ScienceClinic Grade12 DBE SmartPrep-Eng V2.2

GRADE
12
ESSENTIALS
DBE ESSENTIALS
THE
college of
science, engineering
and technology
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Content Acknowledgement
Many thanks to those involved in the production, translation and moderation of this book:
R Bartholomew, N Basson, Y Choonara, N Cullinan, S Dippenaar, T Fairless, I Govender, R Lodge, Q
Meades, C Orchison, N Rabellini, R Ramsugit, M Stander.
www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa c Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2016

Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
WHY YOU SHOULD STUDY SCIENCE

Science is amazing! It is also one of the toughest subjects at school. Science-y careers are diverse and exciting, but require years of vigorous academic commitment. 
If it’s so hard to get somewhere with Science, why should you study it? Here’s our top reasons for getting your nerd on:
1. Be a modern-day hero: The single greatest reason why we should study Science, is to ensure 4. Diversity and flexibility: From dentistry to plasma physics, Science-y careers offer vast opportu-
Humanity’s sustainable survival on Earth! Ecosystems are in crisis mode, the planetary weather nities for professional career development and diversification. Engineers are welcomed into the
system is changing rapidly, and humanity is failing to coexist in harmony with other species.  financial sector, due to their problem-solving ability and analytical way of thinking. Many academic
  physicists teach, perform ground-breaking research and consult private clients in the same work
World food production has to double in the next thirty years, in order to sustain the growing global week. Medical professionals diversify into the legal field to become patent attorneys or medical
population. We are running out of fossil fuels which are critical to the efficiency of our industry, lawyers. However on the flip side, it’s rare for a professional with a ‘non-Science-y’ background to
farming and supply chains. Fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce, with many of the World’s bridge into the Science-based career fields.
greatest rivers no longer running into the sea. Diseases are becoming increasingly resistant to anti-
biotics. The air in many Indian and Chinese cities are verging on unbreathable. The Great Pacific 5. Inventions: Science-y careers create an intellectual and business environment that is conducive
Garbage Patch has become an unfathomable mass of floating junk that is destroying our oceans. to problem solving and invention. Look at all the exciting inventions of the last twenty years, that
The use of fossil fuels is polluting our air and adding to the Greenhouse Effect.  have completely transformed our lifestyles. The Internet, the everyday use of GPS, mobile phone
  technology, PC’ and touch-screen displays are but a few. This technological progress was made
Before you despair, there is a silver lining: every one of these problems can be improved, and even possible due to Science.
solved, through Science! If you are passionately concerned about this Planet and about a healthy  
future for Humanity, get stuck into your Science studies and aim for a Science-y career that will Visit online crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter and Indiegogo, and appraise the exciting
equip you to make a difference! Science-y inventions that are being funded. The tech scene is mushrooming with skunkworks and
hackathons that are creating radical innovations. It is an exciting time to be part of Science and
2. Be smart: The study of Science encourages problem-solving tenacity that helps you to under- technology, and if you want to be at the cusp of making cool things that make a big difference,
stand the world around you. I have always explained to my students that Science illuminates one’s study Science!
path, and that going through life without Science is similar to driving your car along dark roads -
your headlights might light your way forward, but they don’t illuminate the world around you. You 6. Be a modern-day hero (#2): South Africa has a growing deficit of expert Science teachers. If
travel onwards without ever understanding the context of your journey. Studying Science makes you are passionate about Science, and passionate about making a difference, teaching is a mas-
you comfortable with the unknown, and gives you the confidence to say: “I don’t know the an- sively rewarding career path that is becoming increasingly lucrative. Remember, supply and de-
swers, but I will find out!”. Science is gracious to naivety but does not condone the apathy of indif- mand dictate going rates - if there are fewer expert Science teachers around, the demand for ex-
ference: it allows you to say “I don’t know, but I want to find out”, but does not tolerate the atti- pertise leads to increased fees. Become a Science teacher, a thought leader and a role model! 
tude of “I don’t know and I don’t care”.
  7. Wealth: More than a fifth of the planet’s wealthiest people on the Forbes 2015 list studied an engi-
Science is highly structured, but welcomes change - it constantly adjusts its views based on what neering degree, according to a recent survey by the Approved Index platform. A quarter of the
is observed. This approach teaches you to evolve your thinking by constantly testing and investigat- Forbes top-hundred have Science as a foundation for their work.
ing information, which makes you a well-rounded human being and empowers you with an ethical
approach to others: it enables you to discern the difference between your opinions and facts, and 8. Discovery: Science research is a field that allows you to discover the unknown. The deep oceans
to acknowledge the opinions and beliefs of others without immediately accepting or rejecting are unexplored, nanotechnology and photonic crystals have so many secrets, and we’re still not
them. sure whether there is any form of life outside near-Earth space. Imagine being the person that
publishes a peer-reviewed article to tell the world about a brand new discovery, or a new revela-
3. Be adventurous: Science gets you places! I can only speak from my experience - my engineering tion in our understanding, or a life-altering breakthrough in technology.
background, which is firmly rooted in Science, has opened a door to great adventure and explora-
tion. I have worked on four continents and have been exposed to a diversity of incredible experi- This is a call to action for young history-makers, and for a new wave of heroes to save this
ences that a ‘normal’ office job would never allow. Would you like to work in jungles? Study Natu- world and make a difference. I encourage you to become part of it!
ral Sciences. A life of studying volcanoes or auroras, perhaps? Study geosciences. Would you like
to ply you mind to solving massive problems and driving innovation? Study engineering! Would you
like to work with killer whales? Study zoology! James Hayes
  Founder – Science Clinic
Science-y careers and research allow you visit places that would not be accessible through other
fields of study. Whether you want to go to Antarctica or to outer space, Science is the way to get
there.
1
For more information about Science Clinic’s seminars, classes and resources, visit www.scienceclinic.co.za 
Interested in a Science-y career? Unisa offers a variety of Science and Engineering qualifications through Open Distance Learning. Visit www.unisa.ac.za/cset
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword 1
Physics
Data Sheet 3
Definitions 5
Core Theory Summaries
Vertical Projectile Motion 6
Vectors in 2D 9
Newton’s Laws of Motion 11
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 15
Momentum 16
Work, Energy and Power 19
Electricity 22
Electrostatics 24
Electromagnetism and Electrodynamics 26
Optical Phenomena and Properties of Materials 29
Doppler Effect 31
Chemistry
Data Sheet 33
Definitions 37
Core Theory Summaries
Organic Molecules 39
Organic Intermolecular Forces 42
Organic Reactions 43
Polymers 46
Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change 48
Energy and Chemical Change 51
Rates of Reactions 52
Chemical Equilibrium 53
Acids and Bases 55
Electrochemistry 58
Fertilisers 62
www
www
4. GENERAL INFORMATION
4.1 Quantities, symbols and units
The most common quantities, symbols and SI units used in introductory Physics are listed below.
A quantity should not be confused with the unit in which it is measured.
Preferred Alternative Unit
Quantity Unit name
symbol symbol symbol
mass m kilogram kg
position x, y metre m
displacement ∆ x, ∆ y s metre m
-1
velocity v x, vy u, v metre per second m∙s
-1
initial velocity vi u metre per second m∙s
-1
final velocity vf v metre per second m∙s
-2
acceleration a metre per second per second m∙s
acceleration due to -2
g metre per second per second m∙s
gravity
time (instant) t second s
time interval ∆t second s
energy E joule J
kinetic energy K Ek joule J
potential energy U Ep joule J
work W joule J
work function W0 joule J
power P watt W
-1
momentum p kilogram metre per second kg∙m∙s
force F newton N
weight w Fg newton N
normal force N FN newton N
tension T FT newton N
friction force f Ff newton N
coefficient of friction μ, μ s , μ k (none)
torque τ newton metre N∙m
wavelength λ metre m
frequency f ν hertz or per second Hz or s
-1
period T second s
-1
speed of light c metre per second m∙s
refractive index n (none)
focal length f metre m
object distance s u metre m
image distance s' v metre m
magnification m (none)
charge Q, q coulomb C
-1
newton per coulomb or N∙C or
electric field E -1
volt per metre V∙m
electric potential at
VP volt V
point P
potential difference ∆ V, V volt V
emf E ε volt V
current I, i ampere A
resistance R ohm Ω
internal resistance r ohm Ω
magnetic field B tesla T
2
2 T∙m or
magnetic flux Φ tesla∙metre or weber
Wb
capacitance C farad F
inductance L henry H
Copyright reserved Please turn over
Information sheets – Paper 1 (Physics)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
NAME SYMBOL VALUE
Acceleration due to gravity g 9,8 m·s-2
Universal gravitational constant G 6,67 x 10-11 N·m2·kg-2
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3,0 x 108 m·s-1
Planck's constant h 6,63 x 10-34 J·s
Coulomb's constant k 9,0 x 109 N·m2·C-2
Charge on electron e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Electron mass me 9,11 x 10-31 kg
TABLE 2: FORMULAE
MOTION
v f = vi + a ∆t ∆x = v i ∆t + 21 a∆t 2 OR ∆y = v i∆t + 21 a∆t 2
v +v v + vi
2 2 2 2
v f = v i + 2a∆x OR v f = v i + 2a∆y ∆x = f i
∆t OR ∆y = f ∆t
2 2
FORCE
Fnet = ma p = mv
Fnet ∆t = ∆p
w = mg
∆p = mv f − mv i
Gm1m 2 Gm
F= g=
r2 r2
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
W = F∆x cos θ U = mgh OR E P = mgh
Wnet = ∆K OR Wnet = ∆Ek
1 1
K = mv 2 OR E k = mv 2
2 2
∆K = K f − K i OR ∆Ek = Ekf − Eki
W
Wnc = ∆K + ∆U OR Wnc = ∆Ek + ∆Ep P=
∆t
P ave = Fv ave
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT
1
v=fλ T=
f
v ± vL c
fL = fs E = hf OR E= h
v ± vs λ
E = Wo + K max OR E = Wo + E k(max) where
1 1
E = hf and Wo = hfo and K max = mv max
2
OR E k(max) =
2
mv max
2 2
ELECTROSTATICS
kQ 1Q 2 kQ
F= E= 2
r2 r
F W
E= V=
q q
Q Q
n= OR n=
e qe
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
V
R= emf (E) = I(R + r)
I
R s = R1 + R 2 + ...
1 1 1 q = I ∆t
= + + ...
R p R1 R 2
W = Vq W
P=
Δt
W = VI ∆ t
P = VI
W= I2R ∆ t
P = I2R
V 2 Δt V2
W= P=
R R
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Paverage = Vrms I rms
I max
I rms =
2 Paverage = I rms
2
R
Vmax
Vrms = 2
Vrms
2 Paverage =
R
Grade 12 Science Essentials Grade 12 Physics Definitions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Normal force (FN): the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object with which it is in contact, and
which is perpendicular to the surface. 
Frictional force (Ff): the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the surface. (Know that a frictional
force is proportional to the normal force, is independent of the area of contact, is independent of the velocity of motion).  
Static frictional force (fs): the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary object relative to a surface.  
Kinetic frictional force (fk): the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface. 
Newton’s Laws Newton's first law of motion: an object will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero
Revision resultant/net force acts on it.  
Newton's second law of motion: when a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the
force at an acceleration directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.  
Newton's third law of motion: when one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts a force of equal
magnitude in the opposite direction on the first object.  
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
Momentum: the product of an object's mass and its velocity. 
Linear momentum: of an object is a vector quantity with the same direction as the velocity of the object.  
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: the net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum
of the object in the direction of the resultant/net force.  
Impulse: the product of the resultant/net force acting on an object and the time the resultant/net force acts on the object. It is a
vector quantity. 
Momentum and
Closed/an isolated system (in Physics): a system on which the resultant/net external force is zero. A closed/an isolated
Impulse
system excludes external forces that originate outside the colliding bodies, e.g. friction. Only internal forces, e.g. contact forces
between the colliding objects, are considered.  
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: the total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant (is
conserved). 
Elastic collision: a collision where energy is conserved. 
Inelastic collision: a collision where energy is not conserved.
Projectile: an object upon which the only force acting is the force of gravity. Projectiles fall freely with gravitational acceleration ‘g’
Vertical
accelerate downwards with a constant acceleration irrespective of whether the projectile is moving upward or downward or is at
Projectile Motion
maximum height. 
Work done on an object by a constant force F: is FΔxcosθ , where F is the magnitude of the force, Δx the magnitude of the
displacement and θ the angle between the force and the displacement. (Work is done by a force on an object – the use of 'work is
done against a force', e.g. work done against friction, should be avoided.) Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules (J). 
Work-energy theorem: The net/total work done on an object is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy OR the work
done on an object by a resultant/net force is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy. (Wnet = ΔEk).  
Conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points is independent of the path taken.
Work, Energy
Eg. gravitational force, the elastic force in a spring, electrostatic forces (coulomb forces). 
and Power
Non-conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points depends on the path taken.
Eg. frictional force, air resistance, tension in a chord. 
Energy:  
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: the total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy) in an isolated system remains constant. 
Power: is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended. 
Doppler Effect: the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a listener because the sound source and the listener
Doppler Effect
have different velocities relative to the medium of sound propagation. 
Coulomb's law: the magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1) on another point charge (Q2) is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r)
between them. 
Electrostatics Electric field: a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the
direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point. 
Electric field at a point: The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that
point.
Ohm's law: the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor at constant
temperature. 
Ohmic conductor: a conductor that obey’s Ohm’s law. 
Electric Circuits
Non-Ohmic conductor: a conductor which does not obey Ohm’s law.  
Internal resistance: the resistance the cells provide against the flow of charge. 
Emf: the total amount of energy supplied per coulomb of charge in a cell. 
Principle of magnetic induction: a changing magnetic field induces an emf in conductor. 
Electrodynamics Motor effect: when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it will experience a force. 
Rms value: the DC potential difference/current which dissipates the same amount of energy as AC.
Optical Photoelectric effect: the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when light of suitable frequency is incident
Phenomena and on that surface 
Properties of Threshold frequency (fo): the minimum frequency of light needed to emit electrons from a certain metal surface  
Materials Work function (Wo): the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs to be emitted from the metal surface
  5
Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vertical Projectile Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

The path of projectile motion can be analysed using the 4 EXAMPLE: 
A projectile is an object that moves freely under the influ-
sections as shown below. The combination of these 4 parts An object is projected vertically upwards. 4 seconds later, it is caught at the same
ence of gravity only. It is not controlled by any mechanism
will depend on the actual path travelled by the projectile.  height (point of release) on its way downwards. Determine how long it took the
(pulley or motor). The object is in freefall, but may move
Example:  ball to pass a height of 8 m in the upward direction. Choose downward as posi-
upwards (thrown up) or downwards.
Dropped projectile is sections C and D only.  tive direction. 
Forces on a projectile Object thrown upwards and falls on roof is sections A to C.   Δy = viΔt + 12 at 2
In the absence of friction, the gravitational force of the earth total time = 4 s  
is the only force acting on a free falling body. This force
Time: ∴ t up = 2 s −8 = − 19,6t + 12 (9,8)t 2
always acts downwards. t A = t D 
tB = tC   0 = 4,9t 2 − 19,6t + 8
Because the gravitational force is always downward, a projec- vf = vi + aΔt
tile that is moving upward, must slow down. When a projec- B C
tile is moving downward, it moves in the direction of the
SAME Displacement: 0 = vi + (9,8)(2)
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
gravitational force, therefore it will speed up. HEIGHT ΔyA = ΔyD  vi = − 19,6 t =
ΔyB = ΔyC 2a
Acceleration due to gravity ∴ vi = 19,6 m ⋅ s −1 up
−(−19,6) ± (−19,6) 2 − 4(4,9)(8)
All free falling bodies have the same acceleration due to grav-
A D Velocity: t = 2(4,9)
ity. This acceleration is 9,8 m·s−2 downward.
viA = vfD    −b ± b 2 − 4a c t = 0,46 s OR 3,54
Ignoring air resistance/friction; If a marble and a rock are vfA = viD  x=
2a ∴ t = 0,46 s
released from the same height at the same time, they will
strike the ground simultaneously, and their final velocity will
SAME viB = vfC 
VfB = ViC = 0 m·s−1
be the same. HEIGHT
Their momentum (mv) and kinetic energy (½mv2) are GRAPHS OF PROJECTILE MOTION
not the same, due to a difference in mass.
Graph manipulation:
If two objects are released from different heights, they have Area
the same acceleration, but they strike the ground at different Change in positive direction: 
Δy vs Δt v vs Δt a vs Δt
times and have a different velocity. Flip graph along x-axis
Gradient
Change in reference position:  
Shift x-axis (Δy-Δt only)
vf = vi + aΔt  Nega%ve
a
Ne
ga
UP POSITIVE
Δy = displacement (m) %v
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy  e
Posi%ve a
v (m·s−1)
a (m·s−2)
Δt = time (s)
Nega
ve v
Δy
Δy (m)
Δt (s) Δt (s)
Ne Nega%ve
Posi%
Nega%ve Δv
%ve v
1
−1
vi = initial velocity (m·s ) ga Δy
%v
Δy = viΔt + aΔt 2  e a

2 vf = final velocity (m·s−1)
a = acceleration (m·s−2) Δt (s)
vi + vf (9,8 m·s−2 downwards)
Δy = ( )Δt Posi%ve
2 a
DOWN POSITIVE
a
REMEMBER:  ve
is % Posi%ve
a (m·s−2)
ve v Posi%ve Δv
Nega
Po
v (m·s−1)
Δy (m)
1. Draw a sketch diagram  Δy Δt (s)

Posi%
Δt (s)
%ve v
2. Write down given variables  Nega%ve

Δy
3. Choose positive direction 

4. Solve
Δt (s)
6
Path of a Projectile
ALL EXAMPLES: 
Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
UP POSITIVE
OBJECT DROPPED FROM HEIGHT (C+D) OBJECT THROWN DOWN FROM HEIGHT (D) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT (B+C+D)
vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vi ≠ 0 m·s−1
Δy (m)
Δy (m)
Δy (m)
vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1
Δt (s) Δt (s)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1) Δt (s) Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
vf vf vf(down)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)
a (m·s−2)
a (m·s−2)
Also applies to objects Δt (s) Also applies to objects Δt (s)
dropped from a downward dropped from an upward
moving reference. moving reference.
OBJECT THROWN UP AND CAUGHT (A+B+C+D) OBJECT THROWN UP, LANDS AT HEIGHT (A+B+C) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT, BOUNCES (A+B+C)
vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

Δy (m)
Δy (m)
Δt (s)
Δy (m)
v (m·s−1)
vf(down)

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
Accera&on due to force

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s) vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1

by surface during bounce

Vi(up) = Vf(down)
Δt (s)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)

a (m·s−2)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s) Δt (s) If the collision is perfectly elastic, the downward velocity before the bounce
and the upward velocity after the bounce is equal in magnitude.
Treat the 2 projectile paths (before and after bounce) as separate paths.
7
Special Projectile Paths SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
HOT AIR BALLOON LIFT BOUNCING BALL

