Introduction to Psychology Handout ( Short and Extract)

Chapters 1- 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1.1. Definition
The term psychology comes from two Greek words. Psyche stands for the soul,
mind or spirit and was used to distinguish it from the body. Loges refer to the
study of a subject, science or knowledge. When we combine the two separate
words together, we find psychology to be the study of the soul, mind or spirit.
This, however, indicates how psychology was understood in earlier times.
Presently, psychology is defined differently. One of the most common
contemporary definition of psychology states that ‘’ it is the scientific study of
human and animal behaviour as well as their mental processes’’.
Based on the above definition, we can talk about two key words or aspects.
These are the word science and behaviour. Psychology here is regarded not as
an art or discipline that speculates about human behaviour, but as a science.
But what evidence do we have to regard psychology as a science? What are its
scientific characteristics? To answer this question, it is first important to clarify
what we mean by a science.
A science is a body or a collection of data (information) about a subject matter
which is gathered through research and experiment.
Scientific features of Psychology
Psychology as a science has the following scientific characteristics:-
1. Psychology is regarded as a scientific discipline because it is based on
research and experiment. In psychology, there are a large body of
information about human behaviour. Psychologists conduct research to
understand how and why a behaviour occurs. eWhy do people become
aggressive? How do people attract each other? How do people express
their emotion? etc. Understanding these and a number of other questions
about human behaviour require psychologists to conduct research. The
large amount of information and knowledge that psychology provides
about how and why people behave in the way they do is based on
carefully planned scientific investigations.
2. The second rational for considering psychology as a scientific discipline
is the fact that it has developed its own theories and principles about
human and animal behaviour. Theories and/or principles are derived from
research and experiment. The large body of knowledge of human
behaviour is better understood, analyzed and interpreted through the use

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 of theories and principles. Theories and principles are used to break
down concepts, events or situations in to meaningful terms. For example,
if a certain employee in an organization is hard working, one can explain
why the behaviour of hard work occurs through the use of such
principles as reinforcement. The hard work here is an event or a situation
which is caused by another factor. Why is the employee working hard?
Answering this question requires the use of principles in psychology that
can sufficiently explain why this behaviour occurs. Every discipline
should develop its own theories and principles to explain events or
phenomenon about its subject matter.
3. The third scientific feature of psychology is related with the use of
scientific research methods to study about human and animal behaviour.
Psychology as a scientific field of study uses systematic methods and
procedures to observe and explain behaviour. The methods used in
psychology to study behaviour are not casual and in formations are not
collected haphazardly. Methods are carefully selected and designed,
people who participate in the study are also carefully chosen and findings
are analyzed and reported.
The other key word in the definition of psychology is the term
behaviour. Behaviour refers to any activity of an organism. Anything we
do or say that others can observe is usually regarded as behaviour.
Running and swimming could be examples of behaviour. In both of these
activities, an individual performs an act which is observable to others.
Psychologists distinguish behaviour in to two categories: a behaviour
that can be observed and a behaviour that cannot be observed. A
behaviour that can be observed is known as overt behaviour. When an
individual is involved in an overt behaviour, one can see, measure or
describe what the individual is doing .Running and swimming could
again be regarded as an overt behaviour because you can see a person
running or swimming.

A covert behaviour, on the other hand, Is a behaviour that cannot be

observed directly unlike overt behaviour. Covert behaviour like overt
behaviour involves an activity. The individual engages in an activity but
the activity is not visible. A very good example of this kind of behaviour
is thinking. Thinking is a mental activity but we cannot see a person
thinking. Feelings, opinions are also examples of covert behaviours.
A covert behaviour is inferred from direct observable behaviour. For
example, we have no way of knowing whether or not a person is sad. His
feelings cannot be accessed directly. But when or if the person is seen
telling his friends that he is feeling sad or shows it in his activities, one
can say that he is sad. The person’s sadness could only be known based
on his overt, outward or observable behaviour.

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1.2. Goals of Psychology
In studying and exploring the broad and complex subject matter of human
behaviour, psychology encompasses the following goals.
A) Description of Behaviour
Describing behaviour is one major goal of scientific studies in psychology. In
describing behaviour, a psychologist focuses on how behaviour occurs. Every
behaviour has its own way of occurring which a psychologist observes and
describes. How does an angry person behaves? How do two people who are in
love interact? These are questions that require description. When a
psychologist tells us that a person who is angry tends to shout, throw things
and his hands, etc, he is describing the behaviour of anger.
B) Explanation of Behaviour
Psychologist not only describes behaviours and how they occur. They also try
to explain behaviour. In explanation of behaviour, a psychologist becomes
concerned about why behaviour occurs as it does. Every behaviour has its own
causes. No behaviour occurs without a cause. Understanding these causes of
behaviours is one major reason for conducting research in psychology. In
description of behaviour, a psychologist asks how aggression occurs but in
explanation he asks why it occurs. There are thousands of behaviours that
occur for which psychologists try to seek answers for. Why did you join this
college? Why did you get married? Why do students cheat during
examinations? etc.
C) Prediction of Behaviour
Prediction of behaviour is another major goal in psychology. Prediction involves
forecasting the likelihood of a behaviour under certain circumstances. In
addition to describing and explaining behaviour, psychologists also try to
predict whether or not a certain behaviour occurs. Prediction of behaviours is
possible through the use of theories or principles. If a person receives a reward
for showing a certain positive behaviour, the probability of that positive
behaviour to occur again is more likely. One can predict that the individual
becomes more interested in doing the same behaviour in the hope of getting the
reward. If a student worked hard and scored a good grade, we can predict the
same amount of hard work in the student on future occasions. Making these
kind of predictions based on certain principles is a significant objective in
psychology.
D) Modification of Behaviour
Modification of behaviour is another important goal in psychology.
Modification involves changing a behaviour which is anti social or
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unacceptable. People are capable of developing not only good and prosocial
behaviours but also behaviours that are harmful to themselves and others. For
healthy functioning of society and the individual, these kind of negative
(maladaptive ) behaviours should be avoided. In psychology, there are
psychological techniques to help an individual avoid a maladaptive behaviour.
In light of this, one goal of research in psychology is to find ways of preventing
the development of maladaptive behaviours or reversing them using scientific
and psychological procedures.
1.3. Subfields ( Branches) in Psychology
Psychology is a broad field of study. Under the umbrella of psychology, there
are a number of specialities that focus on a different aspect of human behaviour.
Some of these branches in psychology include:-
1. Cognitive Psychology: is a branch of psychology that deals with how people
perceive, learn, remember and process information. The use of language,
problem solving and decision making are the major subject matter in this field
of psychology.
2. Developmental Psychology: is another broad field of psychology that
studies how people develop overtime thorough the process of maturation and
learning. Behaviour and physical conditions as well as mental processes change
over the various stages of development.
Developmental psychology describes these changes and tries to understand
their causes and effects. It may focus on a particular age (infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adult hood) and it can also focus on an aspect of development such
as physical, mental, social, psychological, and moral, etc.
3. Personality Psychology: studies the ways in which people develop a
particular characteristic that makes them unique. It focuses on the personal
dispositions that lead people to behave as they do and also on how these
dispositions interact with situations to affect behaviour. It simply studies
individual differences in personality and their effects on behaviour.
4. Clinical Psychology: Is a branch of psychology that deals with the diagnoses
and treatment of psychological disorders or abnormal behaviour. Clinical
psychologists provide therapy or do research on a particular behavioural
disorder or kinds of treatment.
5. Educational Psychology: Is another branch of psychology that deals with
the general process of education in general. It tries to make use of psychological
knowledge in improving the teaching learning process such as curriculum,
teacher training, school administration, instruction etc.

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6. Industrial Psychology: Is another branch in the field of psychology. It is also
known as organizational psychology. This branch of psychology studies human
behaviour in the work place .The examination of behavior in work settings,
study of factors related to employee morale and performance, development of
tests to select job applicants, development of machines and tasks that fit
human capabilities, etc are the major focus areas in organizational psychology.
7. Health Psychology: Is an aspect of psychology that focuses on the
relationship between human behaviour and health. The reciprocal interaction
between human behaviour and the physical health of the body is the interest of
a health psychologist.
8. Counselling Psychology:
As the term implies, this branch of psychology deals with providing counseling
service to people who are troubled by a problem in their life. A counseling
psychologist is specialized in assisting people on issues of personal adjustment,
vocational and career planning, family life and may work in schools, hospitals,
clinics or offices.
There are also many other branches of psychology such as experimental
psychology, military psychology, school psychology, sport psychology, etc that
deal with a certain aspect of human behaviour. We will not discuss them all for
the purpose, here, is to familiarize you with the major branches in psychology.
9. Social Psychology: is also the other major branch of psychology that focuses
on interpersonal behaviour. It studies the role of social forces in governing
individual behaviour. It is a field of study that examines the ways in which the
pattern of a person’s feeling, thinking and acting is affected by others (Weiten,
2002).
There are also other areas of specialization in psychology such as Biological,
Forensic, Experimental, Community, Health Psychology and others.

