Traditional Education provides for the religious upbringing of

Strengths of African Traditional Education

Weaknesses of African Traditional Education

Meaning of Castle School Education

Nature of Castle School Education

Site of the Castle Schools

The Elmina Castle School

The Cape Coast Castle School

The Christiansburg Castle School at Osu in Accra

Notable Product of Castle School Education in Ghana

Contributions to the political development of the Country

Castle School products and evangelization work

Book and language development

Contribution of the Castle School system to educational development

Advantages of Castle School education

Problems / Challenges faced by castle school system

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG)

The Basel Mission

A second batch of three missionaries arrived at Christiansburg in 1832 and this

The Wesleyan Missionary Society

The Bremen Missionary Society

The Roman Catholic Mission

Contributions of early Christian Missions to education

2. Development of local languages: Many of the early Christian Missions made

3. Promotion of Industrial and Technical Education: All the Christian

5. Promotion of Girls Education: Efforts were made by the early missions to

Problems encountered by the early Missionaries:

The Spread of Islam to West Africa and Islamic education

The nature of Islamic education and its level

Access and Participation

Ahmadiyya Muslims and Islamic Education

Access and Participation

Achievement of Islamic Education in Ghana

Problems of Islamic Education

UNIT 1: PRE – COLONIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION

END OF UNIT EXERCISE

The need for Central government participation in education

An education ordinance can be described as a document backed by law stating the

Provision of the Education Ordinance of 1852

Failure of the Education Ordinance of 1852

The second lesson will take us through the following steps:

Preliminary events leading to the passing of the 1882 Education Ordinance

Mr. Laurie’s report covered among other things, the following:

The Provision of the Education Ordinance of 1882

Causes of the failure of the Education Ordinance of 1882

Factors that necessitate the passage of the Education Ordinance of 1887

Provision prescribed under the Education Ordinance of 1887

Factors that led to the failure of the Education Ordinance of 1887

The Challenges include the following

Factors that necessitated reforms in education in the 1900s

The recommendations of the committee were accepted by the British Secretary of

Provisions of Governor Rodger’s Reforms of 1909

Challenges of Government Rodger’s Reforms of 1909

Background to the governorship of Gordon Guggisberg