Lift moving up Lift moving down Contact (me
When an object is dropped Bounce (if concidered)
from a moving reference Δyli%
(hot air balloon), the initial
v (m·s−1)
Δy (m)
velocity will be equal to that
li% height
of the reference. The
acceleration of the object
Apex
li% height
w i l l b e d o w n w a r d s a t 
9,8 m·s−2, regardless of the
Δyball Δyball
acceleration of the refer-
ence. Δt (s)
Δt (s)
Δyli% EXAMPLE:
The velocity-time graph below represents the bouncing movement of a 0,1 kg ball.
EXAMPLE:
Use the graph to answer the questions that follow:
Δyball = lift height + Δylift
A hot air balloon ascends with a constant velocity of
5 m·s−1. A ball is dropped from the hot air balloon at 10
EXAMPLE:
a height of 50 m and falls vertically towards the
ground. Determine (a) the distance between the hot A lift accelerates upwards at a rate of 1,4 m·s−2. As the lift 5
air balloon and ball after 2 seconds and (b) the starts to move, a lightbulb falls from the ceiling of the lift. Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
velocity of the ball when it reaches the ground. Determine how long it takes the lightbulb to reach the lift’s
floor. The height from the ceiling of the lift to its floor is
(a) Take downwards as positive:  3m.
Distance travelled by balloon :
1 Take downwards as positive:
Δy = vi Δt + 2 aΔt 2 −8
movement of elevator :
= (−5)(2) + 12 (0)(22 )   Δylif t = vi Δt + 12 aΔt 2 a) Which direction of movement is positive? 
= − 10 Downwards
1  
∴ Δy = 10 m up ylif t = (0)t + 2 (−1,4)t 2
b) How many times did the ball bounce? 
  ∴ ylif t = − 0,7t 2 3 times
Distance travelled by ball :
1 c) What does the gradient of the graph represent? 
Δy = vi Δt + 2 aΔt 2 Acceleration of the ball
movement of bulb :
= (−5)(2) + 12 (9,8)(22 )  
Δybulb = vi Δt + 12 aΔt 2 d) Are the collisions between the ball and ground elastic or inelastic? 
After each bounce there is a change is the velocity of the ball, and there-
= − 10 + 19,6 1
3 + ylif t = (0)t + 2 (9,8)t 2 fore a change in kinetic energy. The collisions are inelastic as kinetic
∴ Δy = 9,6 m down energy is not conserved.
  3 + ylif t = 4,9t 2
∴ total distance = 10 + 9,6 e) If the ball is in contact with the ground for a duration of 0,08 s, determine the im-
= 19,6 m apart ∴ ylif t = 4,9t 2 − 3 pulse on the ball 
 
(b) Take downwards as positive:  Impulse = Δp
Simultaneous equation is
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy = m (vf − vi )
−0,7t 2 = 4,9t 2 − 3 needed because there are
vf2 = (−52 ) + 2(9,8)(50) −5,6t 2 = − 3 2 unknown variables:  = (0,1)(−8 − 10)
  2 = − 1,8
vf = 25 + 980 t = 0,54 •Distance that lift moved 
∴ Impulse = 1,8 N ⋅ s upwards
−1 ∴ t = 0,73 s •Time to reach floor 
vf = 31,70 m ⋅ s downwards f) Predict why the ball stopped moving. 
It stops on the apex, ∴it was most likely caught 
8
Vectors in 2D SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
RESOLVING INTO COMPONENTS Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

x
Diagonal vectors can be broken into Fx = F cos θ θ When forces act on objects on a Fg// = Fg sin θ
F g//
components. When vectors are broken into slope, it is useful to resolve vectors
the x- and y-components, we are Fy = F sin θ into components that are parallel (//) Fg⊥ = Fg cos θ
determining the horizontal (x-axis) and F or perpendicular (⟂) components.
Fy
The most common force resolved into
vertical (y-axis) effect of the vector. Fg θ
F g⟂
components on a slope is weight (Fg).
θ
y
CONSTRUCTING FORCE TRIANGLE
When forces are not co-linear, force triangles can be used to determine resultant forces or the equilibrant. When force triangles are formed, basic geometric rules can be used to determine vectors or resultants.
Tail-to-head Parallelogram Manipulation
Used for consecutive vectors (vectors that occur in sequence). Used for vectors that act concurrently on the same object. The vector arrows can be manipulated to form a force triangle to determine the
The resultant is the diagonal of a parallelogram that originates resultant forces or an equilibrant.
Eg. A boat travels 90 m east, and then moves 50 m north.
y from the tail of the vectors.
When manipulating the vector arrows, the following has to remain the same:
y
• Length of arrow (magnitude) 
• Angle of the arrow (direction) 
• The direction of the arrow head 
t
Vector 2
tan
su l Eg. An object is suspended from a ceiling by 2 cables. Below is a free body dia-
Re gram as well as a force triangle that can be used to calculate the values of T1 and
Vector 2

nt
T2.
lta
su
Re
x Free body diagram Force triangle
Vector 1
x
This principle can also be applied to more than 2 vectors Vector 1
taken in order. The resultant is from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last. Eg. Two tugboats apply a force of 6 000N and 5 000N at
y bearings of 60° and 120° respectively on a cargo ship.
y
Vect
or 4

nt
N
Resulta
00
6 0

or 3
Resultant
x
Vect
x 5 0
00
N
Vector 1

o r 2
ct
Ve
9
2D Vectors- Resultant and Equilibrant SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
RESULTANT: The single vector which has the same effect as the   EQUILIBRANT: The force that keeps a system in equilibrium.
original vectors acting together.
The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
PYTHAGORAS (90° ONLY) COMPONENT ADDITION
Pythagoras can only be applied to vector triangles that are right angle triangles. The resultant of diagonal forces can be determined using Pythagoras by determining the x-resultant and
y-resultant first. This is especially useful for determining resultants when more than 2 forces act on an
FOR FINDING SIDES:  FOR FINDING ANGLES:
object and a force triangle can not be used.
  o a o
2 2
R = x +y 2 sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = EXAMPLE:
h h a
Three forces act on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force on the
object.
EXAMPLE:
1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force. 
A boat travels 90 m due east, and then moves 50 m due north. Determine the displacement 11N force:
of the boat. y Fy = F sin θ
Fx = F cos θ
= 11 cos 70 = 11 sin 70 11 N
= 3,76 N right (90o ) = 10,34 N up (0o ) 70°
40° 35°
30N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ 30 N 20 N

t an t = 30 cos 40 = 30 sin 40
su l
50 m
Re = 22,98 N left (270o ) = 19,28 N down (180o )
20N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 20 cos 35 = 20 sin 35
θ x = 16,38 N right (90o ) = 11,47 N down (180o )
90 m
R2 = x2 + y2 2. Determine the x- and y-resultants of components. 2,84 N
2 2
R = 90 + 50 Take left (270o) as positive Take down (180o) as positive
R = 102,96 m Fx = −3,76 + 22,98 − 16,38 Fy = −10,34 + 19,28 + 11,47
= 2,84 N left (270o ) = 20,41 N down (180o )
20,41 N
o
tan θ = a
R
tan−1( 50
90 )
3. Find resultant-Pythagoras. 4. Find angle- trigonometry
θ = o
R2 = x2 + y2 tan θ = a
θ = 29,05∘ 20,41
R = 2,842 + 20,412 θ = tan−1 2,84
∘
Remember that θ calculated is relative to the x-axis,  R = 20,61 N θ = 82,08
∘ ∘ ∘
∴ bearing = 90 − 29,05 = 60, 95
  ∴Resultant = 20,61 N at a bearing of 187,92°
∴ Displacement = 102,96 m at a bearing of 60,95∘
10
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
FORCES
Non-contact force: A force exerted between Contact force: A force exerted between
A force is a push or a pull action exerted on an object. This action can be exerted while objects are in
objects over a distance without physical contact. objects that are in contact with each other.
contact (contact force) or over a distance (non-contact force).
Electrostatic force Applied force (FA)
Because forces have magnitude and direction, they are vectors. Force is measured in newton (N). 1 N is
Gravitational force (w/Fg) Tension (T or FT)
the force required to accelerate a 1 kg object at 1 m·s-2 in the direction of the force. We can therefore
say that 1 N = 1 kg·m·s-2.
Magnetic force Friction (Ff or fs/fk)
Normal force (N/FN)
Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

The perpendicular force exerted on by a surface on an object in contact with it. Frictional force due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an object in contact
with it.
FN Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which it rests. The
The normal force is equal to the perpendicular component 
friction between the contact surfaces are determined by the properties of that surface. The coefficient of
of gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object.
friction (µs/µk) is a description of the roughness of the surface. The rougher the surface, the greater the
coefficient of friction.
  Static friction (fs) Kinetic friction (fk)
  FN = − Fg Static friction is the frictional force on a Kinetic friction is the frictional force on a
  Fg stationary object that opposes the moving object that opposes the motion of
tendency of motion of the object. The the object. The magnitude of the kinetic friction
If alternative forces act on the object, the normal force will change depending on the direction and magnitude of the static friction will increase as is constant for the specific system at all velocities
magnitude of the applied force. the parallel component of the applied force is greater than zero, and irrespective of the applied
increased, until maximum static friction is force.
FA FA reached. fsmax is the magnitude of friction when
FN the object just starts to move.
FN
θ θ
f smax = μs FN fk = μk FN
  f smax = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

  μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)
Fg
  Fg
FN = normal force (N) FN = normal force (N)
  FN + FAy + Fg = 0  FN + Fg + FAy = 0  If the applied force is greater than the maximum static friction, the object will start to move.
FN + FA sin θ = − Fg FN = − Fg − FA sin θ
fsmax
Fric%on (N)
Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no  F T )
normal force, as there is no surface on which the object rests. 
n (f s
The tension is equal to the perpendicular component of   $o
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object. ric
c f Kine%c fric%on (fk)
ta$
S
FT + Fg = 0
Fg Applied force (N)
11
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Newton’s First Law of Motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion Newton’s Third Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with When a net force is applied to an object of mass, it When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simulta-
constant) velocity unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced (net accelerates in the direction of the net force. The neously exerts an oppositely directed force of equal
or resultant) force.   acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and magnitude on object A.
Newton’s First Law is due to inertia- the resistance of an object to inversely proportional to the mass.
change its state of rest of motion.
 
Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These
Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force- 
Fnet = 0 N a = 0 m ⋅ s −2 The vector sum of all forces acting on the same object.
are forces on different objects and can not be added or
subtracted.
A 3kg object moves up an incline surface at an angle of 15º with a
constant velocity. The coefficient of friction is 0,35. Determine Fnet = m a a ≠ 0 m ⋅ s −2
the magnitude of the applied force. FA on B = − FB on A
FA  
FN A 20 N force is applied to a 5 kg object. The object accelerates
up a frictionless incline surface at an angle of 15º. Determine
Force pairs properties:
the acceleration of the object.
• Equal in magnitude
Fg// FA • Opposite in direction
FN
fk • Acts on different objects (and therefore DO NOT CANCEL each
15° Fg T other out)
 
Take downwards as positive: Fg// Fman on earth NOTE: 
The force pairs shown
Fnet⊥ = 0 here are gravitational
FN + Fg⊥ = 0 forces.
FN = −Fg ⊥
15° Fg
T
Gravity and Normal force
FN = −m g cos θ are NOT force pairs.
FN = −(3)(9,8)cos 15∘
FN = −28,40 N
Take upwards as positive: Fearth on man
Fnet// = ma
∴ FN = 28,40 N ⊥ up from slope
FA + Fg// = ma Fman on wall
20 + (5)(−9,8)sin 15∘ = 5a
Fnet// = 0 20 − 12,68 = 5a
FA + Fg// + fk = 0 7,32
a =
FA = −Fg// − fk 5
∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope
FA = −m g sin θ − μk FN
FA = −(3)(9,8)sin 15∘ − (0,35)(28,40)
FA = −17,55 N
∴ FA = 17,55 N Effect of Newton’s Second Law on overloading:
According to Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of an object
Importance of wearing safety belts: is directly proportional to the applied force and inversely propor-
According to Newton’s First Law, an object will remain in motion at a tional to the mass of the object. If a vehicle is overloaded, the Fwall on man
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acts upon it. When a stopping distance will increase which can lead to serious acci-
Newton’s Third Law during an accident
car is in an accident and comes to a sudden stop, the person inside the dents. When brakes are applied, the force (friction) remains the
According to Newton’s Third Law, the force that two objects exert
car will continue with a constant forward velocity. Without a safety belt, same, but the increase in mass causes a decrease in negative
on each other is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If
the person will make contact with the windscreen of the car, causing acceleration, increasing the time (and distance) it takes for the
two cars are in an accident, they will both exert the same amount
severe head trauma. The safety belt acts as an applied force, preventing vehicle to stop.
of force on each other irrespective of their masses.
the forward motion of the person.
12
ALL EXAMPLES: 
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Horizontal Slopes
The vertical resultant = 0 N. The perpendicular (⟂) resultant = 0 N. Fg// = Fg sin θ
The horizontal resultant determines acceleration. The parallel (//) resultant determines acceleration.
Fg⊥ = Fg cos θ
Pulled at an angle REMEMBER: Use components of weight.
FA FN Force applied down the slope Force applied up the slope
FAy
FN θ FN F f FA FN FA
FN F f FN
F f F f FAx
Fg// Fg//
Fg// Fg//
Fg Fg FA Fg⟂ F f
FA fk Fg⟂
Horizontal: Vertical: θ Fg T
θ Fg T
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
FAx + (−Ff ) = m a (−Fg ) + FN + FAy = 0 Parallel: Perpendicular: Parallel: Perpendicular:
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
Pushed at an angle Fg∥ + FA + (−Ff ) = m a Fg⊥ + (−FN ) = 0 (−Fg∥) + (−Ff ) + FA = m a Fg⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
FN FA FN
No force applied
θ
Parallel:
F f FAx F f FN F f FN F f Fnet = m a
Fg∥ + (−Ff ) = m a
FAy
Fg Fg Fg// Fg// Perpendicular:
Fnet = 0
Horizontal:
Fnet = m a
Vertical:
Fnet = 0 Fg
Fg⟂ Fg⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
θ T
FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0
Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)
F T F T F T
Suspended F T
Vertical: Vertical: Vertical:
Horizontal resultant = 0 N.
Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
Vertical resultant determines acceleration.
Fg + (−FT ) = 0 Fg + (−FT ) = m a Fg = m a
REMEMBER: No normal or friction forces. Fg
Fg
Fg
Fg
Acceleration will be in the
Fg Fg
direction of the greatest force.
13
ALL EXAMPLES: 
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Connected objects Objects attached by rope/cable
Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN

The velocity and acceleration of all objects are Horizontal: Horizontal:
equal in magnitude and direction. Fnet = m a
F f F T F T FA F f FA Fnet = m a
Applied forces are applied to only one object at (−Ff ) + FT = m a Ff FA + (−FT ) + (−Ff ) = m a
a time. F T
Simultaneous equations for acceleration and Fg
Ff Fg
tension are sometimes needed. 
  Fg Fg
REMEMBER:
Ropes/cables- The tension forces on Objects in contact
the objects are the same in magnitude
  but opposite in direction. FN FN
FN FN
Touching objects- Newton’s Third Law FA
Horizontal: A FBA FAB B Horizontal:
Same axis Fnet = m a F f FA Ff F f FAB Fnet = m a

FA + (−FBA) + (−Ff ) = m a
Ff (−Ff ) + FAB = m a
Can be horizontal (multiple objects on a sur- FBA
face) or vertical (multiple suspended objects).
Fg Fg
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are Fg Fg
equal in magnitude and direction.
Multiple axes
Multiple axes
FN
Horizontal (objects on a surface) AND vertical
FT1 FN FN
(suspended objects).
In these examples,
FT1 FT2
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are
Ff FT1 clockwise is positive: Ff
equal in magnitude NOT DIRECTION.
Right positive FT2
Fg Ff
Fg Down positive Fg Fg
Vector direction on multiple axes FT2
Clockwise:  
Right and Down positive
Fg
Left and Up negative
Fg
FN FT2 FN FN FT2
FT1
F f FT1 F f FT1 F f FT2
OR
FT1
Anti-clockwise: Fg Fg Fg Fg Fg
FT2 Fg
Left and Up positive
Right and Down negative Horizontal: Vertical: Vertical: Horizontal: Horizontal: Vertical:
Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT1) + FT 2 = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a FT 2 + (−FT1) + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a
14
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with RATIOS CALCULATIONS
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their 1. Write out the original formula. Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 2. Manipulate unknown as subject. The force can be calculated using F =
between their centres. 3. Substitute changes into formula (Keep symbols!). r2
4. Simplify ratio number. REMEMBER:
Gm1m2 5. Replace original formula with unknown symbol.
Mass in kg
F= EXAMPLE: 
r2 Two objects, m1 and m2, are a distance r apart and experience a Radius in m
force F. How would this force be affected if: Radius: centre of mass to centre of mass.
F = force of attraction between objects (N) 
G = universal gravitational constant (6,67 ×10−11 N·m2·kg−2 )  a) One mass is doubled and the distance between the masses is Direction is ALWAYS attractive.
m= object mass (kg)  halved?
r = distance between object centers (m)  Gm1m2 Both objects experience the same force.
F= Write out the formula (Newton’s Third Law of Motion) 
r2
A uniform sphere of matter attracts a body that is outside the shell as if G(2m1)m2
= Substitute changes into formula EXAMPLE:
all the sphere’s mass was concentrated at its center. 1
( r)2
2 The earth with a radius of 6,38 x 103 km is 149,6 x 106 km
2 Gm1m2 away from the sun with a radius of 696 342 km. If the earth
= Simplify ratio number has a mass of 5,97 x 1024 kg and the sun has a mass of 
  1 r2
  4 1,99 x 1030 kg, determine the force between the two bodies.
Gm1m2
= 8( )
Thus, the distance is determined between the centers of the two bodies. r2
r = 6,38 × 10 3 km + 149,6 × 106 km + 696 342 km
∴ Fnew = 8 F Replace original formula 
  = 6,38 × 106 m + 149,6 × 109 m + 696 342 × 10 3 m
b) Both the two masses as well as the distance are doubled? = 1,5 × 1011 m 
Gm1m2  
F= Write out the formula
r2
rmoon rman G(2m1)(2m2 ) Gm1m2
= Substitute changes into formula F=
NOTE: NOTE: (2r)2 r2
The radius of the earth is added The radius of object 4 Gm1m2 6,67 × 10−11(5,97 × 10 24 )(1,99 × 10 30 )
= Simplify ratio number F=
to the distance between the (man) on the earth is 4 r2 (1,50 × 1011)2
earth and the moon. negligibly small. Gm1m2
= 1(
r2 )
F = 3,52 × 10 22 N attraction 
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE! ∴ Fnew = 1 F Replace original formula  The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, therefore all
vector rules can be applied:
g vs G
DETERMINING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION (g) • Direction specific
g: Gravitational acceleration (9,8 m·s−2 on earth) 
Gm object mPlanet • Can be added or subtracted
g is the acceleration due to gravity on a specific planet. F = m object g and F=  
r 2Planet
−11
G: Universal gravitational constant (6,67×10 N·m ·kg )  2 −2
Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP

m og =  
r 2P
Mass vs Weight  
Gm o mP
Mass (kg)  g=  
m o r 2P
A scalar quantity of matter which remains constant everywhere in the Take right as positive:
GmP
universe. ∴g=  
r 2P Fnet on satallite = Fm on s + Fe on s
Weight (N) 
=−( )+( )
Gm m m s Gm e m s
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object. Weight Therefore the gravitational acceleration of an object only depends
rms 2 res 2
differs from planet to planet. Fg = mg. Weight is a vector quantity. on the mass and radius of the planet. Object mass is irrelevant!
15
Momentum and Impulse SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Momentum: the product of the mass and Momentum is a vector quantity and has both Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: The resultant/net Derivation from Newton’s
velocity of the object. magnitude and direction. It is therefore important force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of mo- Second Law
to always include direction in all momentum mentum of the object in the direction of the resultant/net force.
Momentum can be thought of as quantifying the
calculations. Fnet = m a
motion of an object. The following equation is used According to Newton’s Second Law, a resultant force applied to an object
to calculate momentum: will cause the object to accelerate. When the net force on an object Δv
Fnet = m
EXAMPLE: changes, so does its velocity and hence the momentum. Δt
mvf − mvi
A golf ball of mass 0,05 kg leaves a golf club Fnet =
at a velocity of 90 m·s 1 in an easterly Fnet = resultant force (N) Δt
direction. Calculate the momentum of the   Δp
p = momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) golf ball. Fnet Δt = Δp Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) Fnet =
Δt
p = mv m = mass (kg) Δt = time (s)
p = mv Fnet Δt = Δp
v = velocity (m ⋅ s−1) = (0,05)(90) IMPULSE
−1
= 4,5 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s east Impulse: the product of the net force and the contact time. 
By rearranging Newton’s second law in terms of momentum, we find that impulse is equal to the change
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM in momentum of an object according to the impulse-momentum theorem:
When a moving object comes into contact with another object (moving or stationary) it results in a   Impulse = FΔt
change in velocity for both objects and therefore a change in momentum (p) for each one. The change Impulse, FΔt , is measured in N·s.
in momentum can be calculated by using:
Impulse = Δp
mΔv = Δp Δp is measured in kg·m·s−1 
Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1)  
Δpf = final momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) The change in momentum is directly dependent on the magnitude of the resultant force and the
Δp = pf − pi duration for which the force is applied. Impulse is a vector, ∴ direction specific.
Δpi = initial momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Due to the vector nature of momentum, it is very important to choose a positive direction. A golf ball with a mass of 0,1 kg is driven from the The following graph shows the force ex-
tee. The golf ball experiences a force of 1000 N while erted on a hockey ball over time. The
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: in contact with the golf club and moves away from the hockey ball is initially stationary and has a
A 1000 kg car initially moving at a constant A cricket ball with a mass of 0,2 kg approaches a golf club at 30 m·s 1. For how long was the golf club mass of 150 g.
velocity of 16 m·s 1 in an easterly direction cricket bat at a velocity of 40 m·s 1 east and in contact with the ball?
 