1.4. Research Methods In Psychology

One of the fundamental scientific characteristics of l psychology is the use
of scientific methods to study human behaviour. These methods that are used
in the study of human behaviour vary in their nature, purpose and
characteristics. These methods include Survey, Observation, Case study and
Experimental methods.
A) The Survey Method
The most prominent quantitative method of collecting data in
psychological research is the survey method. Surveys require asking people who

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are called respondents, for information, using either verbal or written
questions. Interviews or questionnaires are utilized to collect data on the
telephone, face to face and through other communication media.
Therefore, a survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based
on communication with a representative sample. It is used to describe people’s
attitudes, feelings and reported behaviours with regard to a particular event.
They are usually measures of belief and opinions rather than of abilities or
knowledge .For example, a social psychologist might use a survey to determine
college students’ attitude towards Campus regulations regarding alcohol,
premarital sex, students associations etc.
As compared with other research methods in psychology, the survey
method has some typical advantages and qualities. The major positive feature of
surveys is that they provide quick, inexpensive, efficient and accurate means of
assessing information about the population. A survey is also characterized by
its ease of administration, scoring and analyses.
There are problems with using a survey method, however. That is first
respondents may twist their answers to a survey in order to appear disciplined,
sociable or well mannered. There could be discrepancies between what people
say or do in a survey and how they behave in daily life. This problem is basically
associated with the nature of a survey, because it totally relies on participants’
self report which can be distorted by factors such as interviewer bias or
people’s inaccurate perceptions of their own behaviour.
The second potential disadvantage of surveys is that, unless the sample is
fairly large and representative, it may be difficult to generalize the results to
people who were not directly tested or surveyed. Unrepresentative samples can
lead to faulty generalizations about the opinions of the entire population. The
third problem that a researcher could encounter in using a survey is
unwillingness of respondents to participate in the survey. The inability of the
survey to be used to determine cause and effect relationship between events is
also regarded as a limitation.
B) Naturalistic Observation
Is also known as field study and involves going outside the laboratory or
the clinical setting and in to the community (the field) to observe, listen, watch,
take note of and record the behaviour of people engaged in the normal activities
of their daily lives. It is a systematic process of recording the behavioural
patterns of people, objects and occurrences as they are witnessed. In the
naturalistic observation technique no question of or communicating with
people occurs unlike the survey method.

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 Psychologists find this method particularly useful when the behaviour
being studied is strongly affected by the natural context in which the behaviour
occurs. A wide variety of information about the behaviour of people and objects
can be observed. A psychologist could observe patterns of interactions between
girls and boys in high school, types of expressive behaviour (facial expressions,
tone of voice, body language) workers movement patterns in a factory etc.
Like any other methods in social psychological research, observation has
certain qualities and limitations. One of the potential advantages of this method
lies in the fact that it helps the researcher to understand the behaviour as it
occurs in the natural context. The social psychologist can record the behaviour
without relying on reports from respondents. Observational data are often
collected unobtrusively and passively without a respondent’s direct
participation. The wide applicability of the results obtained is also regarded as
an advantage.
The main disadvantage of the observation technique is that humans and
other animals may behave differently when they know that, they are being
observed. The presence of an observer may influence the behaviour being
observed. To counter this problem, psychological researchers may camouflage
themselves or use unobtrusive measures which record behaviour in a way that
keeps participants unaware that they are being observed .Its inability to
measure mental events is another disadvantage.
Although the observation method may be used to describe a wide variety of
behaviours, mental activities such as attitudes, motivations, expectations,
intentions and preferences cannot be observed. The other limitation is that the
observation period is generally of short duration because observing behaviour
patterns over a period of several days or several weeks generally is either too
costly or too difficult.
C) Case Study
Case study is a prominent research method in l psychology. It is an
exploratory research technique that intensively investigates one or a few
situations in detail. Using this method, a researcher makes an in-depth analysis
of an individual, groups or events .By studying a single case in great detail, a
psychologist hopes to discover principles of behaviour that holds true for
people or situations in general.
Case studies are used in a variety of psychological researches and are
particularly useful when the phenomenon being studied is relatively rare, new
or complex such as case studies of highly creative people or of people with
unusual psychological disorder. When case study is used as a method, data may
be gathered through observation, interviews, psychological tests, physiological
recordings or task performance.
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 One advantage of a case study is that, when a rare phenomenon occurs, this
method enables the social psychologist to study the event intensively and
collect a large amount of data. The large amount of attention given to the event
(behaviour) enables the researcher to carefully study the order of events as they
occur. Its ability to provide highly detailed information, including information
about the historical contexts in which the behaviour occurs is an appealing
feature of case studies. A second advantage of this method is that, it may
challenge the validity of a theory or widely held scientific belief for it is a
vibrant source of new ideas that may subsequently be examined using other
research methods.
One of the limitations of case study is that, it is a poor method for
determining cause and effect relationship. In most case studies, explanations of
behaviour occur after the fact and there is little opportunity to rule out other
alternative explanations. The other drawback of this method is that the sample
size (the number of participants) is very small which makes it hard to
generalize the results to a larger population. Although the question of
generalizability pertains to all research methods, drawing broad conclusions
from one or very few cases appears to be low and risky. A third drawback of a
case study is the possible lack of objectivity in the way the researcher gathers
and interprets the data. The probability of researcher bias and subjectivity may
be higher in case studies than other methods.
D) Experimental Method
Surveys, naturalistic observation and case studies are used primarily to
describe and make predictions about human behaviours. These methods are not
useful in providing information regarding the relationship between two
conditions or phenomenon. When l psychologists want to determine cause and
effect relationships between events or variables, they employ the experimental
method. Experiments are situations or research designs in which a social
psychologist manipulates one variable and then observes the effect of that
manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant.
Variables in the experimental method are attributes or characteristics of a
situation, person or a phenomenon which may differ or fluctuate across
situations, persons or phenomena.
There are basically two kinds of variables in any given experiment. First,
there are independent variables which are aspects of an investigation that are
individually manipulated or carefully regulated by the experimenter while
other aspects of the investigation are held constant (I.e., not subject to
variation). Second, there are dependant variables which are out come responses
the values which depends on how one or more independent variables influence
or affect the participants in the experiment

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 Once the participants in the experiment have been exposed to the
independent variables, their behaviour is carefully monitored to determine
whether it varies in the predicted fashion with different levels of the
independent variable .if it does, the researcher can tentatively conclude that the
independent variable is the cause of the changes in the dependent variable. For
example, let us examine the question of whether watching violent
entertainment programmes lead to an increased aggressiveness in children. The
hypotheses here is that when children are exposed to much violent TV shows
and contents , they turn out to be more and more aggressive. The two variables
considered here are the violent TV programme (independent variable) and its
effect on children behaviour (dependant variable). In order to carry out the
experiment and see the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable, two conditions or groups need to be designed.
In the first type of condition, the experimental condition (group) ,
participants are exposed to an experimental treatment which is a carefully
prescribed set of conditions. This group usually receives the experimental
treatment (independent variables). In the second type of condition, the control
condition (group) participants do not receive the experimental treatment but
receive an alternative treatment. Control groups provide baseline against which
to compare the performance of the other group ( the experimental group).
Now, let us return to the previous example of the effects of violent TV
shows on children behaviour. The independent variable in this study is the
exposure to violent films. The researcher forms two groups of participants to
test the relationship between the variables. In each group of participants, the
researcher has an equal number of subjects (children) with a similar
background and profile in terms of sex, age, grade level, etc. Participants in the
first group (experimental group) could be shown a violent film every night for
one week. The participants in the other group (control group) will not be
exposed to the violent film during the same period of time.
Thus the researcher created two levels of the independent variable- one
group of participants (the treatment group) are exposed to the condition
believed to cause aggressiveness ( violent films) but the other group of
Participants( the control group) are not exposed to the treatment variable. The
researcher then observes and records the participants' aggressive behaviour
(the dependent variable) outside of the film-viewing settings. If significant
differences are observed between the two groups of participants like for
example, the treatment group showing higher levels of aggression towards
others than participants in the control group, the researcher may conclude that
exposure to violent TV shows causes an increased aggressiveness in children.

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 CHAPTER TWO
Sensation and Perception
2.1. Sensation
The process of sensation is a very important human functioning. We come to
understand, interpret our world through this process of sensation. We are able
to detect colours, sounds and lights because of our senses. All outside
information comes in to us through our senses. Without our vision, hearing,
touch, taste, smell and other senses, your brain would be isolated from the
world.
Sensation is defined in a number of ways.
Below are some common definitions of sensation:-
• Is the process of detecting and encoding stimulus energy in the
world.(santrock,2000)
• Is the detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical
objects(Wade and Tavris,2000)
• Is the stimulus detection process by which our sense organs respond to
and translate environmental stimuli in to nerve impulses that are sent to
the brain(Passer and Smith,2004)
• Are messages from the senses(Bernstein and others,2000)
Stimuli produce physical energy in the form of light, sound, heat,etc. The sense
organs detect this energy and transform it in to a code that can be transmitted
to the brain. Receptor cells (accessory structures) in each sense organ sense and
convert this physical energy in to electrical energy to the brain. The information
carried by electrical impulses travel through nerve fibres that connect the sense
organs with the central nervous system.
Transduction is also an important process in sensation. It is a process of
converting incoming energy in to neural activity. Just as a radio receives energy
and changes it in to sounds, the ears receives sound energy and convert it in to
neural activity that people recognize as voices, music and other auditory
experiences. The process of transduction takes place at structures called
sensory receptors. Sensory receptors are specialized cells that detect certain
forms of energy and change it in to neural activit
Measuring the Senses (Stimulus Detection)
How sensitive are the sense organs? The answer for this question comes from
the field of psychophysics which is concerned with how the physical properties
of stimuli are related to our psychological experience of them. Drawing on
principles from both physics and psychology, psychophysists have studied how
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the strength or intensity of a stimulus affects the strength of sensation in an
observer.
2.1.2. Sensory Threshold
A basic problem for any sensory system is its ability to detect varying degrees of
energy in the environment. This energy can take the form of light, sound,
chemical or mechanical stimulation. How much of a stimulus is necessary for
you to see, hear, taste, smell or feel something is related with the concept of
sensory threshold.
Absolute threshold
An absolute threshold is a minimum or smallest amount of energy that we can
detect. Here are some more definitions:-
• The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50 percent of
the time.
• The level of sensitivity below which detection of a stimulus is less likely.
When a stimulus has less energy than the absolute threshold, we cannot
detect its presence. When the stimulus has more energy than the absolute
threshold, we can detect the stimulus. A simple experiment with a
wristwatch or clock will help you understand the principle of absolute
threshold. Fin d a wrist watch or clock that ticks, put it on a table and walk
far enough across the room so that you no longer hear the ticking. Then
gradually move toward the wristwatch or clock. At some point, you will
begin to hear the ticking. Hold your position and notice that occasionally
the ticking fades away and you may have to move forward to reach the
threshold. At other times, it may become loud and you can move backward.
If you measure your absolute threshold several times, you likely record
several different distances for detecting the stimulus. For example, the first
time you try it, you might hear the ticking at a 25 feet from the clock. But
you probably won’t hear it every time at 25 feet. You may hear it only 38
percent of the time at this distance but hear it 50 percent of the time at 20
feet away and 65 percent of the time at 15 feet. Your absolute threshold in
this case is the energy that you detect at 20 feet away. The lower the
absolute threshold, the greater the sensitivity.
2.1.3. Sensory Adaptation
Sensory adaptation is an important process in sensation. It can be defined as:-
• A process through which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus
decreases overtime.