approaches a stop street, starts breaking and leaves the cricket bat at a velocity of 50 m·s 1 Fnet Δt = m Δv  
comes to a complete standstill. Calculate the west. Calculate the change in the ball’s momen- 1000t = (0,1)(30 − 0)  
change in the car’s momentum. tum during its contact with the cricket bat.  
t = 3 × 10−3 s
 
EXAMPLE:  
Choosing east as positive: Choosing east as positive:
Why can airbags be useful during a collision? State
Δp = pf − pi Δp = pf − pi Calculate the magnitude of the impulse
your answer by using the impulse-momentum theo-
Δp = mvf − mvi Δp = mvf − mvi rem. (change in momentum) of the hockey ball.
Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40)  

From the impulse-momentum theorem (FnetΔt= mv): Fnet Δt = area under graph
Δp = −1600 Δp = −18 an airbag prolongs the time (t) of impact during the 1
impulse = b ⊥h
accident, thereby causing a smaller force (Fnet) to be 2
∴ Δp = 1 600 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west ∴ Δp = 18 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west exerted on the passenger, because the resultant force 1
impulse = (0,5)(150)
experienced is inversely proportional to the contact 2
time (Fnet ∝1/t) impulse = 37,5 N ⋅ s
16
Conservation of Momentum SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

Conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system During a collision, the objects involved will exert forces on each other. Therefore, according to Newton’s
remains constant . third law, if object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert a force on object A where the two
forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
Σpbefore = Σpafter
pA(before) + pB(before) = pA(after) + pB(after) The magnitude of the force, the contact time and therefore the impulse on both objects are
equal in magnitude. 
mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .  
Forces are applied between objects during:
System: A set number of objects and their interactions with each other.
External forces: Forces outside of the system. Collisions: Move off together, collide and deflect, object dropped vertically on moving object.
Isolated system: A system on which the net external force is zero. Explosions: Explosions, springs, firearms
Collisions Explosions
Move off together Explosions
vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB

When objects collide and move off explosion will experience the same
together, their masses can be force.
added as one object
mA mB Collision mA+B The acceleration, velocity and mo- mA+B Explosion mA mB
mentum of the object is dependent
Objects that are stationary (B) on the mass.
have an initial velocity of zero. Σp before = Σpafter Objects that are stationary (A+B) Σp before = Σpafter
mA viA + mBviB = (mA + mB)vf have an initial velocity of zero. (mA + mB)vi = mA vfA + mBvfB
Collide and rebounds Springs
Objects can collide and move off

vA vB vA vB The spring will exert the same vB = 0 vB = 0 vA vB
separately force on both objects (Newton’s
Third Law).
mA mB Collision mA mB The acceleration, velocity and mo- mA mB Push mA mB
REMEMBER: The velocity and mentum of the object is dependent
momentum are vectors (i.e. on the mass.
direction specific). Velocity substi- Σp before = Σpafter Σp before = Σpafter
tution must take direction into Objects that are stationary (A+B)
account. mA viA + mBviB = mA vfA + mBvfB have a velocity of zero. (mA + mB)vi = mA vfA + mBvfB
Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

Example: A stuntman jumps off a vA+B
bridge and lands on a truck.  vA MB The gun and bullet will experience vG+B = 0 vG vB
  the same force.
Linear momentum= momentum
vB = 0 Shoot
The acceleration of the weapon is
along one axis. mA Collision mA+B significantly less than the bullet
mG+B mG mB
A dropped object has a horizontal due to mass difference
velocity of zero, 
 
Σp before = Σpafter Recoil can be reduced by increas- Σp before = Σpafter
ing the mass of the weapon.
∴viB= 0m·s 1
mA viA + mBviB = (mA + mB)vf (m G + mB)vi = m G vfG + mBvfB
17
Momentum and Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

 
Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved.
Inelastic collision: a collision in which only momentum is conserved. DOWNWARD SWING:
Conservation of mechanical
In an isolated system, momentum will always be conserved. To prove energy (EM) to determine velocity
that a collision is elastic, we only have to prove that kinetic energy is at the bottom of the swing:
conserved.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using the mass and velocity of an EM(top) = EM(bottom)
object:
mgh + 12 mv 2 = mgh + 12 mv 2
h
EK = kinetic energy (J)
1 COLLISION:
EK = mv 2 m = mass (kg)
2 Conservation of linear momentum to
v = velocity (m ⋅ s−1) determine the velocity of the block after impact.
Σp before = Σpafter
Elastic collision: Ek(before) = Ek(after)
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
Inelastic collision: Ek(before) ≠ Ek(after)
mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .
(some energy is lost as sound or heat)
EXAMPLE:
The velocity of a moving trolley of mass 1 kg is 3 m·s 1. A block of
mass 0,5 kg is dropped vertically on to the trolley. Immediately
UPWARD SWING:
after the collision the speed of the trolley and block is 2 m·s 1 in
the original direction. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Prove your Conservation of mechanical
answer with a suitable calculation. energy (EM) to determine height
that the pendulum will reach:
1
EK(before) = mt vt2 + 12 mb vb2
2 EM(bottom) = EM(top)
1
= (1)(3)2 + 12 (0,5)(0)2
2 mgh + 12 mv 2 = mgh + 12 mv 2
= 4,5 J
1 2
EK(after) = 2
mt+b vt+b COLLISION:
1 Conservation of linear momentum to
= 2
(1 + 0,5)(2)2 determine the velocity of the pendulum after
= 3J impact.
Σp before = Σpafter
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
EK(before) ≠ EK(after) 
mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .
∴ Kinetic energy is not conserved and the collision is inelastic
18
Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The ability to do work Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of
Unit: joules (J) EMECHA = EMECHB
air resistance or any external forces, the mechanical energy of a
Scalar quantity system is constant. The law of conservation of mechanical energy applies (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
when there is no friction or air resistance acting on the object. In the ab- 1 1
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) Kinetic Energy (EK) (m gh + 2 m v 2 )A = (m gh + 2 m v 2 )B
The energy an object possesses The energy an object has   sence of air resistance, or other forces, the mechanical energy of an object
due to its position relative to a ref- as a result of the object’s moving in the earth’s gravitational field in free fall, is conserved.
erence point. motion
Law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, merely transferred.
In the following instances the gravitational potential energy of an object is converted to kinetic energy (and vice versa), while the
Amount of energy transferred when an Amount of energy transferred
mechanical energy remains constant
object changes position relative to the to an object as it changes
earth’s surface. speed. EXAMPLE 1: Object moving vertically EXAMPLE 2: Object moving on an inclined plane
A 2 kg ball is dropped from rest at A, determine the maximum velocity A 2 kg ball rolls at 3 m·s−1 on the ground at A, determine the maximum
1 of the ball at B just before impact. height the ball will reach at B.
EP = mgh EK = mv 2
2
g = 9,8m.s-2, m is mass in kg, h is m is mass in kg, v is
height in m velocity in m.s-1
 
Example: Example:
Determine the gravitational potential Determine the kinetic energy (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
energy of a 500g ball when it is placed of a 500g ball when it travels (m gh + 1 m v 2 )A = (m gh + 1 m v 2 )B (m gh + 1 m v 2 )A = (m gh +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
on a table with a height of 3m. with a velocity of 3m.s -1.
(2)(9,8)(4) + 1 (2)(0 2 ) = (2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)v 2 (2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)(32 ) = (2)(9,8)(h) + 1 (2)(0 2 )
2 2 2 2
EP = m gh EK = 1
m v2
2 78,4 + 0 = 0 + 1v 2 0+9 = 19,6h + 0
= (0,5)(9,8)(3) 1 9
= (0,5)(32 ) v = 78,4 = h
= 14,7 J 2 19,6
= 2,25 J v = 8,85 m ⋅ s−1 downwards h = 0,46 m
EXAMPLE 3: Pendulum EXAMPLE 4: Rollercoaster

Mechanical Energy (EM) The 2 kg pendulum swings from A at 5 m·s−1 to B, on the ground, The 2 kg ball rolls on a toy rollercoaster from A, at 20 m above the
the sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy at a point where its velocity is 8 m·s−1. Determine the height at A. ground, to B where its height is 8 m and velocity is 14 m·s−1. Calculate
its starting velocity at A.
EM = EP + EK
EM = mgh + 12 mv 2
EXAMPLE:
A ball, mass 500g, is thrown horizontally through the air. The ball travels
at a velocity of 1,8m·s−1 and is 2,5m from the ground. Determine the
(EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
mechanical energy of the ball. (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
1 1 (m gh + 1 m v 2 )A = (m gh + 1
m v 2 )B
EM = EP + EK (m gh + m v 2 )A = (m gh + m v 2 )B 2 2
2 2
(2)(9,8)(20) + 1 (2)(v 2 ) = (2)(9,8)(16) + 1 (2)(142 )
EM = m gh + 12 m v 2 (2)(9,8)(h) + 1 (2)(52 ) = (2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)(82 ) 2 2
2 2
19,6h + 25 = 0 + 64 392 + v 2 = 313,6 + 196
EM = (0,5)(9,8)(2,5) + 12 (0,5)(1,82 )
64 − 25
= h v = 313,6 + 196 − 392
EM = 13,06 J 19,6
v = 10,84 m ⋅ s−1 to the right
h = 1,99 m
19
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
WORK No Work done on an object (moving at a constant velocity) if the force and NET WORK ON AN OBJECT
displacement are perpendicular to each other. A number of forces can act on an object at the same time. Each force
Work is the transfer of energy. Work done on an object
by a force is the product of the displacement and Consider a man carrying a suitcase with a weight of 20N on a ‘travelator’ can do work on the object to change the energy of the object. The net
the component of the force parallel to the moving at a constant velocity. work done on the object is the sum of the work done by each force act-
displacement. W = Fx Δx cos θ  ing on the object.
W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system. 

If Wnet is negative, energy is removed from the system.
W = work (J)  NOTE: 
F = force applied (N)  Work is a scalar quantity,  
Direc)on
Δx/ = displacement (m) of mo)on Work and Energy are SCALARS, and NOT direction specific.
i.e. NO DIRECTION!
The joule is the amount of work done when a force of one Fg = 20 N EXAMPLE:
newton moves its point of application one metre in the Calculate the net work done on a trolley where a force of 30 N is ap-
direction of the force. plied to the trolley. The trolley moves 3 m to the left. The force of
Work always involves two things: Δx friction is 5 N to the right.
  Work done by applied force: Work done by frictional force:
1. A force which acts on a certain object. (F) FA is perpendicular to the displacement: θ = 90° ; cos 90° = 0. 
2. The displacement of that object. (Δx / Δy) WA = FΔx cos θ Wf = Ff Δx cos θ
 
F No force in the plane of the displacement, hence, NO WORK IS DONE and = (30)(3)cos 0 = (5)(3)cos 180
no energy is transferred. We can also say that the applied force does not = 90 J = − 15 J
change the potential energy (height) or kinetic energy (vertical velocity) of
the object. Work done by gravity Work done by normal force:
Δx Wg = FgΔx cos θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
A force/force component in the direction of the displacement does positive
When a resultant force is applied to an object, the resultant = (Fg )(3)cos 90 = (FN )(3)cos 90
work on the object. The force increases the energy of the object.
force accelerates the block across distance Δx. Work has
been done to increase the kinetic energy of the block. Positive work means that energy is added to the system. =0J =0J
Wnet = WA + Wf + WN + Wg
F Direc+on = 90 − 15 + 0 + 0
of mo+on W = Fx Δx cos θ  = 75 J
F θ Fx = F cos θ Alternative method for determining net work:
Δy
Δx 1. Draw a free body showing only the forces acting on the object.
2. Calculate the resultant force acting on the object.
3. Calculate the net work using Wnet = FnetΔx cos θ
If a resultant force is applied to an object vertically, the 0° ≤ θ < 90° ; +1 ≥cos θ > 0 Step 1: Freebody diagram
resultant force lifts the block through distance Δy. Work FN
has been done to increase the potential energy of the A force/force component in the opposite direction of the displacement does
block. negative work on the object. The force decreases the energy of the object.
Negative work means that energy is being removed from the system.
F
 
FA = 30 N Ff = -5 N
W = Fx Δx cos θ 
θ Fx = F cos θ Direc+on Fg
of mo+on
Take left as positive:
F θ
Δx Step 2: Calculate Fnet Step 3: Net work
Δx Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
Work is only done in the direction of the displacement. Fnet = FA + Ff
Work is done by the component of the force that is parallel = 30 − 5 = (25)(3)cos 0
to the displacement. The angle between the force and the 90° < θ ≤ 180° ; 0 > cos θ ≥ −1  = 25 N left = 75 J
displacement is θ.
20
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

When a Resultant Force acts on an object, the object accelerates. A force is a non-conservative force if: Power is the rate at which work is done OR the rate at
This means there is a change in velocity of the object, and therefore which energy is transferred. 
1. The work done by the force in moving an object from point A to
a change in kinetic energy of the object, since Ek = ½ mv2
point B is dependent of the path taken.
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM: The work done by a net force on W
an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the
2. The net work done in moving an object in a closed path which starts P=
object
and ends at the same point is not zero. Δt
  P = power (Watt) 
Wnet = ΔE K A non-conservative force does not conserve mechanical energy. W = work (J) 
FnetΔx = 12 m(vf − vi)2 A certain amount of energy is converted into other forms such as internal
energy of the particles which the objects is made of. An example of a
Δt = time (s)
non-conservative force is the frictional force. EXAMPLE:

CONSERVATIVE FORCES Consider the crate on a rough surface being pushed with a constant Calculate the power expended when a barbell of mass 100 kg
A force is a conservative force if: force FA from position 1 to position 2 along two different paths. is lifted to a height of 2,2 m in a time of 3 s.
1. The work done by the force in EP = EP FA FA P=
W
moving an object from point A Ff Δt
to point B is independent of the

Ff =
FΔx cos θ
Δt
path taken. (100)(9,8)(2,2)cos 0
  FA =
2. The net work done in moving 3
 
an object in a closed path which = 718,67 W
starts and ends at the same  
1 Ff 2
point is zero.
Conservative force conserve mechanical energy. Example of The work done by FA is more when the longer path is taken. The work AVERAGE POWER (CONSTANT VELOCITY)
conservative forces are gravitational force and the tension in a done to overcome the friction will result in the surface of the crate be-
coming hotter. This energy is dissipated and is very difficult to retrieve, We can calculate the average power needed to keep an object
spring.
i.e. not conserved. moving at constant speed using the equation:
  Paverage = Fvaverage
Note: the total energy of the system is conserved in all cases, whether
the forces are conservative or non-conservative.  Δx
Paverage = F
Δt
 
Wnc = ΔE K + ΔEP EXAMPLE:
1
The work done by gravity on each ball is independent of the path = 2
m(vf − vi)2 + mgΔh A man lifts a 50 kg bag of cement from ground level up to a
taken. height of 4 m above ground level in such a way that the bag
of cement moves at constant velocity (i.e. no work is done to
EXAMPLE: ΔEP = mgΔh ΔE K = E Kf − E Ki change kinetic energy). Determine his average power if he
= mg(h f − h i ) 1 does this in 10 s. 
An 800 kg car traveling at = 2
m(vf − vi )2  
15 m·s−1 down a 30° hill = (800)(9,8)(0 − 100 sin 30) 1
100 = (800)(0 − 15)2
needs to stop within 100 m m = − 392 000 J 2
Paverage = Fvaverage
to avoid an accident. Using = − 90 000 J
Δy
energy calculations only, Wnc = ΔE K + ΔEP =F Δt
determine the magnitude Ff Δx cos θ = ΔE K + ΔEP
= (50)(9,8)( 10 )
of the average force that 4
Ff (100)cos 180 = − 90 000 − 392 000 4 m
must be applied to the
brakes over the 100 m. Ff =
− 482 000
= 196 W
30° −100
Ff = 4 820 N
21
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

If resistors are added in series, the If resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance will decrease Series circuit Parallel circuit
total resistance will increase and the and the total current will increase, provided the emf remains
total current will decrease provided constant. 10 V V1
V1
the emf remains constant.
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge.
Q
I=
t
I is the current strength, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds. SI unit is ampere (A). 3A A3
A1 A2 V2
A1 R1 A1 R1 R2
A1 R1 R2 A2 R1
2Ω 5Ω 4Ω
A2 R2 A2 R3
R1 R2 12 Ω
R2
IT = I1 = I2 IT = I1 + I2 IT = I1 + I2 a) Determine the total resistance.  
1 1
I1 = IR1 = IR2 a) Determine the total resistance.   = + 1
Rp R1 R2
RESISTANCE is the material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. Rtot = R1 + R2
1 1
V = IR = 2+5 = +
4 12
R is the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the flow of charge through it. = 7Ω = 1
Resistance (R) is the quotient of the potential difference (V) across a conductor and the current (I) in 3
it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω). ∴ Rp = 3Ω
b) Determine the reading on A1 and A2. 
R1 R1 R2 V = IR b) Determine the reading on V1 and V2. 
10 = I (7) V1 = IR
R1 R2
I = 1,43 A = (3)(3)
R2 R3 ∴ A1 = A2 = 1,43 A = 9V
∴ V1 = V2 = 9 V
R s = R1 + R2 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Combination circuits
Rp R1 R2 Rp R1 + R2 R3
15 V
Consider the circuit given. (Internal resistance is negligible)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) is the work done per V2
NOTE: Calculate:
unit positive charge to move the charge from one point to
another. It is often referred to as voltage. 1. Emf (ε): voltage across cells when
W no current is flowing (open circuit). a) the effective resistance of the circuit.
V=
Q b) the reading on ammeter A1.
2. V term or pd: voltage across cells
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy
R1
3Ω A1
when current is flowing. c) the reading on voltmeter V1.
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs).
d) the reading on ammeter A2. 2Ω
V1 V1 V2 A2 R2
a)  
1 1 1 4Ω
= +
R1 R1 R2 RP R2 R3 R3
1 1
V1 V2 = +
2 4 V1
R2 R3 3
=
R1 R2 4
V2 V3 4 b)   c)   d)  
∴ Rp = = 1,33 Ω Vtot V1 V1
3 Rtot = RP = R2Ω =
I1 I1 I2
V4 Rtot = R3Ω + RP 15 V1 4,60
V3
4,33 = 1,33 = 2 =
= 3 + 1,33 I1 3,46 I2
Vs = V1 + V2 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 Vp = V3 = V4 = (V1 + V2 ) = 4,33 Ω I1 = 3,46 A V1 = 4,60 V I2 = 2,30 A
22
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

PD of external
Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the po- The potential difference across a bat- ε = Vint + Vext circuit
tential difference across the conductor at constant temperature. tery not connected in a circuit is the 6V
emf
V emf of the battery.
R= PD of internal
I Emf is the total energy supplied resistance
per coulomb of charge by the cell.
Proof of Ohm’s law:
The current in the circuit is changed
When connected in a circuit the poten- 5V
Vint = Ir Vext = IRext
tial difference drops due the internal
using the rheostat, thus current is the resistance of the cells.
independent variable and potential
difference is the dependent variable. In reality all cells have internal
It is important that the temperature of
A
resistance (r). Internal resistors are ε = I(Rext + r)
the resistor is kept constant. always considered to be connected in
series with the rest of the circuit. EXAMPLE:
The resultant graph of potential
Determining the emf and internal resistance of a cell Consider the circuit below.
difference vs current indicates if the V
conductor is ohmic or non-ohmic. V
V
V r
Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor r Gra
y – intecept Inte dient ε
rna = N
• An Ohmic conductor is a • A Non-ohmic conductor is a ε = Emf l re ega
si st -v
conductor that obeys Ohm’s law conductor that does not obey A anc e
e
at all temperatures. Ohm’s law at all temperatures. 5Ω 3Ω
V V
• Constant ratio for I . • Ratio for I change with change I
in temperature. 4Ω
• E.g. Nichrome wire
• E.g. Light bulb Independent variable Current (I) When the switch is open the reading on the voltmeter is 12 V.
When the switch is closed the current through the 3Ω resistor is 1 A.
V V Dependent variable Potential difference (V) a) Calculate the total current of the circuit.
e
anc b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
s i st Controlled variable Temperature
Re a) b)  
= Rtop = R5Ω + R3Ω
nt
1 1 1
COST OF ELECTRICITY = +
ie Rp Rtop R 4Ω
rad Electricity is paid for in terms of the amount of energy used
= 5+3
1 1
G = 8Ω = +
by the consumer. 8 4
I I  
Rtop : R 4Ω =
3
Note: 8
POWER Cost of electricity = power × time × cost per unit P in kW 8 : 4
Rp =
8
= 2,67 Ω
t in hours 2 : 1 3
Power is the rate at which work is done. 
∴ Itop : I4Ω ε = I (R + r)
P = power (W)
W Example 1 : 2 12 = 3(2,67 + r)
P = W = work (J)
Δt A geyser produces 1200 W of power. Calculate the r = 1,33 Ω
I4Ω = 2Itop
Δt = time (s) cost of having the geyser switched on for 24 hours, if
P = I2R = 2(1)
I = current (A) the price of electricity is 85 c per unit.
= 2A
P = VI Cost = power × time × cost per unit
V = potential  Itot = Itop + I4Ω
difference (V) = (1,2)(24)(0,85)
V2 = R24,48 = 1+2
P =
R R = resistance (Ω)  = 3A
23
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
FLASHBACK!!  Prefix Conversion CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

Electrostatic force is a vector, therefore all The force can be calculated using  • Substitute charge magnitude only.
centi− (cC) ×10−2 vector rules can be applied:   • Direction determined by charge (like
Principle of conservation of charge. kQ1Q2 repel, unlike attract).
• Direction specific F=
Q + Q2 milli− (mC) ×10−3
r2 • Both objects experience the same
Q new = 1 • Can be added or subtracted force (Newton’s Third Law of Motion). 
2 micro− (µC) ×10−6
Principle of charge quantization. 1 Dimensional
Q nano− (nC) ×10−9
Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
n=
qe pico− (pC) ×10−12
3 cm 5 cm
COULOMB’S LAW A B C
The force between two charges is directly proportional to the   −2 nC +3 nC −1 nC
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance
between the charges squared. kQ A Q B kQ C Q B
FAB = FCB = Fnet = FAB + FCB
r2 r2
  = − 6 × 10−5 + 1,08 × 10−5
  9 × 109 (2 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 ) 9 × 109 (1 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 )
 
kQ1Q2 =
(3 × 10−2 ) 2
=
(5 × 10−2 ) 2 = − 4,92 × 10−5
F= ∴ Fnet = 4,92 × 10−5 N left
  r2 = 6 × 10−5 N left (A attracts B) = 1,08 × 10−5 N right (C attracts B)
F = force of attraction between objects (N)  2 Dimensional

k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) 
Q = object charge (C)  Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
r = distance between objects (m) 
-10 μC +7 μC FCB FCB
15 mm
RATIOS B C θ θ
In ratio questions, the same process is used as with Newton’s Law of OR
10 mm
Universal Gravitation. Fnet FAB FAB Fnet
EXAMPLE:
Two charges experience a force F when held a distance r apart. How
would this force be affected if one charge is doubled, the other charge is
tripled and the distance is halved.
A
+5 μC PYTHAGORAS :
kQ1Q 2 F 2net = F 2AB + F 2BC
F=
r2 kQ A Q B
FAB = Fnet = 4 500 2 + 2 800 2
k(2Q1)(3Q 2 ) r2
= Fnet = 5 300 N
( 1 r)2 =
9 × 109 (5 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 )
2
(10 × 10−3) 2
6 kQ1Q 2 o
= = 4 500 N down (A attracts B) tanθ =
1 r2 a
4 FAB
θ = tan−1
kQ1Q 2
= 24( )
kQ C Q B FCB
FCB =
r2 r2 θ = tan−1
4 500
2 800
= 24F 9 × 109 (7 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 )
= θ = 58,11∘
(15 × 10−3) 2
∴ Fnet = 5 300 N at 58,11∘ below the negative y − axis
= 2 800 N right (C attracts B)
24
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experi- Electric field strength at any point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a
ences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction positive test charge at that point.
that a positive test charge (+1C) would move if placed at that point.    
F kQ
Single point charges E= E=
q r2
   
E = electric field strength (N·C−1)  E = electric field strength (N·C−1) 
F = force (N)  k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) 
q = charge (C) Q = object charge (C) 
+ −  
r =
 
distance between objects (m)
q is the charge that experiences the force. Q is the charge that creates the electric field.
Force due to
charge Q Certain point
Unlike charges
Q in space
r X
F Charge experiencing
Q the electric field Distance between
q charge Q and point X
+ − EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Charge B experiences a force of 2 N due to charge A. Determine the electric field strength at point P due to
Determine the electric field strength at point B. charge Q.
A B Q
5mm P
Like charges +2μC −5μC +3μC
F kQ
E = q E =
r2
− − =
2
5 × 10−6 =
9 × 109(3 × 10−6 )
(5 × 10−3) 2
= 4 × 10 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
5
= 1,08 × 109 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
DIRECTION: DIRECTION:
Direction that point in space ( X ) Direction that point in space ( X )
would move IF it was positive. would move IF it was positive.
+ + NOTE:
Electric field strength is a VECTOR. All vector rules and calculations apply. 
(linear addition, 2D arrangement, resultant vectors, etc.)
25
Electromagnetism GRADE 11 RECAP SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF 
•Increase the rate of change of magnetic flux, ie. decrease
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, it causes movement
the time it takes to change the flux, ie. increase speed of
around the wire. of charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire. Only a
movement. 
change in magnetic flux will induce a current.
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand •Increase the number of loops in the coil. 
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- •Increase the strength of the magnet. 
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). •Increase the surface area of the loops in the coil. 
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. •Increase the change of flux by changing the angle, θ,
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on
from a minimum of 0° to a maximum of 90°.
the coil and the flux through the coil. 
  ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF 
I I Out of page Into of page OVERHEAD CABLES
ε = emf (V) 
−NΔϕ N= number of turns/windings in coil  •Birds fly into power lines as they cannot see them from a
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)  distance.
  Δt
  Δt= change in time (s)  •This places birds at risk of becoming extinct because of
B   the increase in unnatural mortality.
The magnetic flux is the result of the product of the perpendicular com- •Trees fall onto power lines and can cause fires to erupt. 
ponent of the magnetic field and cross-sectional area the field lines •Trees have to be cut down to make space for the power
pass through. lines.
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic •There is no evidence that the electromagnetic effect of
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb)  the power lines has any negative impact on people and the
gle wire at each end of the loop. B= magnetic flux density (T)  surroundings as the strength of the field is low.
ϕ = BA cos θ
F F A= area (m2)  •The electromagnetic effect of the power line can disrupt
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal radio signals and for emergency services, this can be a
major problem.
B
Normal Normal
I B θ θ θ
θ
F F
A=l ×b
A=πr2
I DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid the needle of the galvanometer
is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the bar magnet is removed, the
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the needle deflects in the opposite direction. The magnetic energy is con-
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the North verted to electrical energy. The direction of the induced current can be
pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. determined using Lenz’s law.
I Lenz’s Law states
B that the induced
N
S
current flows in a
direction so as to S
set up a magnetic N
N
field to oppose
N
the change in S
magnetic flux. S
26
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
GENERATORS ALTERNATING CURRENT

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. A generator works on the principal of mechanically rotating The potential difference and current for an alternating current fluctuates between a posi-
a conductor in a magnetic field. This creates a changing flux which induces an emf in the conductor. tive and negative maxima. The average potential difference and current is zero and so
the average power is used to define the potential difference and current for an alternat-
Direct Alternating ing current.
A direct current generator uses a split ring commutator to The alternating current generator is connected to the exter- Power versus time graph for a AC circuit.
connect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a nal circuit by 2 slip rings which is connected to the
slip ring. conductor. The slip rings make contact with brushes which
are connected to the external circuit. Pmax = VmaxImax
 
   
  B C  
B C
    Pave = ½ VmaxImax
   
 
  N S  
 
N S Δt (s)
A D A D
   
    1
Pave = P
    2 max
    1
    V = (Vmax ⋅ I max )
V 2
   
The current in the external circuit does not change The direction of the current changes with every half turn of 1 1
= Vmax ⋅ I max
direction and is known a direct current (DC). the coil. The current that is produced is known as alternat- 2 2
ing current (AC).
B C B B C B = Vrms ⋅ I rms
C B B C C B B C
 
C B C C B C
The potential difference for an alternating current is therefore defined by the root mean
square of the maximum potential difference (Vrms) and the current for an alternating
current is defined as the root mean square of the maximum current (Irms). These values
Induced emf (V)
Induced emf (V)
can be calculated from the maximum potential difference and maximum current as fol-
lows:
Rotations Rotations V
Vrms = max
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 2
I max
I rms =
2
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO RULE INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

The Right hand Rule is used to predict the −NΔϕ
direction of the induced emf in the coil.
ε=  
F B C B C Δt
Using your right hand, hold your first fin- From the equation, the induced emf can be
ger, second finger and thumb 90° to each B increased by
other. Point your first finger in the
direction of the magnetic field (N to S),
N S N S • Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
A D A D
your thumb in the direction of the motion • Increasing the area of the coil.
(or force) of the conductor. The middle
I
• Increasing the strength of the magnets.
finger will point in the direction of the in-
• Decreasing the time it takes to change the
duced current. V V
magnetic flux.
27
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
MOTORS
Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a current carrying armature, connected to a
source by a commutator and brushes and placed in a magnetic field.
Direct Alternating
A direct current motor uses a split ring commutator to con- The alternating current motor is connected to the external
nect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a slip circuit by a slip ring. The slip ring makes contact with
ring. brushes which are connected to the external circuit at-
tached to an alternating current source.
 
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
The split ring commutator allows the current in the coil to The direction of the current in the coil is constantly
alternate with every half turn, which allows the coil to con- changing, which allows the coil to continue to rotate in the
tinue to rotate in the same direction. same direction.
When a charge moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force. The force experienced on both sides of the ar-
mature creates torque which makes it turn. The direction of the force can be explained using the left hand rule.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE

The Left hand Rule is used to predict the direction of the movement of the coil in the motor. Using your left hand, hold
your first finger, second finger and thumb 90° to each other. Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field,
your second finger in the direction of the conventional current and your thumb will then point in the direction of the force.
F B C
B
N S
I A D
28
Photoelectric Effect SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (f0), WORK FUNCTION (W0) AND FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The photoelectric effect occurs when light is shone on a metals
PHOTON ENERGY An increase in frequency will increase the kinetic energy of
surface and this causes the metal to emit electrons. The frequency required to produce enough energy to emit an electron is called the electrons. On a graph of Ek(max) vs frequency, the 
the threshold frequency (f0). The threshold frequency (f0) is the minimum y-intercept indicates the threshold frequency.
Metals are bonded in such a way that they
share their valence electrons in a sea of frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from
a particular metal. The minimum amount of energy needed to emit an No emission Emission
delocalized electrons. In order to get an
electron to be removed from the surface of electron from the surface of a metal is known as the work function f < f0 f > f0
EK(max) (J)
a metal, you would have to provide it with (W0). The work function is material specific.
enough energy in order to escape the If the energy of the photons exceed the work function (i.e. the frequency of light
bond. exceeds the threshold frequency), the excess energy is transferred to the liber-
  ated electron in the form of kinetic energy.
The energy that light provides enables the electron to escape and f0 f (Hz)
The kinetic energy of the electron can be determined by:  
this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
NOTE: Similarly, on the graph of Ek(max) vs wavelength, the 
PHOTON ENERGY E = W0 + E K(max) Sometimes work function is given y-intercept indicates the maximum wavelength of light
in eV. Convert from eV to J: that can emit an electron (wavelength is inversely propor-
Photons are “little packets” of energy called quanta, which act as tional to frequency).
particles. The energy of the photon(light) can be calculated in one f < f0 f = f0 f > f0 J = eV × 1,6×10−19
of two ways: Emission No emission
hc
EK(max) (J)
  E = hf E= c/! > f0 c/! < f0
  λ
E = energy of the photon measured in Joules (J)  e-
EK(max) = ½ mv(max)2
h = Planck’s constant, 6,63 × 10−34 (J·s)  e-
f = frequency measured in hertz (Hz)  W0 = hf0
# = wavelength measured in meters (m)  e- Maximum
! (m)
wavelength
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 (m·s−1)
INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light (radiation) means that there are more photons with the same frequency. This The higher the intensity of the radiation, the more electrons are emitted per
will result in more electrons with the same amount of energy being emitted. Thus the number of electrons emitted per second second. Therefore an increased intensity will increase the current produced.
increases with the intensity of the incident radiation 
The higher the frequency, the more kinetic energy is provided to the same number
Light
LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY of electrons. The rate of electron flow REMAINS THE SAME.
source
Metal
.
. . .
. . .
ejected per second (current)

. . .
f0
. . . . .
.
. . . .
. . .
. . .
  . . . .
High-intensity light
  G
Number of electrons
  V Metal Electron Photon
 
Note that the energy of the electrons remain the same. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency, Low-intensity light
then increasing the intensity of the radiation has no effect i.e. it does not cause electrons to be ejected. To increase the energy,
the frequency of the radiant light needs to be increased.  
INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

INCREASE FREQUENCY AT CONSTANT INTENSITY = INCREASE KINETIC ENERGY OF EMITTED ELECTRONS Frequency of light on cathode (Hz)
29
Emission and Absorption Spectra SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA

When white light shines through a prism, the light is dispersed into a The lines on the atomic spectrum (line emission spectrum) are as a result
spectrum of light. It is called the continuous spectrum. White light is of electron transitions between energy levels. As electrons gain energy As white light is passed through a cold gaseous element,
made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and when dispersed we are (heat) they transition to a higher state of energy, hence a higher energy the electrons inside the atoms of the element absorb the
able to see the components of white light. This is the same range as the level. As the element cools the electrons drop back down to the lower energy of the light (photons). The energy is absorbed in
visible spectrum.  energy state. As they do this they emit the absorbed energy in the form of specific bands which corresponds to the energy required
light (photons). Therefore, each electron gives off a frequency of light by electrons to transition between energy levels.
which corresponds with the line emission spectrum.
R O Y G B I V n = 4 The absorbed energy furthermore corresponds to a
specific frequency of light. As the electrons absorb
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
n = 3 energy, the specific frequency of light disappears, result-
ing in an absorption spectrum. The black lines below rep-
The white light is emitted from a bulb, therefore the continuous spectrum is an resent the energy absorbed by the element.
emission spectrum.
n = 2
ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

When an element in the gaseous phase is heated, it emits light. If the n = 1
light produced is passed through a prism, a spectrum is produced. How- Electrons in the n = 1 energy level are closest to the nucleus and have the The absorption spectra for a specific element will be the
ever, this spectrum is not continuous, but consists of only some lines of lowest potential energy. Electrons in the energy level furthest from the nu- inverse of its emission spectra.
colour. This is known as line emission spectrum. cleus (eg. n = 4) has the highest potential energy. If an electron is free
Each element has their own light signature as no two elements have the from the atom then it has zero potential energy. The potential energy is
same spectrum. given as a negative value due to a decrease in potential as the electrons
get close to the nucleus.
As the electrons transition from their energized state back to their normal
state they give off energy that is equal to the difference in potential energy
between the energy levels.
ΔE = E 2 − E1
ΔE = difference in potential energy between two energy levels
E2 = the highest energy state
E1 = the lowest energy state 
CONTINUOUS EMISSION SPECTRA
The amount of energy that is released relates directly to a specific fre-
quency or wavelength (thus colour) of light.
hc
E = hf E=
λ
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA
EXAMPLE:
A sample of hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube. The electron
from the hydrogen atom emits energy as it transitions from energy level
E6 (−0,61×10−19 J) to E2 (−5,46×10−19). Determine the wavelength of
light emitted.
E = hc ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA
λ
ΔE = E 6 − E 2
−19 (6,63 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )
= − 0,61 × 10−19 − (−5,46 × 10−19 ) 4,85 × 10 =
λ
= 4,85 × 10−19 J λ = 4,1 × 10−7 = 410 nm
30
Doppler Effect SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
As a sound source moves through space, it moves relative to the waves that it has already produced.
This causes an apparent change in wavelength, and therefore also a change in the perceived frequency. Listener away from source (−) Source away from listener (+)
   
Doppler effect: The change in frequency of a wave due to Decrease in observed frequency. Decrease in observed frequency.
the relative movement between the source and the observer.
v ± vL v ± vL
fL = f fL = f
v ± vs s v ± vs s
   
v − vL v
fL = fs fL = f
v v + vs s
Listener to source (+) Source to listener (−)