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 • A gradual decrease in the sensitivity of the sense organs to a constant
stimulation.
Sensory adaptation sometimes known as habituation is a part of everyday
experience and occurs in all sensory modalities including hearing, smell, vision,
taste and feeling.
Here are some more examples.
➢ When you dive in to a swimming pool, the water may feel cold at first
but over time you get used to the water temperature.
➢ When you arrive at a friend’s house for a dinner invitation, you clearly
detect the smell of the ‘dorowot’ much more than the cook who has
been preparing it all day.
➢ The feel of your wristwatch against your skin recedes from awareness.
Sensory adaptation serves a very important function. The environment is full of
stimuli that seek our attention. Responding to every available information or
stimuli in the environment is impossible. Sensory adaptation enables us to
adapt to repetitive (unimportant) stimuli and focus on more important aspects
of a stimulus through selective attention. It also contributes significantly to our
well being and survival.
2.2. Perception
The process of sensation and perception are closely related and are inseparable.
All sensations are almost always perceived. When we receive sensory in
formations through the sense organs, we give them some form of meaning and
understanding which is called perception. Let us see some more definitions of
perception:-
2.2.1. Definitions
• Is the brain’s process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
to give it meaning(Santrock,2000)
• Is the process through which sensations are interpreted using knowledge
and understanding of the world so that they become meaningful
experiences.
• Is the process of making meaning out of sensation.
Perception has a number of characteristics. To understand it in better terms,
let us discuss these major features.
1. Perception is the creation of experience.
Sensory systems provide raw materials from the environment and we form
experiences out of it. These raw sensory data are organised and given meaning

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in perception. Different people may experience the same sensory information in
different ways because perception is making interpretation based on one’s prior
experience. If you, for example, see someone waving a hand you might consider
it as a friendly gesture after receiving the visual information. That is perception.
But if another individual from a different cultural background receives the same
visual information, he may interpret the stimulus as unfriendly based on his
experience. That is also perception.
2. Perception is selective
Perception usually occurs in selective attention. Our surrounding holds a lot
of information that seek our attention. Unless we are able to filter out these
informations and focus on those which are important to us, perception does not
occur. Right now, for example, you are perceiving the letters and words that
make up this sentences. You understand and make meaning out of what you are
reading because you are focusing on it.
In other words, attending to stimuli (selective attention) precedes
perception. Before you can perceive or understand your instructor’s lecture in
the classroom, you need to ignore all other psychological and environmental
stimuli and focus on what the instructor is explaining.
However, attention is in turn affected by the nature of the stimulus and by
personal factors. Our attention to a certain stimulus depends on a number of
characteristics. Some of these stimulus characteristics that attract our attention
include:-
A. Intensity( size)
Intensity or magnitude refers to the degree or the force with which a
stimulus is presented. Stimuli that occur in high intensity capture our
attention. In a quiet classroom where students are taking an exam, a shout, a
mobile telephone ring, etc distracts students’ attention for it easily captures
their attention. If the same stimulus occurs in a busy market place, no one
would pay attention because it would not have a different intensity. Stimuli
that are big in size also attracts our attention than stimuli that have ordinary
size. A very tall man in the middle of thousands of people attracts the eyes
because of its size.
B. Novelty
A novel stimulus (a stimulus that is different or unusual) attracts people
attention than an ordinary stimulus. If you are walking on a street, you would
be more fascinated by a new model car ( a hammer, for example) passing by
than a Volkswagen
C. Movement
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 Stimuli that make movement grab our attention much more than a stable,
stationary and non moving stimuli. If you are walking alone in the middle of
a night, your eyes and ears would be sensitive to any sound that is created by
movement. It is because of this principle that an infant becomes more
attracted to a moving object in his perceptual field than an object which is
stationary.
D. Repetition
Repetition of a stimulus involves the frequency of a stimulus. Whether or
not we are attracted to a stimulus is also determined by the number of times
the stimulus occurs in our perceptual field. The idea here is that if a stimulus
occurs over and over again, we tend to remember it because we pay
attention. A television commercial which is repeated many times tend to
remain in the minds of viewers.
E. Contrast (colour)
Stimuli that are different in colour attract our attention. When a stimulus
deviates in its appearance from other surrounding stimuli, it captures our
attention. In a meeting hall, for example, where every person is dressed in black,
a person dressed in white becomes more visible than others.
3. Perception has organization and structure
Everything we perceive has its own structure and form. To make sense out of
what we perceive, we must know where one thing begins and another ends. In
vision, for example, we must separate the teacher from the lectern. In hearing,
we must separate our name being called from laughter on a street, etc. This
process of dividing up the world occurs effortlessly (naturally) and makes our
perception more meaningful.
Early in the 20th century, psychologists from the German school of Gestalt
psychology studied how people organize the separate parts of our perceptual
field in to a unified and meaningful whole. They were interested in explaining
how we organize the world visually in to meaningful units and patterns. In
German, Gestalt means pattern, shape, or form. They observed that when we
perceive something, properties emerge from the whole configurations that are
not found in any particular component. ‘’The whole is more than the sum of its
parts’’.
2.2.2. Principles (laws) of perceptual organization
Gestalt psychologists identified some principles or laws that the brain uses in
order to give pattern, shape and form to our visual perception. According to
these psychologists, it is based on these principles that perceptual organization

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becomes possible. They believed that people group and interpret stimuli in
accordance with these principles. Some of these principles are discussed below.
A) The figure ground principle
This is a principle by which we organize the perceptual field in to stimuli
that stand out (the figure) and those that are left over ( the ground). This
principle states that certain aspects of our visual world become figure and
others ground. In vision, the figure is in front of or on top of what we perceive
as background. It has a distinct shape and is more striking in our perceptions
and memory than the background.
The figure stands out usually by virtue of its intensity, colour, size or other
features. Perception of reversible figures (abstracts), for example, is possible
through the application of this principle.
B) The principle of Proximity
The principle of proximity is another principle of giving form to visual
perception. This principle states that things that are near each other tend to
be grouped together. The closer objects or events are to one another, the more
likely they are to be perceived as belonging together.
You perceive the above dots as three groups of dots not as 12 separate,
unrelated ones because of this principle.
C) The principle of Closure
This is a principle that states the brain tends to fill in gaps in order to
perceive complete forms. People need to decipher less than perfect images to
make perceptions. To help us do so, the brain tends to finish what is unfinished,
complete what is incomplete.
D) The principle of Similarity
The principle of similarity states that things that are alike in some way (for
example, in colour, shape or size) tend to perceived as belonging together. For
example, people wearing the same school uniform at a stadium will be
perceived together even if they are not seated close together.
E) The principle of Continuity
The principle of continuity states that lines and patterns tend to be perceived
as continuing in the same direction even when they are disconnected by
another pattern.
You tend to perceive this figure as a single line partially covered by an oval
pattern rather than as two separate lines touching an oval.

15
4. Perception is Constant under Changing Sensory Information
The other basic feature of perception is that it does not change when
sensory information about stimuli changes. Our perceptual hypothesis remains
the same when information we receive about stimuli through the visual sense
organ change in colour, size or shape.
Retinal image constantly change as we experience our world. Even though the
stimuli that fall on the retinas of our eyes change as we move closer or farther
away from objects, or look at objects from different orientations or in light or
dark settings, we perceive objects as constant or unchanging.
Therefore, a visual (perceptual) constancy refers to the tendency of the brain to
attribute constant features to stimuli despite changing visual information. This
ability to perceive objects as stable or unchanging even though the sensory
patterns they produce are constantly shifting is known as perceptual
constancies.
Our perceptual world would be a confusing place without perceptual
constancies. Lighting conditions, viewing angles, and the distances of
stationary objects may change influencing the visual image we receive.
However, we rarely confuse these changes with changes in the objects
themselves.

Types of Perceptual Constancies

There are four categories of perceptual constancy. This classification is based
on distance, angle, colour (light) and location that could change or influence
the pattern of information we receive through the visual sense organ.
They include:-
A) Size Constancy
Size constancy refers to the perception that the size of objects
remains constant even though visual information change with variations in
distance.
As objects move closer or farther away, the brain perceives the change in
distance and automatically adjusts the perception. As an object moves closer,
its retinal image increases, but the perceived distance decreases at the same
rate. So the perceived size remains constant. Therefore, no matter how larger or
smaller an object appears to the eyes because of variations in distance, we have
a constant and unchanging perception of the size of that object.