When a source moves towards an ob- When a source moves away from an    
server OR an observer moves towards observer OR an observer moves away Increase in observed frequency. Increase in observed frequency.
a source, the distance between the wave- from a source, the distance between the
fronts (wavelength) is decreased and wavefronts (wavelength) is increased and v ± vL v ± vL
the perceived frequency increases. the perceived frequency decreases. fL = f fL = f
v ± vs s v ± vs s
A change in wavelength/frequency can be observed as:    
• Sound- A change in pitch (higher frequency, higher pitch) v + vL v
fL = fs fL = f
• Light- A change in light colour (red-shift OR blue shift) v v − vS s
EQUATIONS DOPPLER EFFECT AS PROOF OF EXPANDING UNIVERSE
The visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum The shift can be observed by comparing the ab-
REMEMBER:
v ± vL ALWAYS start with the
is as follow: sorption spectra of moving stars with a stationary
fL = f f
reference sample.
v ± vs s
FULL original formula
(on data sheet)! Red shi3
R O Y G B I V
fL = frequency of listener (Hz)
v = speed of sound (m·s−1) Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, Sta$onary
OR thus a shift towards the red spectrum (longer wave- reference
speed of light (3 ×108 m·s−1) length, lower frequency) indicates that the source
vL = velocity of listener (m·s−1) of the wave is moving away from the observer.  
vS = velocity of source (m·s−1) Blue shi3
fS = frequency of source (Hz) Red shift: object moving away from observer.
Blue shift: object moving towards observer. Because most stars exhibit a red shift, we can con-
To convert between frequency and wavelength: clude that they are moving away from the earth
and thus that the universe is expanding.
Material waves (i.e. sound) Electromagnetic radiation
APPLICATIONS OF DOPPLER EFFECT
v = fλ c = fλ
Medicine Maritime Law enforcement
• Measures blood flow rate • SONAR positioning underwater • Radar monitoring of speed-
v = speed of wave (m·s−1) c = speed of light (3 ×108 m·s−1) • Observation of fetus heart rate ing cars
f = frequency of sound (Hz) f = frequency of sound (Hz)
# = wavelength (m) # = wavelength (m)
31
www
www
www
Information sheets – Paper 2 (Chemistry)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
NAME SYMBOL VALUE
Standard pressure pθ 1,013 x 105 Pa
Molar gas volume at STP Vm 22,4 dm3∙mol-1
Standard temperature Tθ 273 K
Charge on electron e -1,6 x 10-19 C
TABLE 2: FORMULAE
m N
n= n=
M NA
n m V
c= OR c = n=
V MV Vm
c a Va n a
= pH = -log[H 3 O+]
c b Vb n b
K w = [H 3 O+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at 298 K
θ
Ecell = Ecathode
θ
− Eanode
θ
θ
E cell = E reduction
θ
− E oxidation
θ
θ
E cell = E oxidising
θ
agent − E reducing agent
θ
TABLE 3: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
1 Atomic number 2
KEY/SLEUTEL
H He
2,1
Atoomgetal
1 4
3 4 29 5 6 7 8 9 10
Symbol
Li Be Electronegativity Cu B C N O F Ne
1,9
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Elektronegatiwiteit Simbool
7 9 63,5 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
0,9
1,2
1,5
1,8
2,1
2,5
3,0
Approximate relative atomic mass
23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0,8
1,0
1,3
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,5
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,9
1,6
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,4
2,8
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,2
2,2
1,9
1,7
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,1
2,5
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tℓ Pb Bi Po At Rn
0,7
0,9
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,9
2,0
2,5
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
0,7
0,9
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
226
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
TABLE 4A: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
Half-reactions E (V)
θ
F 2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2F− + 2,87

2+
Co + e−
3+
⇌ Co + 1,81
+ 2H +2e−
+
H2O2 ⇌ 2H 2 O +1,77
−
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e−
+
⇌ Mn
2+
+ 4H 2 O + 1,51
Cℓ 2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cℓ− + 1,36
2−
Cr 2 O 7 + 14H + 6e−
+
⇌
3+
2Cr + 7H 2 O + 1,33
O 2 (g) + 4H + 4e−
+
⇌ 2H 2 O + 1,23
2+
MnO 2 + 4H + 2e−
+
⇌ Mn + 2H 2 O + 1,23
Pt + 2e−
2+
⇌ Pt + 1,20
Br 2 (ℓ) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− + 1,07
−
NO 3 + 4H + 3e−
+
⇌ NO(g) + 2H 2 O + 0,96
Hg + 2e−
2+
⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
Ag + e−
+
⇌ Ag + 0,80
−
NO 3 + 2H + e−
+
⇌ NO 2 (g) + H 2 O + 0,80
2+
Fe + e−
3+
⇌ Fe + 0,77
O 2 (g) + 2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
I 2 + 2e− ⇌ 2I− + 0,54
Cu + e−
+
⇌ Cu + 0,52
SO 2 + 4H + 4e−
+
⇌ S + 2H 2 O + 0,45
Increasing reducing ability/
2H 2 O + O 2 + 4e− ⇌ 4OH− + 0,40
Increasing oxidising ability
Cu + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cu + 0,34
2−
SO 4 + 4H + 2e−
+
⇌ SO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O + 0,17
+
Cu + e−
2+
⇌ Cu + 0,16
2+
Sn + 2e−
4+
⇌ Sn + 0,15
S + 2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H 2 S(g) + 0,14
2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H 2 (g) 0,00
Fe + 3e−
3+
⇌ Fe − 0,06
Pb + 2e−
2+
⇌ Pb − 0,13
Sn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Sn − 0,14
Ni + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ni − 0,27
Co + 2e−
2+
⇌ Co − 0,28
Cd + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cd − 0,40
2+
Cr + e−
3+
⇌ Cr − 0,41
Fe + 2e−
2+
⇌ Fe − 0,44
Cr + 3e−
3+
⇌ Cr − 0,74
Zn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Zn − 0,76
2H 2 O + 2e− ⇌ H 2 (g) + 2OH− − 0,83
Cr + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cr − 0,91
Mn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Mn − 1,18
Aℓ + 3e−
3+
⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
Mg + 2e−
2+
⇌ Mg − 2,36
Na + e−
+
⇌ Na − 2,71
Ca + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ca − 2,87
Sr + 2e−
2+
⇌ Sr − 2,89
Ba + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ba − 2,90
+ -
Cs + e ⇌ Cs - 2,92
K + e−
+
⇌ K − 2,93
Li + e−
+
⇌ Li − 3,05
TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
Half-reactions E (V)
θ
Li + e−
+
⇌ Li − 3,05
K + e−
+
⇌ K − 2,93
Cs + e−
+
⇌ Cs − 2,92
Ba + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ba − 2,90
Sr + 2e−
2+
⇌ Sr − 2,89
Ca + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ca − 2,87
Na + e−
+
⇌ Na − 2,71
Mg + 2e−
2+
⇌ Mg − 2,36
Aℓ + 3e−
3+
⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
Mn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Mn − 1,18
Cr + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cr − 0,91
2H 2 O + 2e− ⇌ H 2 (g) + 2OH− − 0,83
Zn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Zn − 0,76
Cr + 3e−
3+
⇌ Cr − 0,74
Fe + 2e−
2+
⇌ Fe − 0,44
2+
Cr + e−
3+
⇌ Cr − 0,41
Increasing oxidising ability
Cd + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cd − 0,40
Co + 2e−
2+
⇌ Co − 0,28
Increasing reducing ability
Ni + 2e−
2+
⇌ Ni − 0,27
Sn + 2e−
2+
⇌ Sn − 0,14
Pb + 2e−
2+
⇌ Pb − 0,13
Fe + 3e−
3+
⇌ Fe − 0,06
2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H 2 (g) 0,00
S + 2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H 2 S(g) + 0,14
2+
Sn + 2e−
4+
⇌ Sn + 0,15
+
Cu + e−
2+
⇌ Cu + 0,16
2−
SO 4 + 4H + 2e−
+
⇌ SO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O + 0,17
Cu + 2e−
2+
⇌ Cu + 0,34
2H 2 O + O 2 + 4e− ⇌ 4OH− + 0,40
SO 2 + 4H + 4e−
+
⇌ S + 2H 2 O + 0,45
Cu + e−
+
⇌ Cu + 0,52
I 2 + 2e− ⇌ 2I− + 0,54
O 2 (g) + 2H + 2e−
+
⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
2+
Fe + e−
3+
⇌ Fe + 0,77
−
NO 3 + 2H + e−
+
⇌ NO 2 (g) + H 2 O + 0,80
Ag + e−
+
⇌ Ag + 0,80
Hg + 2e−
2+
⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
−
NO 3 + 4H + 3e−
+
⇌ NO(g) + 2H 2 O + 0,96
Br 2 (ℓ) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− + 1,07
Pt + 2 e−
2+
⇌ Pt + 1,20
2+
MnO 2 + 4H + 2e−
+
⇌ Mn + 2H 2 O + 1,23
O 2 (g) + 4H + 4e−
+
⇌ 2H 2 O + 1,23
2− 3+
Cr 2 O 7 + 14H + 6e−
+
⇌ 2Cr + 7H 2 O + 1,33
Cℓ 2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cℓ− + 1,36
− 2+
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e−
+
⇌ Mn + 4H 2 O + 1,51
H 2 O 2 + 2H +2 e−
+
⇌ 2H 2 O +1,77
2+
Co + e−
3+
⇌ Co + 1,81
F 2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2F− + 2,87
Grade 12 Science Essentials Grade 12 Chemistry Definitions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Interatomic forces: the forces between atoms within a molecule  
Intermolecular forces: the forces between two molecules 
Intermolecular
Van der Waal forces: weak intermolecular forces  
Forces Revision
Dipole-dipole forces: forces between two polar molecules  
Induced dipole forces (London Dispersion): forces between two non-polar molecules 
Hydrogen bonding: forces between molecules which hydrogen is covalently bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine
Organic molecules: molecules containing carbon atoms 
Functional group: a bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of
organic compounds 
Hydrocarbon: organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only 
Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula OR in which one
member differs from the next with a CH2 group 
Saturated compounds: compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains
Organic chemistry Unsaturated compounds: compounds with one or more multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains 
Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of
organic compounds
Molecular formula: a chemical formula that indicates the type of atoms and the correct number of each in a molecule
Structural formula: a structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which within the molecule. Atoms
are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds that hold the atoms together 
Condensed structural formula: this notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the molecule, but DOES
NOT SHOW ALL bond lines 
Structural isomer: Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae  
Macromolecule: A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms 
Polymer: A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern  
Monomer: Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern  
Polymerisation: A chemical reaction in which monomer molecules join to form a polymer  
Addition polymerisation: A reaction in which small molecules join to form very large molecules by adding on double bonds 
Polymers Addition polymer: A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double bond) combine through an addition
reaction. 
Condensation polymerisation: Molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo condensation reactions
with the loss of small molecules, usually water 
Condensation polymer: A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are linked together in a
condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is lost
Heat of reaction (ΔH): the energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction 
Exothermic reactions: reactions that release energy 
Energy change
Endothermic reactions: reactions that absorb energy 
Revision
Activation energy: the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place 
Activated complex: the unstable transition state from reactants to products 
Reaction rate: as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time 
Rate and Extent Activation energy: the minimum energy required for a reaction to take place. Colliding molecules must have, apart from the
of reaction correct orientation, a kinetic energy equal to or bigger than the activation energy of a reaction before the reaction can take place.  
Positive catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing a permanent change.
Open system: one which continuously interacts with its environment 
Closed system: one which is isolated from its surroundings  
Chemical
Chemical equilibrium: it is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction 
Equilibrium
Le Chatelier’s principle: when the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a new equilibrium by
favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance
  37
Grade 12 Science Essentials Grade 12 Chemistry Definitions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Arrhenius theory 
+ +
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H )/hydronium ions (H3O ) when it dissolves in water  
-
Base: a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH ) when it dissolves in water  
Lowry-Brønsted theory: 
Acid: a proton (H+ ion) donor  
Base: a proton (H+ ion) acceptor  
Strong acids: ionise completely in water to form a high concentra@on of H3O+ ions. 
Weak acids: Ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentra@on of H3O+ ions. 
Acids and Bases Strong bases: dissociate completely in water to form a high concentra@on of OH- ions. 
Weak bases: dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentra@on of OH- ions. 
Concentrated acids/bases: contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in propor@on to the volume of
water  
Dilute acids/bases: contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in propor@on to the volume of water
Ampholyte (amphiproBc substance): a substance that can act as either an acid or a base. Eg. Water 
Auto-ionisaBon of water: the reac@on of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and OH- ions 
Kw: the equilibrium constant for the ionisa@on of water or the ionic product of water or the ionisa@on constant of
water, i.e. Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 by 298 K
OxidaBon: a loss of electrons, an increase in oxida@on number  
ReducBon: a gain of electrons, a decrease in oxida@on number  
Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/gains electrons.  
Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised/loses electrons.  
Anode: the electrode where oxida@on takes place  
Electrochemical Cathode: the electrode where reduc@on takes place 
ReacBons Electrolyte: a solu@on/liquid/dissolved substance that conducts electricity through the movement of ions  
Electrolysis: the chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy OR the use of electrical
energy to produce a chemical change 
Galvanic cell: self-sustaining reac@on, conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy 
ElectrolyBc cell: electrode reac@on sustained by a supply of electrical energy, conversion of electrical energy into
chemical energy
EutrophicaBon: the process by which an ecosystem, e.g. a river or dam, becomes enriched with inorganic plant
FerBlizers nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, resul@ng in excessive plant growth. As plant growth becomes
excessive, the amount of dead and decaying plant material increases rapidly.
  38
Organic molecules SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen atoms. These compounds can be REPRESENTING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
in the gaseous, liquid, or solid phase. All living matter contains organic compounds.
We use a variety of ways to draw or write organic compounds. We either make use
UNIQUENESS OF CARBON of the molecular formula, condensed formula or we use full structural formulae.
Carbon is very unique and is the basic building block of all organic compounds. It’s
atoms have a valency of four in a tetrahedral arrangement. This means it is able to
make four bonds. Does not show any bonds, only the
Carbon atoms can form single, double or triple bonds
NOTE: Molecular formula number of each atom present in the
compound
C3H8
Carbon atoms have
C C C C C C
to form 4 bonds,
but not necessarily
with 4 other atoms
This formula does not show all the
HYDROCARBONS Condensed formula bonds but shows the important bonds
and general structure
CH3CH=CH2
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
These compounds can be saturated (single bonds) and unsaturated (double or
triple bonds). H H H
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms. This formula shows all the bonds and H C C C H
Structural formula
atoms in the molecule.
Saturated compound: Unsaturated compound:
H H H
A compound in which all of the bonds A compound in which there is at least
between carbon atoms are single bonds. one double and/or triple bond between
carbon atoms. ISOMERS
H H H   H H
H Isomers: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.
 
  H C C C H C C C H
butane 2-methylpropane
H H H H H
  H H H
These have the same H H H H
(Alkanes) (Alkenes and alkynes) H C C C H
Chain isomers molecular formula but different
chains
H C C C C H
Saturation test with Br2 (aq) or KMnO4 (aq)
H H
H H H H H C H
Unknown solution
Unsaturated solution  Saturated solution  H
(alkene or alkyne)  (alkane) 
propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
Add test H
substance  These have the same H
Solution remains clear/ Solution changes
(Br2/KMnO4) molecular formula but the H H O
discolours quickly colour/discolours slowly Positional isomers H O H
functional group is in a
CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOL different position H C C C H H C C C H
Primary  Secondary  Tertiary  H H H H H H
One C bonded to the C Two C’s bonded to the C Three C’s bonded to the
propanoic acid methyl ethanoate
bonded to the OH bonded to the OH C bonded to the OH These have the same
H H molecular formula but a O
R’’ H H H O H
different functional group.
Functional isomers
Aldehydes and ketone are H C C C O H H C C O C H
R C O H R C O H R C O H functional isomers as well as
carboxylic acids and esters H H H H
H R’ R’
39
Organic molecules- Naming SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
All organic compounds belong to a specific group which allows us to

identify or name the compound. The group that compounds belong Number of
to, known as the homologous series, depends on the the carbon atoms Root name Substituent Formula Structural formula Name
functional group of the compound. in main chain
Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be H

1 meth−
described by the same general formula OR in which one member
differs from the next with a CH2 group CH3− C C H methyl−
Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that 2 eth−
H
determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of or-
ganic compounds 3 prop− H H
4 but− Alkyl CH3CH2− C C C H ethyl−

NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
H H
Every distinct compound has a unique name, and there is only one 5 pent−
possible structure for any IUPAC (International Union of Pure and H H H
Applied Chemistry) name. The IUPAC method for naming is a set 6 hex− CH3CH2CH2− propyl−
C C C C H
pattern. It indicates the longest chain (the longest continuous
chain), the functional group and names of substituent groups 7 hept− H H H
(side chains) or atoms attached to the longest chain.
8 oct− X repesents a halogen:
Three parts of an IUPAC name:
Fluorine: fluoro− 
Substituent Functional 9 non− Halogen X− C X Chlorine: chloro− 
Root name Bromine: bromo− 
Prefix group suffix
10 dec− Iodine: iodo− 
The root name indicates the number of carbon atoms in the long-
est chain. This chain must contain the functional group. The EXAMPLE:
prefix indicates the number and location of atoms or groups Number of Substituent
substituents prefix Write down the name of the molecule below:
(substituents) attached to the longest chain. The suffix identifies
the functional group. 
Steps to naming organic compounds: di
2
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain which must contain eg. dimethyl
the functional group.
2. Number the longest carbon chain beginning at the carbon tri
3
(carbon 1) nearest to the functional group with the alkyl substitu- eg. triethyl
ents on the lowest numbered carbon atoms of the longest chain.
3. Name the longest chain according to the number of carbons in tetra
the chain. (the root name) 4
eg. tetramethyl
4. The suffix of the compound name is dependent on the
functional group. NOTE:  Substituents Main chain Functional group
A maximum of THREE substituent
5. Identify and name substituents (alkyl and halogen substituents), 1−chloro 7 = hept 1,4−diene
chains (alkyl substituents) are al-
indicating the position of the substituent
lowed on the main chain 2,4−diethyl
6. For several identical side chains use the prefix di-, tri-, tetra-
NOTE:  3−methyl
7. Arrange substituents in alphabetical order in the name of the comma between numbers 
compound, ignore the prefix di-, tri-, tetra- (substituent 5,6−dibromo
number , number 
prefix) dash between letter and number 
letter − number − letter 5,6−dibromo−1−chloro−2,4−diethyl−3−methylhept−1,4−diene
8. Indicate position using numbers.
40
Organic Functional Groups SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Homologous Examples
series and  Functional
Suffix Properties
General group Condensed
formula Structural formula Name
formula
Single bonds H H H Polarity: Non-Polar 
Alkanes  IMF: Weak London 
CnH2n+2 
R C C R’ -ane H C C C H CH3CH2CH3 propane
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
H H H Combustion
Double bonds H H H
Polarity: Non-polar 
Alkenes 
CnH2n 
R C C R’ -ene H C C C H CH3CH=CH2 propene IMF: London 
Reactions: Addition, combustion
H
Triple bonds H
Polarity: Non-polar 
Alkynes 
CnH2n−2 
R C C R’ -yne H C C C H CH≣CCH3 propyne IMF: London 
Reactions: Addition
H
Br Cl H
Haloalkane/ X (Group
Halogens 
17) 
fluoro− 
chloro− 
Polarity: Polar 
Haloalkene  H C C C H CH2BrCHClCH3 1−bromo−2−chloropropane IMF: Dipole−Dipole 
bromo− 
(Alkyl halide) Reactions: Elimination, Substitution 
R C R’ iodo−
H H H
Hydroxyl H H H Polarity: Polar 
Alcohols  IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds 
CnH2n+2O
R O H -ol H C C C O H CH3CH2CH2OH propan−1−ol
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
Esterification, Combustion
H H H
Carboxyl H H O
O Polarity: Polar 
Carboxylic acids 
-oic acid H C C C O H CH3CH2COOH propanoic acid IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds 
CnH2nO2
R C O H Reactions: Esterification
H H
Carbonyl H H O H H
O Polarity: Polar 
Esters  -yl -oate  CH3CH2COOCH2CH3 
H C C C O C C H ethyl propanoate IMF: Dipole−Dipole 
R−COO−R’  (alch.) (carbox.) (carbox.) (alch.)
R C O R’ Reactions: Formed by esterification
H H H H
Formyl H H O
O
Aldehydes  Polarity: Polar 
-al H C C C H CH3CH2CHO pronanal
CnH2n+1CHO  IMF: Dipole−Dipole 
R C H
H H
Carbonyl H O H
O
Ketone  Polarity: Polar 
-one H C C C H CH3COCH3 propan−2−one
R−COC−R’  IMF: Dipole−Dipole 
R C R’
H H
41
Organic Intermolecular Forces SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules in the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. They are electrostatic COMPARING IMF
attractive forces. The strength of the IMF will determine the freedom of the particles, determining the phase of the 1. Identify the type of intermolecular force. 
substance (solid, liquid, gas). 2. Discuss the difference between the two compounds ( → ). 
Intermolecular force are a weak force of attraction between molecules or between atoms of noble gases 3. Discuss how this difference either ↑ or ↓ the strength of the intermolecular force. 
4. Discuss how the physical property is affected (↑ or ↓ ). 
The types of intermolecular forces that exists between different types of organic molecules and the strength of the
5. Discuss energy required to overcome forces.
intermolecular forces will affect the physical properties of a molecule.
●Strongest of all the intermolecular forces   Alcohols  TYPE OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP 
●Act over shorter distances. (1 bonding site) The more polar the molecule, the stronger the IMF 
Hydrogen Bonds
●Between molecules that are strongly polar that contain hydrogen  Carboxylic Acids 
TYPES OF IMF
bonded to a small highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F. (2 bonding sites)
Haloalkane
Carboxylic
Alcohol
●Stronger than Dispersion forces.  Aldehydes
carbon
Hydro-
Ester
Van der Waals
●Between slightly polar molecules.  Ketones
acid
Dipole-Dipole
Forces ●Force of attraction between the δ+ end of the one molecule and the   Esters
forces
δ– end of another. Alkyl Halides INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
London Dipole-dipole Hydrogen
Dispersion ●Very weak Van der Waals forces.  Alkanes (dispersion) bonding
(London) ●Between non-polar molecules that form induced (temporary) dipoles  Alkenes
Forces and these temporary dipoles attract each other Alkynes NUMBER OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 
An increase in functional groups increase the IMF
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND IMF
OH H H OH OH H OH OH OH
RELATIONSHIP
PHYSICAL PROPERTY
TO IMF H C C C H H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
Melting Point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are
Directly
at equilibrium. It is the temperature where solid particles will undergo a phase change (melt) INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
proportional
and become a liquid.
Boiling Point: The temperature at which vapour pressure of the substance equals Directly CHAIN LENGTH: MOLECULAR MASS 
atmospheric pressure. It is the temperature where liquid boils and turns into a vapour (gas). proportional The greater the number of carbon atoms in the chain, the greater the molecular
mass. An increase in molecular mass increases the IMF
OPTIONAL
H H H H H H
Vapour Pressure: This is the pressure that an enclosed vapour at equilibrium exerts on Inversely
the surface of its liquid. proportional H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
Viscosity: this is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. A liquid with high viscosity Directly
resists motion e.g. syrup. A liquid with low viscosity is runny e.g water. proportional INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
Solubility: Substances will only dissolve in substances that are like bonded. A non-polar
Inversely CHAIN LENGTH: BRANCHES 
substance will dissolve in a non-polar substance. A polar substance will dissolve only in polar
proportional
substances. More branching results in a smaller surface area and lower the strength of the
IMF 
Density: Density is a measure of the mass per unit volume. The solid phase of the Directly
substance is generally more dense than the gaseous and liquid phase. proportional CH3 CH3
Flammability: The ability to burn in air or ignite causing combustion. Most organic Inversely CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH3 CH3 C CH3
compounds are flammable and burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. proportional CH3
Odour: Different functional groups attach differently to different receptors in our nose. Different Inversely DECREASING IMF, LESS ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
organic substances give off odour quicker based on their intermolecular forces and distinct odours. proportional
42
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ADDITION REACTIONS (UNSATURATED → SATURATED) ELIMINATION REACTIONS (SATURATED → UNSATURATED)

Addition reactions are reactions where atoms are added to an organic molecule. The double or triple An elimination reaction is a reaction where atoms or groups of atoms are removed from an organic
bonds break open and the new atoms are added to the carbon atoms on either side of the double or molecule to form either a double or triple bonded compound.
triple bond.
This reaction is the opposite reaction to the addition reactions and is the removal of hydrogen (H2), a
We can add hydrogen (H2), a halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a Hydrogen halide or water H2O. In addition halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a hydrogen halide or water H2O. In elimination reactions, alkanes form ei-
reactions alkenes or alkynes form an alkane chain as a product. ther an alkene or alkyne chain as a product.
1) Hydrogenation – add H2  1) Dehydrogenation – remove H2 
Reaction conditions: Reaction conditions: 
  H H H H H H   H H H H H H
The alkene needs to be The alkane needs to be in the
H2 + H C C C H H C C C H dissolved in a non-polar solvent H C C C H H C C C H + H2 presence of a catalyst eg. Pt, Ni
and needs to have a catalyst or Pd.
H H H H present eg. Pt, Ni or Pd. H H H H
hydrogen + alkene/alkyne → alkane alkane → alkene + halogen
2) Halogenation – add X (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)  2) Dehalogenation – remove X (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) 
   
  H H H H H H   H H H H H H
Reaction conditions:  Reaction conditions: 
  X2 + H C C C H H C C C H   H C C C H H C C C H + X2
No water to be present if it is to Takes place in an unreactive
   
H X X take place solvent
  H   H X X H
halogen + alkene/alkyne → haloalkane haloalkane → alkene + halogen
3) Hydrohalogenation – add HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)  3) Dehydrohalogenation – remove HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) 
  (Major product)   (Major product) Reaction conditions: 
  H H H H H H Reaction conditions:    H H H H H H H H Takes place in the presence of
  No water to be present if it is to H   C C C C H HX + H C C C C H concentrated NaOH/KOH in
HX + H C C C H H C C C H
  take place.   ethanol as the solvent.
  H H X H   H H X H H H Heat
    (Minor product)
(Minor product)
  Markovnikov’s rule: The H   H H H H Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
H H H
  atom will bond to the carbon   moved from the carbon atom
  H C C C H atom which has the greater   H C C C C H with the least number of H
  number of H atoms bonded to   a t o m s . ( Ke e p s b i g g e s t H
H H X H H
  it. (Form biggest H groups)   groups)
hydrogen halide + alkene/alkyne → haloalkane haloalkane → hydrogen halide + alkene
4) Hydration – add of H2O  4) Dehydration – remove H2O 
  Reaction conditions:
  (Major product) (Major product) Requires the heating of an
Reaction conditions: 
  H H H H H H H H H H H H H H alcohol with concentrated acid
Strong but dilute acid catalyst
  catalyst eg. H2SO4 or H3PO4.
H2O + H C C C H H C C C H e.g. H2SO4 or H3PO4 
  H C C C C H H2O + H C C C C H The acid should be in excess
Heat in the form of steam
H H O H
(H2O) reactant  H H O H H H
H Sulfuric acid is known
(Minor product) Markovnikov’s rule: The H H as a dehydrating agent.
H H H atom will bond to the carbon (Minor product)
atom which has the greater H H H H
H C C C H number of H atoms bonded to Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
H H O it. (Form biggest H groups) H C C C C H moved from the carbon atom
with the least number of H
H H H a t o m s . ( Ke e p s b i g g e s t H
water (H2O) + alkene/alkyne → alcohol alcohol → water (H2O) + alkene groups)
43
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS (SATURATED → SATURATED) COMBUSTION/OXIDATION REACTIONS

Substitution reactions is when an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule are replaced or Hydrocarbons are the main source of fuel in the world at the moment. They are used in the production
swopped/exchanged for another atom or group of atoms. Substitution reactions take place between of electrical energy and as fuel for various engines. When hydrocarbons and alcohols react with oxygen
compounds that are saturated alkanes, haloalkanes and alcohols. they form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are exothermic and produce large quantities of
heat.
1) Alkanes: Halogenation- Substitute X2 (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) 
    Complete combustion (excess oxygen): C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O + energy
   
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: Incomplete combustion (insufficient oxygen): 2C3H8 + 7O2 → 6CO + 8H2O + energy 
 
Reaction takes place in the
H   C C C H + X2 H C C C H + HX Balancing: C → H → O
presence of sunlight/heat
 
  H H H H X H
 
CRACKING
  alkane + halogen → haloalkane + hydrogen halide Hydrocarbons can be made up of very long chains of hundreds of carbons. Crude oil is a mixture of
  many large hydrocarbons and each source of crude oil is different resulting in different types and
2) Haloalkanes: Hydration- Substitute H2O  amounts of hydrocarbons.
 
Shorter chain hydrocarbons are more useful to use as fuels as they burn more readily and are more flam-
  H H H H2O /
H H H
HX / Reaction conditions: mable. Cracking is the breaking up of long hydrocarbon chains into smaller more useful hydrocarbons.
 
H C C C H + NaOH / H C C C H + NaX / The haloalkane is dissolved An alkene and alkane will be the products as a result of cracking. Cracking is a type of elimination reac-
  in an ethanol solution and
KOH KX tion.
  H X H H O H
treated with hot aqueous
  H NaOH/KOH solution H H H H H H H H H H H H
 
  haloalkane + H2O/NaOH/KOH → alcohol + HX/NaX/KX H C C C C C C H H C C C H + H C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
3) Alcohols: Hydrohalogenation- Substitute HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)   
alkane → alkane + alkene
Tertiary alcohols   
  Thermal cracking 
  H H This method makes use of high pressures and high temperatures to crack the long hydrocarbon chains
  with no catalyst. 
  H C H H C H Catalytic cracking 
  H H H H Reaction conditions:  This method uses a catalyst to crack long carbon chains at low pressure and low temperature. The
  H Require HX present at room heated crude oil is passed into a fractional distillation column and passed over a catalyst. The column is
C C C H + HX H C C C H + H2O
  temperature. hottest at the bottom and coolest at the top. The crude oil separates according to boiling points and
  H O H H X H condenses as the gas rises up the column. The substances/chains with the longest chains will have
  H higher boiling points and condense at the bottom and vice versa.
 
  alcohol + hydrogen halide → haloalkane + water ESTERIFICATION
  This is a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid in the presence of a concentrated acid
Primary and secondary alcohols catalyst, H2SO4. This reaction is a type of an elimination reaction and is also known as a condensation
reaction as two organic molecules form one organic molecule and water is removed from the reactants
and forms as a product in the reaction. Esters are responsible for the various smells which occur in na-
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: ture and they are generally pleasant smells like banana and apple etc.
High temperatures and need
H C C C O H + HX H C C C X + H2O H H O H H H H O H H
to be treated with NaBr and
H H H H H H concentrated H2SO4.
H C C O H + H O C C C H H C C O C C C H + H2O
H H H H H H H H
alcohol + hydrogen halide → haloalkane + water
alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water
44
Summary of Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
Haloalkane Subs ( )
Alkane + Alkene with 1 halogen
H H H H H H Add ( + )
C H + C C (
C C C H
2O Elim ( − )
H H H X H /N
aO
t ) H/
uc KO Hyd
Dehydrohalogena3on
d Hy H, rol
ro
Hydrohalogena3on
p dr H ys
X b y ol y X/ is
Na
si s
, H
( − HX)
( X/
Cracking
( + HX)
X
2 H KX
X , b y
o n ( H pr
a3 2O od
en b y uc
t )
l og pr
od
Ha uc
t) Alcohol
Alkane Alkene H H H
H H H
Hydrogena3on ( + H2) Hydra3on ( + H2O)
H H H
C C C
C C C C C C
Dehydrogena3on ( − H2) Dehydra3on ( − H2O) H O H
H H H H
H
Dehalogena3on
Halogena3on
( − X2)
( + X2)
( reacts with O2 )
( + Carboxylic acid )
Combus3on
Esterifica3on
Haloalkane
with 2 halogens
H H H
CO2 + H2O
C C C
Ester
X X H
45
Polymers SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
POLYMERS ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

Polymers are very large organic molecules. They are made up of hundreds or thousands of atoms. Poly- Addition polymers are made by joining two or more monomers which have double bonds- unsaturated
mers are structured from repeated smaller units called monomers. molecules. (These are alkene’s and alkyne’s) and form long single bonded chains.
Monomer: Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern  The double bond breaks open and the electrons join the two monomers together to create the long
  chain. No atoms are added or lost. Monomers may have different groups that are attached to the
  A B carbon atoms.
Polymer: A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to each other in a H H H H H H
repeating pattern 
C C C C C C
A B A B A B A B
  H H H H H H
n
CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION  
ethene monomer ethene polymer (polyethene)
Condensation polymerization occurs when two different monomers which have functional groups (alco-
hols and carboxylic acids) on both ends of their molecules react. In this reaction a water molecule is Steps of addition polymerization of polyethene (polyethylene)
eliminated. Polyethene is used to make squeeze bottles, plastic bags, films, toys and molded objects, and electric
insulation. Polythene has the recycling number 4.
Formation of polyesters
1) Initiation
A polyester forms in a similar way as to a normal ester i.e. an alcohol and carboxylic acid reacting. The
The presence of a free radical initiates the double bond of the monomer to break open. A free radical is
only difference is that the alcohol and carboxylic acids have a functional group on both their ends and
a molecule that has an unpaired electron. When the monomer reacts with the free radical it creates
are diols and dicarboxylic acids.
another free radical.
Monomer (ester) formation H H H H
  * : Free radical 
H H O O H H O O R* + C C R C C*
Esterifica1on   (unpaired electron)
H O C C O H + H O C R C O H H O C C O C R C O H + H2O   H H H H
2) Propagation
H H H H
This new free radical will add to the double bond of another monomer and create another free radical.
Polymer formation  The chain will continue to grow and get longer and longer. These additions give rise to a macromole-
H H O O Esterifica0on H H O O cule. This reaction takes place very quickly.
H O C C O C R C O H + H O C C O C R C O H H H H H
H H H H
H H * : Free radical 
H H R C C* + C C R C C C C*
  (unpaired electron)
H H H H H H H H
3) Termination
O H H O O H There are two ways in which the polymerization can terminate.
C R C O H H O C •Two radicals join together and terminate.

C O H H O C C O
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
R C C C C* + *C C C C R R C C C C C C C C R
  H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
 
• One radical removes a hydrogen from another radical and forms a saturated molecule (alkane) and
O H H O O H forces the other radical to form an unsaturated molecule(alkene).
C O C C O C R C O C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H R C C C C* + *C C C C R R C C C C H + C C C C R
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
46
Polymers SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
MONOMER FREE RADICAL

MONOMER STRUCTURE POLYMER STRUCTURE POLYMER NAME
NAME BUILDING BLOCK
Addition polymerization
H H H H H H H H H H
Propene C C C C C C C C C C Polypropylene
H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
H H H H H H H H H H
Styrene C C C C C C C C C C Polystyrene
H H H H H
H H H H H
H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H
O C O C O C O C O C
Vinyl acetate PVA (polyvinyl acetate)
H O H O H O H O H O
C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H H H
Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H
Chloroethene C C C C C C C C C C PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
H H H H H H H H H H
Condensation polymerization
H H H H PLA (polylactic acid)

PLA monomer formed from
Polymer formed by H
H C H C H H C H H C H biological fermentation of
esterification.
Lactic acid plant materials is
REMEMBER: Water is O C C O C C O C C biodegradable. Used for
H O C C O H formed as byproduct. packaging material, has the
H O H O H O potential to alleviate land-
H O fill disposal problems.
47
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
The Mole Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Atoms, molecules and ions are too small to count, and there are so many Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of two or more If different gases have the same volume under the
particles in even the smallest sample of a substance. substances. A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. same conditions of temperature and pressure, they
The solvent and solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid. The most common sol- will have the same number of molecules.
A mole of particles is an amount of 6,02 x 1023 particles. 6,02 x 1023 is vent is liquid water. This is called an aqueous solution. The molar volume of a gas, VM, is the volume
known as Avogadro’s number, NA.   occupied by one mole of the gas.
number of particles   Solution Solute Solvent
N  
salt water salt water VM for all gases at STP is 22.4 dm3·mol−1.
n=  
 
number of mole (mol) NA Avogadro’s number 
soda water carbon dioxide water
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is
(6,02 x 1023) Concentration 273 K (0°C) and 1,01×105 Pa.
The concentration of a solution is the number of moles of solute
EXAMPLE: This also means that for reactions at constant
per unit volume of solution.
Determine the amount of H+ ions in 3 mol of H2SO4. temperature and pressure, gas volumes will react in
N(H2 SO4 ) = nNA H2 SO4 : H +   number of moles (mol) the same ratio as the molar ratio.
= 3(6,02 × 10 23) 1:2 n
= 1,81 × 10 24 H2 SO4 molecules 1,81 × 10 24 : 3,62 × 10 24 concentration (mol ⋅ dm−3) c= volume (dm3)
∴ N(H + ) = 3,62 × 10 24 ions V
Molar Mass can also be calculated with 
Particles are too small to weigh individually.  
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of that m
c=
substance (atoms, molecules or formula units) and is measured in the MV
unit g.mol-1.  
m mass of substance (g)
Concentration is the number moles of solute per 1 dm3 of solution 
number of mole (mol) n= i.e. mol·dm-3. If a solution of potassium permanganate KMnO4 has a
M molar mass (g ⋅ mol−1) concentration of 2 mol.dm-3 it means that for every 1 dm3 of solution, there
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
EXAMPLE: are 2 moles of KMnO4 dissolved in the solvent.
Determine the number of moles in 13 g of CuSO4. 1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
M(CuSO4 ) = 63,5 + 32 + 4(16) n= m EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
−1
M 1 dm3 + 2 dm3 → 2 dm3
= 159,5 g ⋅ mol
= 13 A solution contains 10 g of sodium Calculate the mass of solute in
159,5
= 0,082 mol hydroxide, NaOH, in 200 cm3 of 600 cm3 of 1,5 mol·dm-3 sodium volume of gaseous
solution. Calculate the chloride solution. V substance (dm3)
Percentage Composition concentration of the solution. n=
n(NaOH) =
m V = 600 cm3 = 0,6 dm3 VM
molar mass of element M
Percentage composition of element= × 100 M(NaCl) = 23 + 35,5
MR of compound 10 number of moles (mol) molar gas volume at STP
=  
23 + 16 + 1 = 58,5 g ⋅ mol−1 (22,4 dm3 ⋅ mol−1)
Consider these iron ores: haematite and magnetite – which con- = 0,25 mol
tains more iron by mass? EXAMPLE:
3 3  n = cV A gas jar with a volume of 224 cm3 is full of chlo-
  Ore Haematite Magnetite V = 200 cm = 0,2 dm rine gas, at STP. How many moles of chlorine gas
  = 1,5 × 0,6
  Formula Fe2O3 Fe3O4 are there in the gas jar?
   