16
 A friend, for example, approaching on a street does not seem to be
growing. A car speeding away from us does not seem to be shrinking. Size
constancy depends in part on familiarity with objects.
B) Shape Constancy
The principles behind shape constancy are closely related to those of size
constancy. Shape constancy states that we continue to perceive objects as
having a constant shape even though the shape of the retinal image changes
when our point of view changes. Viewing angle or position superficially
changes the shape of an object. But because our knowledge and experience
of the object, we perceive the object as having the same shape. We trust our
experience much more than our eyes.
Look around the room in which you are reading this handout. You probably
see objects of various shapes: chairs and tables, for example. If you walk around
the room, you will see these objects from different sides and angles. Even
though, the retinal image of the object changes as you walk, you still know that
the object has the same shape.
C) Colour (Brightness) Constancy
This principle states that the colour or brightness of an object remains
the same even though the amount of light reflected on the objects change.
Sometimes objects may take different colour or brightness because of
variations in light reflected on them. We, however, understand that changes
in their shape are not true changes in colour. Objects maintain their colour
and brightness.
D) Location Constancy
Location constancy states that the location or position of stationary objects
is always the same even when our eyes tell us it is moving. We perceive
stationary objects as remaining in the same place even though the retinal
image moves about as we move our eyes, heads, and bodies.
For example, if you are taking a taxi or driving on a high way, telephone
poles and trees fly by on your retina. Your eyes give you the feeling that they are
moving. But from experience, you know that these kind of stationary objects do
not move on their own. You move but they stay put.

CHAPTER THREE

17
 LEARNING
3.1. Definition of Learning
Learning is a very important aspect of functioning. The majority of our
behaviour is a result of learning. Psychologists define learning in many ways.
Let us see some common definitions of learning.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of
previous practice and experience.
Based on the above definitions of learning, it is possible to discuss
some features of learning.
Features of Learning
1. The change in behaviour is relatively permanent, not permanent.
Once a person undergoes some practice and experience, he may be able to
develop a change in behaviour. This new behaviour, however, may not be long
lasting. The person may become unable to remember or practice the new
behaviour some time later because of forgetting. Even though there are many
behaviours that could be maintained for a life time, a new change in behaviour
could be forgotten.
2. The change in behaviour may not be directly observable.
Most changes in behaviour are not directly observable. This is to say that we
have no way of knowing whether or not a person has acquired a change in
behaviour directly. All the changes that we acquire due to practice are covert.
In order to understand the existence of changes in behaviour, the person has to
demonstrate behaviour. It is only through the indirect activities of the person
that we infer behavioural changes. For example, your abilities of swimming,
driving, writing, etc are accessed through the activities of the individual.
3. Changes in behaviour depends on practice
Practice and experiences are prerequisites for learning. Changes in behaviour
are always preceded by practices. Without these practices and trainings, no
change in behaviour could occur. If you want to develop the skill of driving a
car, swimming, speaking Italy, etc, you need to have the practice that helps you
to have the required skill. You are able to read this handout and understand its
essence because you have previously learned how to read the English alphabets.
3.2. Theories( Methods) and principles of Learning
3.2.1. Behavioural learning theories
A. Classical Conditioning

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 Classical conditioning is a process of learning in which a neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally produces reflexive responses
until it alone can produce a similar response. This theory of learning was first
described by Ivan Pavlov who was a prominent Russian Physiologist. Pavlov
won a Noble Prize in 1904 for his research on the digestive processes of dogs. In
the course of this work, Pavlov noticed that his dogs sometimes salivated when
no food was presented. The dogs began to salivate when they saw the assistant
who usually brought their food, even if the assistant was empty handed.
Pavlov devised a simple experiment to determine why salivation occurred
in the absence of food. In the first phase of the experiment, Pavlov confirmed
that when meat powder was placed on the dog’s tongue, the dog salivated. It
did not however, salivate in response to a neutral stimulus-- a musical tone, for
example. Pavlov established the existence of the two basic components for the
experiment: a natural reflex (the dog’s salivation when meat powder was
placed on its tongue) and a neutral stimulus (the sound of the tone).
In the second phase of the experiment Pavlov associated a tone (clicking
sound) and meat powder. The tone sounded and then a few seconds later meat
powder was placed in the dog’s mouth. The dog salivated. This pairing –the
tone followed immediately by meat powder- was repeated several times.
In the third phase of the experiment, the tone was presented alone
without meat powder and the dog salivated in response to the tone . This
implies that learning has occurred. The originally neutral stimulus has now
acquired the power to evoke the salivation response.
In the above experiment, the meat powder is a natural (unconditioned)
stimulus. This is a stimulus which automatically produces a response without
learning. Any such response or reaction given to a natural stimulus is known as
a natural (unconditioned) stimulus. For example, Shivering in the cold or
jumping when you are jabbed with a needle are an example of unconditioned
(natural) response. In order to shiver in a cold or feel the pain of the needle
penetrating your skin, you don’t need to learn. These responses are produced by
the cold and the needle which are natural stimuli.
The sound of the tone, on the other hand, is a neutral stimulus. It refers
to a stimulus which has no capacity to produce a certain response initially but
which can produce the same natural reflex through association with another
natural stimulus. The originally neutral stimulus has now acquired the power
to evoke the salivation response. It is now called a conditioned stimulus. The
salivation response elicited by this conditioned stimulus is called a
conditioned response.
To create favourable attitudes towards an object, psychologists make use of
the principles of classical conditioning. Advertisers, for example , take
19
advantage of classical conditioning by pairing their products with stimuli that
produce pleasant emotional responses such as extremely attractive models,
highly likeable spokespersons, etc. To conclude, the classical conditioning view
is that we learn attitudes when a concept or object toward which we have no
particular attitudes (unconditioned stimulus)is paired with a concept or object
toward which we already have an attitude (conditioned stimulus)
Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Extinction
In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone
without an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will eventually
cease. For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, a dog was conditioned to
salivate to the sound of a bell. When the bell was repeatedly presented without
the presentation of food, the salivation response eventually became extinct.
2. Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a
rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur.
3. stimulus Generalization
stimulus generalization occurs when a previously unassociated or new
stimulus that has similar characteristics to the previously associated stimulus
elicits a response that is the same or similar to the previously associated
response. In short, similar stimuli trigger similar responses when stimulus
generalization is at work.
4. stimulus Generalization
In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired
with an unconditioned stimulus.

B. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

B.F Skinner
Is a process of learning in which the probability of a behaviour is strengthened
or decreased based the kind of consequences that occurs after the behaviour. It
is a learning process through which the strength of a behaviour is modified by
20
reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about
such learning. For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a
food pellet as a reward, but when he presses the red button, he receives a mild
electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red
button.
Principles of Operant conditioning
1. Reinforcement (Reinforcer)
Is a consequence or stimulus which usually increases the probability of a
behaviour. There are two major types of reinforcement.
A. Positive reinforcement
involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that
makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. When a
favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after an action, that particular
response or behavior will be strengthened.
A positive reinforcement can further be divided in to two. A primary
positive reinforcer refers to a stimulus which is vital for biological survival
like food, water, sleep, air etc. A secondary positive reinforcer , on the other
hand, refers to a stimulus which is pleasant but not essential for survival. A
university degree could be an example.
B. Negative reinforcement
Is a painful or aversive stimulus which increases a behaviour when it is
avoided. In negative reinforcement, a response or behaviour is strengthened
by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus.
involves the removal of a negative condition to strengthen a behaviour.
2. Punishment
Punishment is the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces
the probability of the response that it follows. It involves the presentation of
aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one in order to decrease the
probability that an operant behaviour will occur again. If a dog begs for food
from a table, and you shout ‘’ NO!’’ in a loud noise, the dog’s begging is likely
to decrease. If a student gets caught cheating during examination and is
disqualified as a result, his cheating is more likely to decrease as a result.
The aversive or unpleasant stimulus or condition that discourages an
organism from repeating the behaviour is known as punisher. Your shout to
the dog and the student’s disqualification are unpleasant and discouraging
and are, therefore, punishers.

Classifications of punishment

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Psychologists classify punishment in to different categories. Some of them
include:-
A. primary punishers
Primary punishers are stimuli that are inherently( naturally) punishing
or painful. These punisher acquire their discouraging and painful
characteristics biologically. An electric shock, pain, extreme heat or cold
are examples of primary punishers.
B. Secondary punishers
Secondary punishers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties
through association with other punishers. They acquire their
discouraging and painful properties from the environment through
learning. Criticisms, bad grades, demerits, fines, etc are unpleasant and
discouraging. However, their discouraging properties are not inherent or
biological.
C. Positive punishment
A positive punishment or sometimes known as presentation or
application punishment involves the presentation of unpleasant stimulus
after a bad behaviour. Something unpleasant occurs following a response.
If a student is disqualified after cheating and if a person is imprisoned
after a crime, they found it to be unpleasant. The disqualification and
imprisonment are applications or presentations of unpleasant stimuli.
They , therefore, are positive punishers.
D. Negative Punishment
A negative punishment or sometimes known as removal or withdrawal
punishment involves the removal or withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus
after a bad behaviour. The individual becomes discouraged for being
denied to enjoy a pleasant stimulus for performing a wrong behaviour. If
you are forbidden to drive the family car for being drunk, you become
discouraged. You like and enjoy driving the family car which is a pleasant
condition. Your drinking behaviour is a wrong behaviour which is more
likely to decrease when or after you are forbidden to use the family car.

Social (observational ) learning

ALBERT BANDURA
Learning can occur not only by doing and association but also by
observing or watching what others do. This king of learning known as
observational or social learning occurs in both humans and animals.
Chimpanzees learn how to use a stone to crack open nuts by watching
their mothers perform this action. People do not have to find for

22
themselves that a door is locked or an iron is hot if they have just seen
someone else try the door or suffer a burn.
Social learning is a process of learning in which an individual learns
new responses by observing the behaviour of another rather than
through direct experience.
Principles (concepts) in social learning
A. Model
In social learning a model is very important in the process of
acquiring a new behaviour. A model refers to a person who
demonstrates to the learner how a behaviour is performed. It is
someone whose behaviour is being watched and imitated. The
chimpanzee’s mother who cracks a nut using a stone is serving as a
model for any chimpanzee who is watching its action.
A model is usually someone whose behaviour is acceptable and
attractive. People become attracted to imitate the behaviour of
others only when that person ( model) has certain qualities like
competence, efficiency, skill, confidence, etc.
B. Vicarious reinforcement( conditioning)
Like classical and operant conditioning, an individual learns a new
response through reinforcement. This reinforcement is known as
vicarious in social learning because it is basically different from the
reinforcement we have in operant conditioning. A vicarious
reinforcement is an indirect reinforcement that the learner observes
the model receiving and which encourages the learner to imitate the
behaviour of the model in order to receive a similar reinforcement on
future occasions.
Keep in mind that reinforcement is direct in operant
conditioning because the learner directly receives the reward after
performing the desired behaviour. If you get a good grade after
studying hard, that is a direct reinforcement. In social learning,
however, the reinforcement is not directly received by the learner. It
is the model who receives the reward which the learner also likes to
get. Therefore vicarious conditioning is a kind of observational
learning in which one is influenced by seeing or hearing about the
consequences of other’s behaviour.

Steps (elements) of social learning

Social learning does not occur overnight. Psychologists identify four
basic steps or elements in social learning.
1. Attention
Attention is a preliminary step in social learning. Before an
individual is able to duplicate the behaviour like the model, he

23
 needs to carefully see how the mode performs the behaviour.
Attention involves focusing on the behaviour of the model.
2. Retention
After attention, a social learner needs to remember the
information and skills in order to imitate the behaviour like the
model. Retention involves the recall of whatever is observed.
Attention without retention is meaningless. Unless the learner is
able to remember what he has observed, imitation is less likely to
occur. Retention is possible through practicing the behaviour of
the model.

3. Duplication
This step involves performing the behaviour like the model. Once
the learner is able to remember what he has seen the model doing
through practice, he can reproduce the behaviour of the model.
4. Motivation
Motivation or expectation of reinforcement is a major step in
social learning. The learner keeps on imitating the behaviour of
the model only when he is motivated or expects to receive
reinforcement sometime in the future. In the absence of this
expectation, the behaviour is less likely to be reproduced.

CHAPTER FOUR
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
Cognitive theory of learning

24
Information processing model
The information processing model suggests that in order for information to
become permanent in memory, it must pass through three stages of mental
processing: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. This
model sometimes known as the three box model analyzes the memory systems
in these three stages.
1. Sensory memory( register)
The sensory memory is a temporary and initial storage for sensory
information. All incoming sensory information must make a very brief stop in
this memory which is the entry way of memory. Sensory memory acts as a
holding bin, retaining information until we can select items for attention from
the stream of stimuli bombarding our senses. The major function of this
memory is to hold information long enough for it to be processed further. If the
information is not important and is not further processed, it will be forgotten.
Information from the senses-sights and sounds are held in the sensory register
for a very brief period of time often less than one second. If the information is
attended and perceived, it can enter the short term memory.
2. The short term( working) memory
The short term memory is the second stage of memory which has a limited
capacity to store information for up to about 30 seconds. Notice here that there
is also a problem of loss of information. Information which is transferred to the
short term memory through attention must also be repeated to be maintained
in memory. In order for the information to be transferred to the long term
memory, it has to be repeated or rehearsed. Rehearsal is the process of
repeating, activating, renewing or refreshing information to keep it in memory.
There are two forms of rehearsal:
A. Maintenance rehearsal
This kind of rehearsal involves the rote repetition of a material in order to
maintain it. This method can be effective for remembering information for a
short time. If you need to look up a phone number, walk across the room, and
then dial the number, maintenance rehearsal would work just fine.
B. Elaborative rehearsal
This kind of rehearsal is more effective to recall information for a long period
of time. It involves making associations or connections between the new
information we want to remember with familiar already existing information in
memory. It is the analyses of the new information to make it more memorable.

25
 The short term memory is sometimes known as working memory.
Besides retaining new information for brief periods while learning it, it also
holds information that has been retrieved from long term memory for
temporary use. When you do an arithmetic problem, for example, your working
memory contains the numbers and instructions for doing the necessary
operations.
3. The long term memory
The third box in the three box model of memory is the long term memory
which is the final destination of information and experiences. The capacity of
the long term memory to store information seems to have no limits. The vast
amount of information stored here enables us to learn, get around in the
environment and build a sense of identity and a personal history.
Information is stored in the long term permanently. Those experiences
which can be remembered for a long period of time are usually stored in the
long term memory. This, however, does not mean everything stored in the long
term memory can be always remembered. Failure to access information in the
long term memory can occur due to the problem of interference.
Interference is the process through which either the storage or retrieval of
information is impaired by the presence of other information. When similar
items of information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval,
the information may get in to memory, but it becomes confused with other
information.

There are two kinds of interference;-

A. Proactive interference
This is a kind of interference that occurs when previously stored material
interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.
In this kind of interference, we fail to remember what we have learned recently
because of what we have previously learned. For example, if you have learned
Spanish in high school, your knowledge of Spanish may interfere with your
ability to learn a new language like French. If you cannot remember new words
in French and instead remember other similar Spanish words, you are
experiencing a proactive interference.
B. Retroactive interference

26
 This is kind of interference that occurs when recently stored materials
interferes with the ability to remember similar and previously stored material.
In this kind of interference, learning of new information prevents the recall of
older information. If the French vocabularies you are learning this semester
make things difficult for you to remember the Spanish words you have learned
in high school, you are experiencing a retroactive interference.
The long term memory contains a large amount of information which can be
classified in to three categories. These three types of memory contained in the
long term memory are named for the kind of information it handles.
1. Semantic memory
This is a memory of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts and
propositions. Semantic memory is internal representations of the world,
independent of any particular context. They include facts, rules and concepts
which are all items of general knowledge. For example, on the basis of your
semantic memory of the concept cat, you can describe a cat as a small, furry
mammal that typically spends its time eating, sleeping, prowling and staring in
to space even though a cat may not be present when you give this description.
2. Episodic memory
Episodic memory is a memory of specific events that happened while you were
present during an episode in your life. This memory is internal representation of
personally experienced events. When you remember how your cat once
surprised you in the middle of the night by pouncing on your face as you slept,
you are retrieving an episodic memory.
Semantic and episodic memories are known as declarative memories because
they both involve memories of facts, rules, concepts and events (knowing that).
As a general rule, people convey episodic memories by saying ‘’ I remember
when...’’ whereas they convey semantic memories by saying ‘’ I know that...’’
3. Procedural memory
Most theorists of memory distinguish memories of skills or habits
(knowing how) from abstract or representational knowledge (knowing
that). A procedural memory is a memory of knowing how. This memory is
about the performance of activities, knowledge of how to do things such as
skiing without falling, riding a bike, driving a car, etc. Often procedural
memory consists of a complicated sequence of movements that cannot be
described adequately in words.
Memory can also be categorized in terms of its effects on thoughts and
behaviours. For example, you make use of explicit memory when you
deliberately try to remember something and are consciously aware of doing so.

27
Suppose that someone asks you about your last vacation. As you attempt to
remember where you went, you would be using explicit memory to recall this
episode from your past. Similarly, if you have to answer a question on an
examination, you would be using explicit memory to retrieve the information
needed to give a correct answer. In contrast, implicit memory is the
unintentional recollection of influence of prior experiences. For example,
while watching a movie about a long car trip, you might begin to feel tense
because you subconsciously recall the time you had engine trouble on such a
trip. But you are not aware that it is this memory that is making you tense.
Implicit memory works automatically and without conscious effort. If you
find yourself disliking someone you just met, and do not know why, implicit
memory might be at work. You probably have reacted in that way because the
person bears resemblance to someone from your past who treated you badly.
Forgetting
Information stored in memory may fail to be used. When an individual is
unable to access previously stored information from memory, forgetting has
occurred. Forgetting refers to the loss of information from memory or inability
to retrieve or remember information. Why do people become unable to
remember information. What are the causes of forgetting?
Causes ( theories) of forgetting
1. Decay( Disuse) Theory
The disuse theory of forgetting is the common explanation of why
forgetting occurs. This theory states that information which is not used
gradually disintegrates with passage of time. The passage of time without
activating the information increases the probability of forgetting. The
longer the time interval of disuse between storage and recall, the more the
forgetting. Think of the courses you have taken last semester? How much
concepts and principles do you remember from these subjects? This kind of
forgetting is probably explained by the disuse theory.