n
= 0,9 mol
  Relative (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) (3 x 56) + (4 x 16) c(NaOH) = V n =
V
VM
  molecular mass =160 =232 0,25
= m = nM 0,224
  [(2 x 56) /160] x 100 [(3 x 56) / 232] x 100 0,2 =
% iron by mass = 0,9 × 58,5 22,4
= 70% = 72% = 1,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 = 52,65 g = 0,01 m ol
∴ magnetite contains more iron
48
Calculating Empirical Formula from  Empirical formula to Molecular Formula Limiting Reactants
Percentage Composition The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule. In a reaction between two substances, one
The empirical formula of a compound can also be found from its per- The molecular formula is actual ratio of the atoms in a molecule. reactant is likely to be used up completely before
centage composition. We assume that 100 g of the compound is ana-
The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula and the relative the other. This limits the amount of product
lysed, then each percentage gives the mass of the element in grams
molecular mass. formed.
in 100 g of the compound.
STEPS TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR FORMULA: Consider the reaction between magnesium and
An oxide of sulphur contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen by
dilute sulphuric acid. The balanced chemical equa-
mass. Determine the empirical formula of this oxide of sulphur. 1. Determine the empirical formula (if not given).  tion is
  2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula. 
Steps Sulphur Oxygen 3. Determine the ratio between molecular formula and empirical formula.  Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Step 1: 40 60 4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula This means that 1 mole of magnesium reacts with
% of element EXAMPLE: 1 mole of sulphuric acid. Both reactants will be
Step 2: 40 60 An unknown organic compound has the empirical formula CH2. completely used up by the time the reaction stops.
Mass of element (g) The molecular mass of butene is 56g·mol-1. Determine the What happens if 1 mole of magnesium reacts with
Step 3: n=m/M n=m/M molecular formula of the compound. 2 mole of sulphuric acid? There is now insufficient
Mol = 40 / 32 = 60 / 16 magnesium to react with all of the sulphuric acid.
1. Empirical formula given: CH2
= 1,25 mol = 3,75 mol 1 mole of sulphuric acid is left after the reaction.
2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula. 
Step 4: 1,25 / 1,25 3,75 /1,25 M(CH2 ) = 12 + 1 + 1 All of the magnesium is used up, We say the
Divide by smallest =1 =3 magnesium is the limiting reactant. Some sul-
−1 
mol ratio
= 14g ⋅ mol phuric acid is left after the reaction. We say the
sulphuric acid is in excess.
Empirical formula: SO3 3. Determine the ratio between molecular and empirical.   
molecular formula mass
ratio number = empirical formula mass
The amount of limiting reactant will
Calculating Empirical Formula  determine:
56
from Mass =  
• The amount of product formed.
14
 
Empirical formula is the chemical  formula of a compound = 4 • The amount of other (excess) reactants used.
that shows the smallest whole   number ratio of the atoms.
  4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula 
CH2 × 4 = C4 H8 Determining limiting reactants
1.Determine the mass of the elements.
2.Determine mol of each substance. 1. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant. 
Approach to reaction stoichiometry 2. Determine the ratio between reactants. 
3.Simplify the atomic ratio.
1. Write a balanced chemical equation.  3. Determine limiting reactant using the ratios.
EXAMPLE:
2. Convert the ‘given’ amount into mole (use limiting reactant if applicable). 
A sample of an oxide of copper contains 8 g of copper combined
3. Determine the number of mole of the ‘asked’ substance using the mole ratio. 
with 1 g of oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound.
4. Determine the ‘asked’ amount from the number of mole.
Steps Copper Oxygen NOTE:
Step 1: Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on If one reactant is in excess, it means
8g 1g that there is more than enough of it.
Mass of element
If there are only 2 reactants and one is in
n=m/M n=m/M excess, it means that the other is the limit-
Step 2: Mol
(divide by mass of 1 mol)
= 8 / 63,5 = 1 / 16 MOL + MOL MOL + MOL ing reactant.
= 0,126 mol = 0,0625 mol
Step 3: Atom ratio 0,125/0,0625 0,0625/0,0625
(divide by smallest no in ratio) ≈2 =1 Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume
Empirical formula: Cu2O
49
EXAMPLE: Percentage Purity Percentage Yield

A 8,4 g sample of nitrogen reacts with 1,5 g hydro- Sometimes chemicals are not pure and one needs to calculate the When you make a chemical in a laboratory a little of the chemical is always lost, due
gen. The balanced equation is: percentage purity. Only the pure component of the substance to evaporation into the surrounding air, or due to a little being left in solution. Some
will react. For an impure sample of a substance: of the reactants may not react. We say that the reaction has not run to completion.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
 
Determine (a) which reactant is the limiting This results in the amount of the chemical produced always being less than the
  Mass of pure substance
reactant, and (b) the mass of ammonia that can Percentage purity = × 100 maximum theoretical amount you would expect. We can express this by the percent-
be produced. Mass of impure substance age yield:
(a)   
1. 
m STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY  Mass of product produced
n(N2 ) = 1. Determine moles of products.  Percentage yield = × 100
M Maximum theoretical
  mass of product
8,4   2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants
=
28 and products. 
= 0,3 mol 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of reactants.  Percentage yield is usually determined using mass, but can also be determined with
  4. Determine the mass of pure reactant.  mol and volume. 
5. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample.
m
n(H2 ) = STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE YIELD 
M
1,5   1. Determine moles of reactants. 
= EXAMPLE: 2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants and products. 
2
= 0,75 mol An impure sample of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, contains calcium 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of products and convert to mass. 
sulphate, CaSO4, as an impurity. When excess hydrochloric acid 4. Determine the theoretical mass of product. 
was added to 6g of the sample, 1200 cm3 of gas was produced 5. Calculate the percentage yield.
2. 
N2 : H2 (measured at STP). Calculate the percentage purity of the cal-
1 : 3 cium carbonate sample. The equation for the reaction is: EXAMPLE:
0,3 mol : 0,9 mol  
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g) 128g of sulphur dioxide, SO2, was reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide,
0,25 mol : 0,75 mol SO3. The equation for the reaction is:
V 1,2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

3 .  1. n(CO2 ) = = = 0,054mol
If all nitrogen is used, 0,9 mol hydrogen is VM 22,4 140g of SO3 was produced in the reaction. Calculate the percentage yield of the
needed, However, only 0,75 mol hydrogen is avail- reaction. 
2. 3. 
able. The hydrogen will run out first, therefore CaCO3 : CO2
hydrogen is the limiting reactant. CaCO3 : CO2 m 128
1 : 1   1. n(SO2 ) = = = 2mol
1 : 1 M 64
0,054 : 0,054
(b) 2. 3. 
∴ 0,054mol CaCO3 reacted SO2 : SO3 SO2 : SO3
Because the hydrogen is the limiting reactant, it
will determine the mass of ammonia produced:  4.
2 : 2 1 : 1  
m(CaCO3) = n M = (0,054)(40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 5,4g 1 : 1 2 : 2
H2 : NH3 ∴ 2mol SO3
5.  
3 : 2   Mass of pure substance 4. m(SO3) = n M = (2)(32 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 160g
Percentage purity = × 100
0,75mol : 0,5mol Mass of impure substance
5.  
  Percentage purity =
5,4
× 100  
Percentage yield =
Mass of product produced
× 100
m(NH3) = nM 6,0 Maximum theoretical mass of product
= (0,5)(17) Percentage purity = 90 % Percentage yield =
140
× 100
160
= 8,5g
Percentage yield = 87.5 %
50
Energy and Chemical Change SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ENERGY CHANGE ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPY CHANGE

The energy change that takes place occurs because of bonds being broken and new bonds being formed. Enthalpy (H) is the total amount of stored chemical energy (potential energy) of the reactants and the
products. During chemical reactions, energy can be exchanged between the chemical system and the
When bonds are broken, energy is absorbed from the environment.
environment, resulting in a change in enthalpy. This change in enthalpy, $H, represents the heat of the
When bonds are formed, energy is released into the environment. reaction measured in kJ·mol−1.
The net energy change will determine if the reaction is endothermic or exothermic. The heat of reaction ($H) is the net change of chemical potential energy of the system.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
In order to start a reaction, energy first needs to be absorbed to break the bonds. This energy is known
The chemical system is the reactant and product molecules.
as the activation energy- the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.
The environment is the surroundings of the chemical system, including the container in which the reac-
Once the bonds have been broken, the atoms in the chemical system form an activated complex- a
tion takes place, or the water in which the molecules are dissolved.
temporary transition state between the reactants and the products.
CATALYST
ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
In order for a reaction to occur, enough
energy has to be provided (activation
Definition: A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings  Definition: A reaction that releases heat energy into the environment energy) for particles to collide effectively.
The amount of required energy can be de-
creased by using a catalyst. A catalyst is a
More energy absorbed than released More energy released than absorbed chemical substances that lowers the activa-
tion energy required without taking part in
Net energy change is energy absorbed from the environment Net energy change is energy released into the environment the reaction. By lowering the activation
energy, the rate of the reaction can also be
increased.
The chemical system’s energy increases ($H>0) The chemical system’s energy decreases ($H<0)
A catalyst is a substance that
The environment’s energy decreases The environment’s energy increases increases the rate of the reaction but
remains unchanged at the end of the
reaction
Temperature of the environment decreases (test tube gets colder) Temperature of the environment increases (test tube gets hotter)
IMPORTANT REACTIONS 
Ac+vated  
Ac+vated
ENDOTHERMIC
Complex Complex
Photosynthesis
Effect of light
Effect of 6CO2 + 6H2 O C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ; $H>0
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)

catalyst catalyst
EA
Products EXOTHERMIC
Reactants Cellular respiration
EA C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O ; $H<0
ΔH ΔH
Combustion
Reactants Products
CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O ; $H<0
C 2 H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2 O ; $H<0 
Course of reac+on Course of reac+on
51
Rates of Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
RATES OF REACTIONS FACTORS INFLUENCING REACTION RATE

The change in concentration per unit time of either a Temperature  Nature of reactants 
reactant or product.  Increasing temperature increases rate of reaction. When the temperature is increased, The physical and chemical properties of certain
more particles have energy greater than the activation energy, and more effective colli- molecules make them more likely to react.
sions can take place.
Δ[products] Δ[reactants] For example:
Rate = Rate = • O2 has many effective orientations
Δt Δt EA • F’s electronegativity makes it more reactive
Number of par0cles
Amount of product
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
  • Tertiary alcohols have limited effective orien-
tations due to molecule structure
Hi
Unit: Change in concentration over time (mol·dm−3·s−1)
gh

• Simple (Ca2+) and complex (C2O4−) ions. 
ture
re
T
May also be given terms of change in mass per unit time (g·s−1) OR
tem igh
atu
em
tem Low
State of division / surface area 
Low
pera
of change in volume per unit time (dm3·s−1). 
p.
per
H
(solids only) 
Te
Increase state of division (powder instead of
mp
The gradient of a concentration/mass/volume versus time graph chunks) increases rate of reaction by increasing
.
gives the rate of a reaction, thus a steeper gradient means a higher effective orientations and surface area.
rate of reaction.
Energy Time (s)
COLLISION THEORY
Amount of product
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
Concentration (gases and solutions only) 
In order for a reaction to occur, molecules need to collide under
Increasing concentration increases rate of reaction. The greater the concentration, the
specific conditions. The conditions for successful collisions are:
more particles are confined in a smaller space. This leads to more collisions, and subse-
er
lar
1. Particles must collide with correct orientation  quently more effective collisions. If the concentration of a limiting reactant is in-
nu
Pow
The structure of the molecules and their relative orientations to creased, more product can be formed.
Gra
each other is important for effective collisions. Some catalysts Limiting Reactant Excess Reactant
function by improving molecular orientation.
Amount of product
Amount of product
2. Particles must collide with sufficient energy (activation
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
energy)  Time (s)

The molecules have to collide with sufficient amount of energy

on
on

Pressure (gases only) 
on
for bonds to break and the reaction to occur (activation energy). Low
tra<
tra<
con High
con High
tra<
Increase pressure (by decreasing volume)
con Low
concentra<on
MAXWELL-BOLTZMAN DISTRIBUTION CURVE  increases the concentration of the gas thus
cen
cen
cen
The Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve shows the distribution of increasing the rate of reaction
the kinetic energy of molecules. The area under the graph to the
right of the EA line represents the particles with sufficient kinetic
Amount of product
energy.
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
Time (s) Time (s)
most particles have moderate energy
Catalyst 
∴ average EK

sure
The presence of a catalyst decreases the activation energy (EA). The particles require less
re
pres h
pre w
Hig
ssu
collision energy to undergo an effective collision, leading to more effective collisions.
Lo
number of
EA (catalyst)
particles
Number of par0cles
Amount of product
few particles have
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
EA very high energy
∴ high EK EA (no catalyst)
Time (s)
cata out
lyst
cata h

lyst
WAYS TO MEASURE RATE
Wit
h
Wit
energy 1. Change in mass
2. Volume of gas produced
few particles have 3. Change in colour
Par$cles with sufficient energy
very little energy 4. Turbidity (precipitation)
∴ low EK
for an effec$ve collision
Energy Time (s) 5. Change in pH
52
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
An open system continuously interacts with its environment. LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE

A closed system is isolated from its surroundings and is one When an external stress (change in pressure, temperature or concentration) is applied to a system in chemical equilibrium, the
where no reactants or products can leave or enter the system. equilibrium point will change in such a way as to counteract the stress.
A reaction is a reversible reaction when products can be con- Factors which affect equilibrium position
verted back to reactants. Reversible reactions are represented 1. Concentration
with double arrows. Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in Removing HI (t1):
For example:  concentration of either reactants or products. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
When HI is removed, the system re-
Hydrogen reacts with iodine to form hydrogen iodide: • Adding reactant: forward reaction favoured
Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)
H2(g) HI H2 establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
• Adding product: reverse reaction favoured removed added
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) tion that will produce more HI. Because the
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in forward reaction is favoured, some of the reac-
Hydrogen iodide can decompose to form hydrogen and iodine: tants are used.
concentration of either reactants or products
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) I2(g)
• Removing reactant: reverse reaction favoured Adding H2 (t2):
Therefore the reversible reaction can be written as: • Removing product: forward reaction favoured 
HI(g) When adding H2, the system re-establishes
equilibrium by favouring the reaction that uses
  Forward reac*on The concentration can be changed by adding/
removing reactants/products that are in solution H2. Because the forward reaction is favoured,
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) the reactants are used and more products
Reverse reac*on (aq) or a gas (g). Changing the mass of pure sol-
ids (s) or volume of liquids (l) will not disrupt the Time (min) t1 t2 form.
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium when equilibrium or change the rate of the reactions.
the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the 2. Pressure (gases only)
reverse reaction. Chemical equilibrium can only be achieved Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in Pressure decrease (t1):
in a close system. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
pressure by favouring the reaction direction that When the pressure is decreased, the system
Pressure Pressure
Equilibrium produces less molecules. re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the

H2(g) N2(g) decrease increase
reached reaction that will produce more moles of gas.
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in
The reverse reaction is favoured, forming 4
pressure by favouring the reaction that produces
Concentra/on H2(g) moles of reactant for every 2 mole of product
more molecules.
remains constant used.
I2(g)
a?er equilibrium To identify the reaction direction, use the ratios in Pressure increases (t2):
the balanced equation.
reached When the pressure is increased, the system
re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the
HI(g) NH3(g) reaction that will produce less moles of gas,
forming 2 moles of product for every 4 moles
Time (min) t1 t2 of reactants used.
3. Temperature
Time (min) t1
Equilibrium will shift to the endothermic Temperature increase (t1):
Forward reac0on 2NO2(g) N2O4(g); ΔH = -57 kJ
reaction if the temperature is increased. When the temperature is increased, the system
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) Temperature Temperature
Equilibrium re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
Equilibrium will shift to the exothermic reac- increase decrease
Rate of reac0on
reached NO2(g) tion that will decrease the temperature (i.e. the
tion if the temperature is decreased.
endothermic reaction). The reverse reaction will
Equilibrium: The heat of the reaction, ΔH, is always be favoured because the forward reaction is exo-
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) used to indicate the forward reaction. thermic. The gas mixture becomes brown.
Reac0on rate NOTE: An increase in temperature Temperature decrease (t2):
remains constant increases the rate of both the forward
When the temperature is decreased, the system
aAer equilibrium and the reverse reaction, but shifts
Reverse reac0on re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
reached the equilibrium position.
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) N2O4(g) tion that will increase the temperature (i.e. the
NOTE: Temperature change is the only exothermic reaction). The forward reaction will be
Time (min) t1 change that affects Kc. Time (min) t1 t2 favoured. The gas mixture becomes colourless.
53
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
COMMON ION EFFECT EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (KC) EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT TABLE

When ionic substances are in solution, they form ions: General equation: aA + bB ⇌ cC  The equilibrium constant table assists in calculating the concentration of reactants
and products when the reaction has reached equilibrium.
  Where A,B,C are chemical substances (ONLY aq and g, NOT s or l !)
NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) EXAMPLE:
  and a,b,c are molar ratio numbers 
wh i t e c ol o u r l ess   3 moles of NO2 are placed in a 1,5 dm3 container and the following equilibrium
[C]c is established:
Kc = If no volume is given, assume
If HCl is added to this solution, the concentration of [A]a[B]b 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)
Cl− ions will increase because Cl− is a common ion. volume = 1 mol·dm−3
Kc value is a ratio and therefore has no units.
The system will attempt to re-establish equilibrium by At equilibrium it was found that 0,3 mol of NO2 were present in the container.
favouring the reverse reaction, forming a white so- If Kc > 1 then equilibrium lies to the right – there are more products Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
dium chloride precipitate. than reactants. 
If Kc < 1 then equilibrium lies to the left – there are more reactants
The disturbance of a system at equilibrium that occurs NO2 N2O4
than products.
when the concentration of a common ion is increased
is known as the common ion effect. Kc values are constant at specific temperatures. If the temperature of Ratio 2 1
the system changes then the Kc value will change. [N2 O4 ]
CATALYST AND EQUILIBRIUM Initial (mol) 3 0 Kc =
[NO 2 ]2
When a catalyst is added, the rate of the forward as Temperature Kc of Exothermic Kc of Endothermic
(0,9)
well as the reverse reaction is increased. The use of a Change (mol) -2.7 +1,35 =
(0,2) 2
catalyst does not affect the equilibrium position or the Increase Decrease Increase
Equilibrium (mol) 0.3 1.35 = 22,5
Kc value at all, but allows the reaction to reach
Decrease Increase Decrease
equilibrium faster.
Eq. concentration 0,3/1,5 1,35/1,5 
Forward reac0on EXAMPLE: in (mol·dm−3) = 0,2 =0,9
Rate of reac0on
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)