2. Interference Theory
The second major cause of forgetting that psychologists use is the concept
of interference. According to this theory, people forget not because
memories are actually lost from memory, but because other information
gets in the way of what we want to remember. When two similar items are
stored in memory, the recall of one item may be impaired by the other item
and we become unable to remember what we want to remember
temporarily. The more similar two sets of information are, the more likely it
is that interference will occur.
3. Motivated Forgetting

28
 Motivated forgetting sometimes known as repression is another
explanation proposed by an Austrian psychologist by the name of Sigmund
Freud. Freud believed that people like to forget what is painful and
unpleasant. Repression is a motivational process that protects us by
blocking the conscious recall of anxiety arousing memories. If you have
done something wrong to somebody and feel guilty about it, thinking
about what you have done does not help you much. It makes you blame
yourself and feel bad. You rather avoid all thoughts about what you have
done probably including the person so that you are no longer bothered by
the thought.

CHAPTER FIVE
Motivation and Emotion
5.1. Motivation
Motivation and Emotion, two central concepts in psychology are closely linked.
We often experience emotions when our motives and goals are gratified,
threatened or thwarted. All people are motivated, just motivated to do different
things. Motivation can be defined in many ways. Some of the common
definitions include:-

29
 • Motivation is an internal process in an individual that arouses,
maintains and directs behaviour towards a goal.
• Motivation involves the question of why people behave, think and feel
the way they do.
• Motivation is a process that influences the direction, persistence and
vigour of goal directed behaviour.

Features of Motivation
Motivation has many characteristics. Some of these are:-
1. Motivation usually arouses behaviour. When a person or an organism
becomes motivated, it/he will be more likely to perform behaviour. An
organism that is hungry, for example, will perform the behaviour of
looking for food which only occurs in the presence of hunger. A student
who is motivated to score an A grade in psychology, becomes aroused
and perform the behaviour of attending classes regularly, studying,
working on assignments, etc.
2. Motivation also produces a consistent and regular behaviour in an
organism. When a person becomes motivated he/she becomes not only
aroused to take action, but also interested to show a behaviour until a
goal is achieved. A student who is motivated to score an A grade in
psychology, continues showing the behaviours (studying, attending
classes, etc) which are instrumental to achieve the goals desired.
3. Motivation guides behaviour in a specific ways that helps the person
achieve his goal. People become selective of the behaviour they perform
when they become motivated. People set a goal and they aspire to achieve
it when they become motivated. There are behaviours that are
instrumental in achieving that goal and behaviours that are not helpful in
realizing the goal set by the person. Therefore, the person focuses on
those behaviours that enable him to achieve the goal he wants to achieve.
A student who is motivated to score an A grade, does not benefit from
missing classes. As a result, he attends classes regularly in order to
achieve the goal.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
There are many causes of behaviour. People perform behaviour for a
number of reasons. Psychologists have been studying the causes of
behaviours and have developed various theories that explain the why of
these behaviours.

30
1. The instinct Theory
According to the instinct theory, behaviour is a result of a natural tendency.
An instinct is an innate or unlearned biological pattern of behaviour that
occurs uniformly across a species. For example, human infants come in to
the world equipped with some unlearned instincts such as crying, sucking
that helps them get what they want. These universal behaviours are
performed by infants at birth without learning. Other behaviours like
curiosity, aggression, are assumed to be instinctual behaviours.

2. Drive reduction Theory

The drive reduction theory of motivation states that behaviours are a result
of a biological deficiency that must be reduced for biological survival. This
theory is sometimes described as the push theory of motivation since
behaviour is pushed towards goals by driving states within the person or
animal. When an internal driving state is aroused, the individual is pushed
to engage in behaviour which will lead to a goal that reduces the intensity of
the drive state. In human beings, reaching the appropriate goal which
reduces the drive state is pleasurable and satisfying.Thus, motivation is said
to consist of :-
A. A drive state that occurs because of a biological need. A drive is an
aroused mental state or tension that pushes an individual towards a
goal.
B. A goal directed behaviour that is initiated by the driving state.
C. The attainment of an appropriate goal.
D. The reduction of the drive state and subjective satisfaction and relief
when the goal is achieved.
The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis, the body’s tendency to
maintain an equilibrium or steady state. To explain this theory in
simple terms, consider the following example. You might have a need
for water, food or sex. The need for food, for example, arouses your
hunger drive. This motivates you to do something like going out for a
hamburger to reduce the drive and satisfy the need.
3. Incentive Theory
The incentive theory of motivation focuses on external factors to explain
why behaviour occurs unlike the drive and instinct theories of motivation
which focus on internal factors that motivate behaviour. The incentive
theory is also sometimes known as the pull theories of motivation because of
certain characteristics they have. The goal objects pull behaviour toward
them. The goal objects which motivate behaviour are known as incentives. It
refers to a positive stimulus or event that an individual likes to get. An

31
 important part of many incentive theories is that individuals expect pleasure
from the attainment what are called positive incentives and from the
avoidance of what are known as negative incentives. Some examples of
incentives that could motivate are: wages, salaries, bonuses, vacations,
recognition, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES
Motives are of different nature. Psychologists classify motives in different
categories based on their source and function. The two major way of
classifying motivation is:-

1. Primary and Secondary Motives

A primary motive is an unlearned motive that is causes by a biological
deficiency. In the presence of a biological deficiency, a drive state will develop
that lead to the reduction of the drive. The need that arises as a result of a
biological deficiency is a primary motive which does not have to be learned.
Hunger, thirst, a need for sex, a need for oxygen, etc are examples of primary
motives.
Secondary or social motives, on the other hand, are motives that are learned
in social groups. Social motives do not serve any biological functions. They
develop from the value and importance people give to incentives and stimuli.
Social motives are complex motive states or needs that determine much of what
a person does. The three most common social motives are achievement
motivation (a need to do better, to improve performance) a motive for
affiliation (concern for establishing, maintaining and repairing friendly
relations) and power motivation (concern with having impact, reputation and
influence on others).

2. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

A motive can also be categorized as extrinsic and intrinsic based on the
source of the motivation. An extrinsic motivation involves engaging in
behaviour to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment. When a person
becomes extrinsically motivated he performs behaviour for sake of getting what
he wants. The presence or absence of external rewards highly affects the
behaviour of the individual. A student who studies as an exam approaches is
extrinsically motivated since he studies to do better on the exam. A waitress
who well treats her customers expecting a handsome tip, a factory worker who
only works hard when the boss is around, a driver who wears a seat belt in
order not be penalized have all extrinsic motivation.

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 An intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves engaging in behaviours
for their own sake. A person with intrinsic motivation performs behaviour out
of interest. External conditions like reward and punishment are not important
and do not affect the behaviour. When people want to be more competent,
effective and strong, they tend to be intrinsically motivated. Things we do for
fun, activities we perform to enjoy have internal motivations.

HIERACHIES OF MOTIVES
Abraham Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, suggested that human behaviour
is influenced by a hierarchy of five classes of needs or motives. Needs or motives
at the lowest level of the hierarchy, he argues, must be at least partially satisfied
before people can be motivated by higher level motives. These motives or needs
are ranked and arranged according to their importance to survival. From the
bottom to the top of Maslow’s hierarchy, these five motives are as follows:
1. Physiological Needs
The physiological needs are sometimes known as physical or survival needs.
Survival needs refer to our needs for food, water, oxygen, sleep, etc.
2. Safety Needs
Safety needs are the next level of needs. People need to be safe and secure from
difficulties, problems, dangers and other inconveniences. People’s need for a
secure income, pension, insurances and the like indicates their motive for
security.
3. Social Needs
Social needs involve a need for belonging and affection, affiliation and
identification. People, regardless of their sex, race, and level of education want
to loved and accepted by others. People want to feel a part of society or segment
of it by involving in churches, schools or companies. This need is reflected in
people’s activities in their being part of various social groups and participating
in affectionate sexual and non sexual relationships.
4. Esteem Needs
At the fourth level are esteem needs. These are a need for self respect and the
respect of others. People want be seen as a competent, successful, useful and
honourable individual.
5. Self Actualizing Needs
This is a need to realize one’s potentials. People want to become all that they
are capable of .people motivated by this need explore and enhance relationships

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with others, follow interests for intrinsic pleasure rather than status or esteem,
and are concerned with issues affecting all people, not just themselves.
In general, Maslow argues that motives lower in the hierarchy do take
precedence over those higher in the hierarchy. For example, a starving man is
preoccupied with the idea of obtaining food. He does not even wonder where
tomorrow’s meal is coming from. Only today’s meal counts. But once he is
assured of eating today, he can begin to worry about his safety needs. People do
not become self actualized if they have not satisfied their needs for self esteem
and love. Maslow also suggests that very few people reach the last stage. Since
the higher needs can be satisfied only after the satisfaction of lower needs, the
higher needs often remain unfulfilled. The goals of higher motives are not
usually reached, leaving people with feeling of frustration.
FRUSTRATION
The concept of motivation and frustration are intimately related. The course of
motivation does not always run smoothly. Things happen that prevents us from
reaching the goals toward which we are driven or pulled. Frustration refers to a
negative mental state caused by the blocking of behaviour directed toward a
goal. If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behaviour
often result. People who cannot achieve their goals feed depressed, fearful,
anxious, guilty and angry and fail to derive ordinary pleasure from living.
Sources of Frustration
The causes of frustration are to be found in environmental forces that block
motive fulfilment, personal inadequacies that make it impossible to reach goals
and conflicts between and among motives.
A. Environmental Frustration
By making it difficult or impossible for a person to attain a goal, environmental
obstacles can frustrate the satisfaction of motives. An obstacle may be
something physical, such as a locked door or lack of money. Or it may be people
like your parents, teachers or police officers who prevent you from achieving
your goals
B. Personal Frustration
Unattainable goals can be important sources of frustration. These are largely
learned goals that cannot be achieved because they are beyond a person’s
abilities. For example, a student may be taught to aspire to high academic
achievement but lack the ability to make better than an average record. He may
be motivated to join the school band, play on a football team, be admitted to a
certain club or act the lead in a play and be frustrated because he does not have

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the necessary talent. This kind of frustration, therefore, occurs when people
have a high level of aspiration which is beyond their capacity to perform.
C. Conflict Produced Frustration
A major source of frustration is found in motivational conflicts in which the
expression of one motive interferes with the expression of other motives. When
people are caught between a need to express different conflicting motives, they
experience frustration. For example, in expressing aggression, people are often
caught in conflict. On the one hand, they want to express their anger on
somebody or something in order to release their rage. On the other hand, they
fear the social disapproval which will result if they do. Aggression is, therefore,
in conflict with the need for social approval.
CONFLICT
Conflict refers to negative emotional states (depression, anger, anxiety, etc)
that develop when a person is unable to make a choice between two or more
alternatives.
Types of Motivational Conflict
1 .Approach –Approach Conflict
As the name implies, this kind of conflict is a conflict between two positive
goals—goals that are equally attractive at the same time. An individual may be
torn between the idea of going to a political rally or a movie which he likes to
do equally. Compared to other conflict situations, approach-approach conflicts
are usually easy to resolve and generate little emotional behaviour.
2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
This kind of conflict arises when a person must select one of two undesirable
alternatives. In this type of motivational conflict, people are required to choose
between two negative goals which they both dislike. Such conflicts are
capsuled in the saying ‘’ caught between the devil and the deep blue sea ‘’. A
convicted criminal asked to choose between twenty years of imprisonment or a
one million fine will experience an avoidance-avoidance conflict. This kind of
conflict is very difficult to resolve and create intense emotions.
3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict
This is a type of conflict in which a person is both attracted and repelled by the
same goal object. Because of the positive valence of the goal, the person
approaches it, but as it is approached, the negative valence becomes stronger. In
this type of conflict, a single decision involves a positive and negative aspect.
The closer you are to something appealing, the stronger your desire to approach

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it, the closer you are to something unpleasant, the stronger your desire to flee. A
family wants their child to go to college, but valuing the family’s closeness, they
also do not want him to become independent and leave them behind. Somebody
you dislike has a ticket to a concert you are dying to attend, and he invites you.
You do not like the person but you also like to attend the concert which leaves
you in an approach-avoidance conflict.
5.2. Emotion

Emotions are part of our daily experience. Most of the affairs of everyday life are
linked with feeling and emotion. Joy and sorrow, excitement and
disappointment, love and fear, attraction and repulsion, hope and dismay are all
feelings we often experience in a course of a day.

Though it is very difficult to define the term emotion uniformly, it is defined as

a state of arousal involving biological changes (brain activation), expressive
behaviour and mental experience.

Defining characteristics (features) of Emotion

1. Emotion has three levels or components. These aspects of emotion are

the biological, behavioural and cognitive. The biological level or aspect of
emotion refers to the bodily and physical changes that accompany certain
emotions. When we are excited, terrified or enraged, we perceive some of
the changes that happen to our bodies. Psychophysiologists are able to
measure the heart rate, blood pressure and other biological changes
activated by emotions like fear and anger.
The behavioural level or aspect of emotion refers to all the things we do
or the activities we perform under the influence of a certain emotion. The
mechanisms of expressing emotion like facial expressions, gestures, eye
contact, vocal qualities, etc are behavioural components of emotions.
2. Emotional experience elicits an action tendency; a motivation to behave
in certain ways. An individual who is under a certain emotion is more
likely to take action. If you, for example, come fact to face with a wild
animal in the middle of the night, you become frightened and take the
action of running.
3. Emotion is usually transitory. It tends to have a relatively clear beginning
and end and a relatively short duration.
4. Emotions differ in their magnitude and pleasantness. Different emotions
can be felt in different magnitudes from time to time. Similarly, the same
person may feel the same emotion in different degrees of strength in
different situations. One could be happy, very happy or elated depending
on the situation. Emotions also differ in pleasantness. Some emotions like

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 happiness are pleasantness and others like anger, fear or sadness are
unpleasant.
5. Emotional experience is elicited partly by the cognitive evaluation of a
situation and how that relates to our goals. The same event may elicit
different emotions in different people depending on their interpretation
of the event. Two different wives who found their husband cheating may
not feel similarly about the situation because of their different
background, belief, values and experiences.
6. Emotions and their expressions facilitate communication between and
among people. We are capable of understanding the feelings of others
and how we should interact through the use of non verbal cues like facial
expressions, body movements, etc.
STRESS
You have probably heard that death and taxes are the only two things you can
be sure of in life. If there is a third, it must be stress. Stress is basic to life no
matter how wealthy, powerful, attractive or happy you might be. It comes in
many forms like in a difficult exam, an automobile accident, waiting in a long
line, etc.

Stress is a negative emotional and physiological process that occurs as

individuals try to adjust or deal with stressors. Stressors are environmental
circumstances that disrupt or threaten to disrupt individuals’ daily functioning
and cause people to make adjustments.

Common causes or sources of Stress

1. Daily life events

Regular and common events that occur in the life of an individual may
cause stress as they require some sort of adjustments. Such events
may include marriage, divorce, death, pregnancy, job change, sex
difficulties, detention, retirement, being fired from work, etc.
2. Catastrophic events
Catastrophic events are sudden, unexpected, potentially life
threatening experiences or traumas. Accidents, natural disasters, war,
physical or sexual assault are examples of catastrophic events that
could cause stress.
3. Biological causes or conditions
Biological causes of stress are usually related to physical and health
related stressors that cause stress. Such factors involve illness, sleep
disturbance, etc.

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Stress responses or symptoms of Stress

People who are stressed show a number of reactions. These reactions could be
physical, emotional or psychological and behavioural.

A. Physical Responses
Anyone who has experienced a near accident or some other sudden,
frightening event knows that the physical responses to stressors include,
rapid breathing, increased heart beat, sweating, shakiness and weight
loss, fatigue, headache,
B. Psychological Responses
Stress has also some emotional, cognitive and psychological reactions
which could be expressed in the form of anger, fear, lack of attention,
over reacting, confusion, nightmares, disorienting of time, place or time,
uncertainty, guilt, irritability, depression, outbursts, grief, panic, loss of
emotional control, etc.
C. Behavioural Responses
Stress also has behavioural repercussions that can be observed. Such
responses include withdrawal, antisocial acts, restlessness, loss of or
increased appetite, erratic behaviour, increased abuse of substances and
change of communication.

Coping With Stress

A stressful circumstance becomes less threatening when the person
successfully copes with it. Let us explore briefly some of the different ways that
people can effectively cope with stress.

1. Problem Focused Strategies

Richard Lazarus (1993) describes what he calls a problem and
emotion focused strategies in dealing with stress. A problem focused
strategy deals with facing one’s problems and trying to solve them.
For example, if you are having trouble with a class, you might go to
the study skills centre at your college and enter a training programme
or counsel an educational counsellor to learn how to study more
effectively. You have faced your problem and attempted to do
something about it.
2. Emotion Focused Strategies
Lazarus also believes that an emotion focused strategy can also be
used in handling stress. Emotion focused strategy involves responding
to stress in an emotional manner especially using defence
mechanisms. In this strategy, we might avoid something, rationalize
what has happened to us, deny it is occurring, laugh it off, or call on
our religious faith for support. If you use an emotion focused strategy,

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 you might avoid going to class. You might say the class does not
matter, deny that you are having a problem, laugh and joke about it
with your friends or pray that you will do better.
Specific Strategies
A. Optimism And Positive Thinking
Thinking positively and avoiding negative thoughts is generally a good coping
strategy when trying to handle stress more effectively. A positive mood
improves our ability to process information more efficiently, makes us more
altruistic and gives us higher self esteem. In most cases, an optimistic attitude is
superior to a pessimistic one. It gives us a sense that we are controlling our
environment.

B. Self Efficacy
Self efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive
outcomes. This can be an effective strategy in coping with stress and
challenging circumstances. When individuals believe that they will be
successful in their attempt to control their environment, there is high chance to
do that. For example, overweight individuals will likely have more success with
their diets if they believe they have the self control to restrict their eating.
Smokers who believe they will not be able to break their habit probably won’t
quit smoking, even though they know that smoking is likely to cause poor
health and shorten their life.

C. Social Support
Social support is information and feedback from others that one is loved and
cared for, esteemed and valued. Our crowded, polluted, noisy and achievement
oriented world can make us feel overwhelmed and isolated. We need support
systems such as family members, friends, co workers to reduce and cope with
stress.

The benefits of social support can be grouped in to three categories. Tangible

assistance, information and emotional support (Taylor, 1999). Family and
friends can provide tangible assistance by giving individuals actual goods and
services in stressful circumstances. Others can also provide information by
recommending specific actions and plans to help the person under stress cope
more effectively. Friends may notice that a co-worker is overloaded with work
and suggest ways for him or her to manage time more efficiently or delegate
tasks. Friends and family can also provide emotional support by reassuring the

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person under stress that he or she is a valuable individual who is loved by
others. Knowing that others care allows a person to approach stress and cope
with it with greater assurance.

D. Promoting health
We can do a great deal to promote better health by establishing healthy habits
and evaluating and changing our behaviours that interfere with good health.
Regular exercise and good nutrition are essential ingredients to a healthier life
style.

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Chapter 6: Personality

Personality is a very fascinating aspect of human life. The concept of personality

arises from human individuality. Think about yourself for a moment. What are
you really like? Are you outgoing or shy? Aggressive or calm? Intellectual or
non-intellectual? Considerate or uncaring? Try to come up with some of these
traits that reflect the way you respond to your world. It is very true that people
differ meaningfully in the ways they customarily think, feel and act. These
distinctive behavior patterns help define one’s identity as a person. A group of
theorist’s states that each of us is in certain respects like all others people, like
some other people, and like no other person who has lived in the past or will
exist in the future.

Personality can be defined in many ways. Below are some of the common
definitions of personality.

• Personality is a distinctive and relatively enduring ways of

thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person’s
responses to life situations.
• Personality consists of enduring, distinctive thoughts,
emotions and behaviors that characterize the way an
individual adapts to the world.

Theories of personality
Personality has been studied in a number of different ways. Some have
developed broad theories to explain the origins and make up of personality. In
this chapter, we will consider three theories of personality. These theories are
the type theory, the trait theory and the psychoanalytic theory of personality.

1. The Type Theory Of Personality

Classifying people in to types is one device many of us use to try to make
sense out of others’ behaviour and to anticipate how they will act in the
future. The notion that people can be classified in to types is one of the
oldest ideas about personality

A type is a discrete category. When people are ‘’typed’’, they belong to one
class or the other such as male or female. One of the first type theories that we
know was proposed about 400.B.C. by Hippocrates, a Greek physician now
known as the father of medicine. He grouped people in to four temperament
types. These are the sanguine who are considered to be cheerful, vigorous,

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optimistic, the melancholic who are depressed, morose, the choleric who are
said to be hot tempered and the phlegmatic who are reported to be calm, slow
moving, unexcitable and passive.

Another type theorist is an American physician and psychologist named

William Sheldon. He believed that physiognomy- the study of the link between
personality and physique and personality are linked. To test his theory, Sheldon
obtained nude and semi nude photographs of thousands of college students and
correlated body measurements taken from the pictures with personality related
data. Among the students who participated in his studies were George bush,
Hillary Rodham Clinton and Meryl Streep.

Sheldon categorized people in to three categories based on their physical

structure. People with an endomorphic physical structure (fat, overweight,
heavy and round waist) are said to be easygoing, kind, caring, sociable,
extrovert. People with ectomorphic structure ( thin, linear and fragile) are
reported to be reserved, shy, introvert, intelligent, calculative. People with
mesomorphic structure (muscular, strong, and athletic) are known to be rude,
risk taking, adventurous, unkind, action oriented.

2. Trait Theory
Rather than looking for discrete personality types, trait theorists measure the
relative strength of the many personality characteristics appearing in each
individual. Gordon All port (1961) believed that personality exists along a
continuum and that an individual could have different personality traits at the
same time. He categorized these personality traits in to three categories.

A cardinal trait is a trait which is so dominant that nearly all of the individual’s
actions can be traced back to them. These broad, highly influential traits are
often called by names drawn from key historical figures. For example, one
person might be described as christlike, another like Machiavellian and still
another like mother theresean. Each term describes a trait so broad and so deep
in its impact that it overshadows the influence of other traits in the same
individual.

Allport believed that most people have no true cardinal traits but that when
someone does have a cardinal trait it shows itself in virtually all of that person’s
behaviour. For most people, who are without a cardinal trait, central traits
become crucial. Central traits are those traits which are used in the description
of the personality of an individual.
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Finally, secondary traits are traits that are not important in the personality
description of an individual. These are traits which are influential but only
within a narrow range of situations. These basically refer to hobbies or the kind
of things people like to do in their spare time.

3. Psychoanalytic theory of personality

This theory of personality is developed by an Austrian physician and
psychologist by the name of Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis is a theory of
personality and a method of psychotherapy that emphasizes unconscious
motives and conflicts.
Major features of psychoanalyses
Psychoanalyses has the following major defining characteristics as a theory of
personality.
A. It focuses on the unconscious intrapsychic dynamics- the movement
of psychological energy within the mind.
B. It focuses in the importance and primacy of the first five years of life.
The theory assumes that adult personality and ongoing problems are
formed primarily by experiences in early childhood. The child is the
father of the man, as the saying goes.
C. Personality is a result of conflict between different personality
systems or structures.

Personality Structures
In Freud’s theory, personality consists of three major systems: the Id, the
Superego and the Ego. Any actions we take or problems we have results from
the interactions or degree of balance among these systems.
A. The Id
As one major component of personality the id involves a number of
characteristics.
• It is a reservoir of unconscious psychological and physical needs and
urges. It contains all our instinctual behaviour and the motive to avoid
pain and obtain pleasure. These urges include the urge to eat, drink,
eliminate and especially to be sexually stimulated.
• It is a system of personality that begins to operate at birth. Unlike the
other structures, the id is born with the individual.
• The major focus of the id is to get as much pleasure as possible.
• The id is ignorant of external rules and standards of behaviour. Accepting
rule and regulations may reduce the pleasure the id can possibly enjoy.
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 Left to itself, the id would satisfy its fundamental urges immediately and
reflexively as they arose without giving regard to rules, the realities of life
or morals of any kind. Freud states that the id operates on the pleasure
principle. This is a tendency of the id to seek immediate satisfaction
regardless of society’s rules or the rights or feelings of others.

B. The super ego

The major characteristics of the ego involve the following:
• The super ego contains all the moral codes that we obtain from society.
As people gain experience with the rules and values of society, they tend
to adopt them. The process of internalizing parental and social values
produces this component of personality. It represents morality and the
power of authority. It contains prohibitions learned from parents and
other authorities.
• The super ego gradually develops after birth as the individual gains
knowledge and experience from the environment.
• The focus of the super ego is to gain perfection in every activity of the
individual. It aspires for and expects the individual to be perfect.
• The super ego is also ignorant of the objective reality of the individual. It
is just as relentless and unreasonable as the id in its demand to be
obeyed. It gives no allowances for failures and wrongdoings.
• Unlike the other structures of personality, the super ego uses
reinforcement techniques in order to enforce its guidelines. The super ego
judges the activities of the id and provides reward for doing something
well and right. The reward comes in the form of pride , satisfaction and
mental peace. It also punishes the individual for breaking rules in the
form of guilt, shame and self blame,
• It is usually what is known as the conscience.

C. The Ego
As the others components of personality, the ego also has the following
features:
• The ego serves as a referee or mediator between the needs of the id and
the demands of society. The ego is responsible for organizing ways to get
what a person wants in the real world, as opposed to the fantasy world of
the id. Like a patient parent, the ego tries to satisfy both the needs of the
id and the superego.
• The ego is not ignorant or blind to the objective reality in its attempt to
satisfy the divergent needs of the id and the super ego. It operates on the
reality principle. It makes compromises between the id’s unreasoning
demands for immediate satisfaction and the practical constraints of the

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 real world. The ego delays satisfying id motives and channels behaviour
in to more socially acceptable outlets. It keeps a person working for a
living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities
of life.

Defence Mechanisms
The ego’s primary function is to satisfy the needs of the id and the superego
realistically so that the individual functions normally without the presence of a
heightened anxiety. But if the person is overwhelmed by the needs of the id,
anxiety will develop and the ego will have to do something about it. According
to freud, the healthy personality must keep all three systems in balance.
Someone who is too controlled by the id is governed by impulse and selfish
desires. Someone who is too controlled by the super ego is rigid, moralistic and
bossy. Someone who has a weak ego is unable to balance personal needs and
wishes with social duties and realistic limitations.
In the development of anxiety, the ego has weapons at its command to relieve
the tension. These unconscious strategies are called defense mechanisms.
Defence mechanisms refer to methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious
anxiety or threatening thoughts .
Features of Defence Mechanisms
• The use of defence mechanisms is generally useful for they help us to
reduce anxiety and make us feel normal again. They only become harmful
if or when they are used excessively.
• Defence mechanisms are misrepresentations or distortions of reality. In
order to justify one’s action which is wrong in the eyes of the superego,
the ego has to deny, distort or twist the reality.

Types of Defence Mechanism

1. Repression Or Motivated Forgetting

Is the rejection of unpleasant feelings and experiences from conscious
awareness. It involves pushing or blocking threatening memories, urges
or ideas from consciousness. Loss of memory for unpleasant events.

2. Rationalization
Is justifying wrong actions by producing acceptable reasons and
explanations. We make excuses by giving a reason different from the real
one for what we are doing. Rationalization is not lying; we believe our

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explanations. Something we cannot get becomes something we do not
want anyway.

3. Reaction Formation
Involves repressing a negative feeling by exaggerating the opposite
feeling. It occurs when a feeling that produces anxiety is transformed in
to its opposites. It is a reversal of motives. A woman who is afraid to
admit to herself that she fears her husband may instead cling to the belief
that she loves him deeply. A person who is aroused by erotic images may
angrily assert that pornography is disgusting. The implicit principle here
seems to be that ‘’ the best defence is a good offence’’.
4. Projection
Is the process of shifting or attributing one’s own undesirable feelings to
others. By accepting that others also have the same problems like us , we
tend to be ok. A husband who cheats may also like the idea of his wife
cheating for it gives him a feeling that he is doing anything different.
Therefore , projection involves blaming others for the same mistakes or
problems we have.
5. Displacement
Occurs when people direct their emotions (especially anger) toward
things, animals or other people that are not the real object of their
feelings. It involves using a substitute outlet for an emotion. A person
who is angry with his boss, for example, but cannot show it for fear of
being fired may come home, bawl out the children or kick the dog. A boy
who is forbidden to express anger toward his father, may take it out on
his toys or his younger sisters.

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