Consider the following equilibrium system:
Catalyst CoCl 4 2−(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ Co(H2 O)6 2+(aq) + 4Cl−(aq) ΔH < 0 APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
added bl u e pi n k The Haber Process: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH<0
For each change made to the system state and explain the colour
change seen. Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in
Reverse reac0on temperature will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) a) Water added  temperature will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise
Adding water decreases the concentration of all the ions. between rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C to 550 °C.
Time (min) t1 According to Le Chatelier’s principle the equilibrium will shift in
such as way so as to produce more ions. Thus the forward reac- Pressure: As there are fewer reactant gas particles than product gas particles,
DESCRIBING EQUILIBRIUM SHIFT an increase in pressure will favour the production of products. Thus this reaction
tion will be favoured, forming more product and the solution turns
ACCORDING TO LE CHATELIER is done under a high pressure of 200 atm.
pink. 
1. Identify the disturbance  Catalyst: Iron or Iron Oxide
Adding/removing reactants or products, pressure b) AgNO3 added
change, temperature change. Adding AgNO3 creates an insoluble precipitate of AgCl. This The Contact Process: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) ΔH < 0
decreases the Cl− ion concentration. According to Le Chatelier’s
2. State Le Chatelier’s principle Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in
principle the equilibrium will shift in such as way so as to produce
temperature will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in
3. System response  more Cl− ions. The forward reaction will be favoured, more prod-
temperature will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise
Use up/create more products or reactants, make uct is made and the solution turns pink. 
between rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C
more/less gas molecules, increase/decrease
temperature. c) Temperature is increased Pressure: There are more reactant gas particles than product gas particles, there-
The temperature of the system is increased. According to Le Chate- fore an increase in pressure will favour the production of products. However, in
4. State favoured reaction
lier’s principle the equilibrium will shift in such a way to reduce the practice a very high yield is obtained at atmospheric pressure.
5. Discuss results  temperature. The reverse endothermic reaction is favoured. This
Catalyst: Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
Equilibrium shift, change in colour/concentration/ decreases the temperature and produces more reactant and the
pressure/temperature.  solution turns blue.
54
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ACID/BASE DEFINITIONS CONCENTRATED VS DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES INFLUENCE OF ACID/BASE STRENGTH
Arrhenius   Concentration is the number of moles of solute per unit volume Reaction rate 
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) / of solution. Reaction rates increase as the strength of the acid/base
hydronium ions (H3O+) when dissolved in water.  increases.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide (OH−) when A concentrated acid is an acid with a large amount of solute
dissolved in water. (the acid) dissolved in a small volume of solvent (water). Stronger acid = higher concentration of ions = greater rate of
Bronsted-Lowry  reaction.
A dilute acid is an acid with a small amount of solute (the acid)
An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.  dissolved in a large volume of solvent (water).  Conductivity 
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.   Conductivity increases as the strength of the acid/base
ACID PROTICITY Concentrated strong acid - 1mol.dm-3 of HCl increases.
Some acids are able to donate more than one proton. The number of protons Concentrated weak acid - 1mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH Stronger acid = higher concentration of H+ = greater conductiv-
that an acid can donate is referred to as the acid proticity. ity.
Dilute strong acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of HCl
1 proton- monoprotic 2 protons- diprotic 3 protons- triprotic Dilute weak acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH COMMON ACIDS COMMON BASES
HCl ⇌ Cl + H
− +
H2SO4 ⇌ HSO4− +H +
H3PO4 ⇌ H2PO4− +H +
Hydrochloric acid  Sodium Hydroxide  S 
HSO4− ⇌ HSO42− + H+ H2PO4− ⇌ HPO42− + H+ (HCl) S  (NaOH) T 
STRONG VS WEAK ACIDS AND BASES T  R 
HPO42− ⇌ PO43− + H+ The strength of an acid/base refers to the ability of the Nitric acid  R  Potassium hydroxide  O 
substance to ionise or dissociate.  (HNO3) O  (KOH) N 
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS   N  G
An acid forms a conjugate base when it donates a proton.  ACIDS Sulfuric acid  G
Sodium hydrogen
acid ⇌ conjugate base + H+ A strong acid will ionise completely in water. 
(H2SO4)
carbonate (NaHCO3)
HCl (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
A base forms a conjugate acid when it accepts a proton. 
base + H+ ⇌ conjugate acid (strong acid → weak conjugate base)  Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) W 
Calcium carbonate 
  Carbonic acid  W  E 
Conjugate acid-base pairs are compounds that differ by the presence of one (CaCO3)
  (H2CO3) E  A 
proton, or H+. A weak acid will only partially ionise in water.  A  K
2H2CO3 (l) + 2H2O (l) ⇌ 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq) + H2CO3 (aq)  Acetic acid / ethanoic Sodium carbonate 
EXAMPLE:  K
acid (CH3COOH) (Na2CO3)
Identify the conjugate acid-base pair in the following example: (weak acid → strong conjugate base)
Ammonia 
H+ Conjugate acid-base pair Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
(NH3)
BASES
THE pH SCALE
HNO3 (g) + H2O (l) → NO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq) A strong base will dissociate completely in water. 
NaOH (s) ⇌ Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)  The pH of a solution is a number that represents the acidity or
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid
(strong base → weak conjugate acid)  alkalinity of a substance.  
   
Conjugate acid-base pair
The greater the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the more
acidic the solution and the lower the pH. The lower the
A weak base will dissociate only partially in water.  concentration of H+ in solution, the more alkali the solution and
AMPHOLYTE/ AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES 2Mg(OH)2 (s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq)  the higher the pH. 
Ampholyte- A substance that can act as both an acid or a base. (weak base → strong conjugate acid) 
Amphoteric/amphiprotic substances can therefore either donate or accept   The pH scale is a range from 0 to 14.
protons. Common ampholytes include H2O, HCO3− and HSO4−.
Neutral

HSO4− as an ampholyte: NH3 is an exception, it ionises. 
 
Acid: HSO4− + H2O ⇌ SO42− + H3O+  NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ OH− (aq) + NH4+ (aq)
Base: HSO4− + H2O ⇌ H2SO4 + OH− 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
55
PROTOLYTIC REACTIONS HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS INDICATORS

Protolytic reactions are reactions during which protons Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water. Salt is An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the substance.
(H+) are transferred.  a substance in which the hydrogen of an acid During titrations, the indicator needs to be selected according to the acidity/alkalinity of
  has been replaced by a cation. During the hydroly- the salt that will be produced (see hydrolysis).
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen sis, the salt will form an acidic, alkali or neutral  
solution. The acidity of the salt is dependent on the   COLOUR AT
HA + M → A— + M+ + H2 COLOUR IN COLOUR IN PH RANGE OF
relative strength of the acid and base that is used.   INDICATOR ACID BASE
EQUIVALENCE
EQUIVALENCE
Eg. 2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g)   POINT
Strong acid, weak base 
acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + water The weak base will form a strong conjugate acid.   
The strong acid will form a weak conjugate base.    Litmus Red Blue 4,5 - 8,3
—
HA + MOH → A + M + H2O +
 
The strong conjugate acid will form an acidic solution.
Eg. H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)   Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange 3,1 - 4,4
Weak acid, strong base   
acid + metal oxide → salt + water The weak acid will form a strong conjugate base.    Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue Green 6,0 - 7,6
The strong base will form a weak conjugate acid.   
HA + MO → A— + M+ + H2O
The strong conjugate base will form an alkali solution.  
E.g. 2HCl (aq) + MgO(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink 8,3 - 10,0
 
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide  
ACID BASE
SALT Neutral: pH 7
HA + MCO3 → A— + M+ + H2O + CO2 STRENGTH STRENGTH
Neutralisation is when the equivalence point is reached. Equivalence point is NOT when
E.g. 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)  Strong Weak Acidic the solution is at pH 7, but when the molar amount of acid and base is the same
according to the molar ratio. The pH at neutralisation is dependent on the salt that is
Strong Strong Neutral
The ionic salt is made up of A— (from the acid) and M+ (from formed. (see hydrolysis).
the base). Weak Strong Alkali Neutralisation is the point where an acid and base have reacted so neither is
in excess.
TITRATIONS Titration setup EXAMPLE:

A titration is a practical laboratory method to During a titration, 25 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 neutralises 40 cm3 of NaOH solution.
determine the concentration of an acid or base. Va Burette If the concentration of the H2SO4 solution is 0,25 mol.dm−3, calculate the
The concentration of an acid or base can be de- Acid concentration of the NaOH.
termined by accurate neutralisation using a stan-
dard solution- a solution of known H2 SO4 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SO4 + 2H2 O
Stopcock
concentration. Neutralisation occurs at the n a = 1  nb = 2 
equivalence point, when the molar amount of ca = 0,25 mol ⋅ dm−3  cb = ? 
acid and base is the same according to the molar Va = 25 cm3 = 0,025 dm3 Vb = 40 cm3 = 0,04 dm3
ratio. Conical flask
Vb By titration equations By first principles:
    na caVa Base &
  = na c aVa
nb cbVb Indicator nb
=
c bVb
Acid: 
n = cV
1 (0,25)(0,025) = (0,25)(0,025)
n- number of mole of substance (mol) / mol ratio  1. Pipette known solution into conical flask (usually base). =
2 c b (0,04)
c- concentration of acid/base (mol.dm−3)  = 6,25 × 10−3 mol
V- volume of solution (dm3) 2. Add appropriate indicator to flask. cb = 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
Base: 
3. Add unkown concentration solution to the burette (usually acid). n
c =
1 mL = 1 cm   3
4. Add solution from burette to conical flask at a dropwise rate (remem- V
1 L = 1 dm3  ber to swirl). 6,25 × 10−3 × 2
=
1000 mL = 1 L  0,04
1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 5. Stop burette when indicator shows neutralisation/equivalence point
= 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
has been reached.
56
CALCULATING PH VALUES AUTO-IONISATION OF WATER AND KW KA AND KB VALUES

pH = − log[H3O+] pOH = [OH−] pH + pOH = 14 Water ionises to form hydronium and hydroxide ions When weak acids or bases are dissolved in water, only partial ionisation/
in the following reaction: dissociation occurs. There is a mixture of the original reactant as well as the ionic
Strong acids ionise completely in water, meaning that all acids donate products that were formed. The extent of ionisation can be treated in the same
their protons (H+). The concentration of the H+ ions can be determined 2H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
way as the extent to which an equilibrium reaction takes place. The acid dissocia-
from the initial concentration of the acids, taking the proticity of the tion constant (Ka) and base dissociation constant (Kb) values are like the
The concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are
acid into account.  equilibrium constant (Kc), but specifically described the extent of ionisation/
equal, and the equilibrium constant for the ionisation
dissociation, and therefore the strength of the acid/base.
of water (Kw) is 1,00 ✕ 10−14 (at a temperature of
Monoprotic: HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) 25°C or 298 K), therefore:  Calculating Ka
1 mol : 1 mol : 1 mol HA + H2O ⇌ A− + H3O+ CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO− + H3O+
[H3O+] [OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−14 mol·dm−3
0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm −3
[A−][H3O+] [CH3COO−][H3O+]
[H3O+] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3 Ka = Ka =
[HA] [CH3COOH]
[OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3
Diprotic: H2SO4(g) → H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) Calculating Kb
When the concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq)
1 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol
are equal, the solution is neutral and has a pH of 7. B + H2O ⇌ BH + OH + −
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,6 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm −3
EXAMPLE: [BH +][OH−] [NH + −
4 ][OH ]
Kb = Kb =
[B] [NH3]
Calculate the pH of a Ba(OH)2 solution with a
Triprotic: H3PO4(g) → H+(aq) + PO43−(aq) concentration of 0,35 mol·dm−3. DETERMINING CONCENTRATION FROM PH
1 mol : 3 mol : 1 mol Step 1: Write down the dissociation   To determine the [H3O+] when the pH is known:
reaction
0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,9 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 pH = − log[H3O+]
H2 O
EXAMPLE: Ba(OH)2 (s) ⇄ Ba (aq) + 2OH (aq)  + − ∴ [H3O+] = 10−pH
Calculate the pH of a H2SO4 solution with a concentration of 0,25 EXAMPLE:

mol·dm−3  Step 2: Determine the mole ratio of base to 0,1 mol HF is dissolved in 1 dm3 water. Determine the Ka of HF if the pH is found
OH− ions to be 2,1. HF dissociates according to the following chemical equation:
Step 1: Write down the ionisation reaction: 1 mol Ba(OH)2 : 2 mol OH−  H2O + HF (aq) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + F− (aq)
H2 SO4 + 2H2 O ⇌ 2H3 O+ + SO 2−
4 pH = − log[H3O+]
Step 3: Determine the [OH−]
  −
[OH ] = 2[Ba(OH)2 ] [H3O+] = 10−2,1
Step 2: determine the ratio of acid to H3O+ ions
= 2(0,35) [H3O+] = 7,94 × 10−3 g ⋅ mol−3
H2 SO4 : H2 O
1:2 = 0,7 mol ⋅ dm−3 HF H3O+ F−
  Step 4: Determine the [H3O ] + Ratio 1 1 1
Step 3: determine the [H3O+] [H3O+][OH−] = 1,00 × 10−14 Initial (mol) 0,1 0 0
[H3O+] = 2[H2 SO4 ] Change (mol) −7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3
[H3O+](0,7) = 1,00 × 10−14
Equilibrium (mol) 0,092 7,94 ×10 −3
7,94 ×10−3
= 2(0,25)   [H3O+] = 1,43 × 10−14 mol ⋅ dm−3 Eq. concentration in
= 0,5mol ⋅ dm−3   0,092 7,94 ×10−3 7,94 ×10−3
(mol·dm−3)
Step 5: Calculate the pH  
Step 4: Calculate the pH [H3O+ ][F −]
Ka =
pH = − log[H3 O+ ] pH = −log [H3O+] [HF]
= −log (1,43 x 10 −14

) (7,94 × 10−3)(7,94 × 10−3)
= − log(0,5) =
0,092
= 0,3 = 13,84
= 6,85 × 10−4
57
Electrochemistry-Redox SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
REDOX REACTION TABLE OF STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS (REDOX TABLE)

A redox reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons The oxidation and reduction half reactions can also be found using the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials. (We will use Table 4B).
between compounds and elements.
The reactions shown on the table are all written as reduction half reactions, with the reversible reaction arrow (⇌) shown. This 
Oxidation is the loss of electrons (oxidation number increases)
means that each reaction is reversible. When a reaction is written from the table the arrow must only be one way (i.e. →).
Reduction is the gain of electrons (oxidation number decreases)
The oxidising agent is the substance which accepts electrons. 
(Oxida2on reac2on)
(It is the substance which is reduced and causes the other substance to be Oxidising agent Reducing agent
oxidised.) (weak) Li+ + e- Li (strong)

The reducing agent is the substance that donates electrons. 
(It is the substance which is oxidised and causes the other substance to be

Posi2ve gradient
reduced.)
Spontaneous reac2on

The anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place.

The cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place. F2 + 2e- 2F-
(strong) (weak)
(Reduc2on reac2on)
OIL: Oxidation is loss 
RIG: Reduction is gain The reduction half reaction is written from the table from left to right and the oxidation half reaction is written from right to left. 
Once the half-reactions are identified it is possible to write a balanced reaction, without the spectator ions. Remember that the
LEO: Loss of electrons is oxidation  number of electrons lost or gained by each substance must be the same.
GER: Gain of electrons is reduction
If the line drawn between the two reactants has a positive gradient, the reaction is spontaneous.
REDCAT: Reduction at cathode  If the line between the reactants are negative, the reaction is non-spontaneous.
ANOX: Oxidation at anode
STEPS TO WRITING BALANCED REDOX  EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

REACTIONS USING REDOX TABLE +
Zinc metal reacts with an acid, H (aq) to produce hydrogen gas. Using Magnesium ribbon is burnt in a gas jar containing chlorine
1. IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS the oxidation and reduction half reactions write a balanced equation for gas. Using half reactions write a balanced chemical equation
2. UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE this reaction. for this reaction. 
3. DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION STEP 1: IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS

Ox half-reaction: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e− 
4. WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-REACTIONS Zn(s) and H+(aq)
Red half-reaction: Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl−
5. BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY STEP 2: UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE
Overall reaction: Mg + Cl2 → Mg2+ + 2Cl−
6. WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) STEP 3: DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION
EXAMPLE:
STEP 4: WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-
REACTIONS Using half reactions, complete and balance the following reac-
tion: Pb + Ag+
Ox half-reaction: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e− 
Red half-reaction: 2H+ + 2e− → H2 Red half reaction: Ag+ + e− → Ag
STEP 5: BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY
STEP 6: WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e− 
Overall: Zn + 2H → Zn+ 2+
+ H2 (x2 red half reaction): 2Ag+ + 2e− → 2Ag
Overall reaction: Pb + 2Ag+ → Pb2+ + Ag
58
Electrochemistry- Galvanic/Voltaic cell SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
A galvanic cell reaction is always a spontaneous, exo- EMF OF THE CELL ZINC-COPPER CELL
thermic reaction during which chemical energy is Voltmeter
converted to electrical energy. The emf of the cell is calculated using one of the following equations:
V
STRUCTURE Eθcell = Eθcathode − Eθanode
Eθcell = Eθreduction − Eθoxidation Anode Cathode
Two half-cells (usually in separate containers): 
KCl
Anode – where oxidation takes place – negative 
electrode 
Eθcell = Eθoxidising agent − Eθreducing agent − Salt bridge +
Cathode – where reduction takes place – positive  The emf of the half-cells are determined using the standard hydrogen
electrode half-cell
Zn
Cu
The anode and cathode connected together through an
Standard hydrogen half-cell
external circuit, which allows for current to flow from
the anode to the cathode The hydrogen half-cell is allocated a reference potential of 0,00 V. All
Voltmeter Zn(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2
other half-cells will have a potential which is either higher or lower
V than this reference. This difference is the reading on the voltmeter The zinc half-cell: The copper half-cell:
placed in the circuit.
Anode Cathode • Zinc electrode • Consists of a copper electrode
Salt bridge
H2 at Temperature
• Zinc salt solution  • Copper salt solution 
− + 1 atm = 298 K (e.g. zinc (II) nitrate) (e.g. copper (II) nitrate)
• Oxidation reaction occurs:  • Reduction reaction occurs: 
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
    • Anode • Cathode
Electrolyte Electrolyte  
Pla3num Dilute H2SO4 • Electrode decreases in mass • Electrode increases in mass
 
SALT BRIDGE electrode [H+] = 1 mol·dm−3
Ox: Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− 
The salt bridge connects the two half-cells: Red: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
H2 is bubbled through the electrolyte over the platinum electrode.
Filled with a saturated ionic salt of either KCl, NaCl, Nett cell: Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Reduction potentials are measured under standard conditions:
KNO3 or Na2SO4
temperature 25 °C; 298 K 
End of the tubes are closed with a porous material
concentration of the solutions 1 mol·dm−3  
Cell notation
such as cotton wool or glass wool. Salt
pressure 1 atm; 101,3 kPa.
Functions of the salt bridge:  Anode Bridge Cathode
When writing cell notation, the hydrogen half-cell is written first if it
Completes the circuit (which allows current to flow) 
is the anode. The cell-notation for the hydrogen half-cell is:
Maintains the neutrality of the electrolyte solutions.
Pt, H2 (g) / H+ (aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3) Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) // Cu2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) / Cu(s)
EQUILIBRIUM IN A CELL
When the circuit is complete the current will begin to EXAMPLE
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
flow. The current and potential difference of the cell is Consider the cell notation of the following electrochemical cell:
related to the rate of the reaction and extent to which
the reaction in the cell has reached equilibrium. Pt,H2(g)/H2SO4(aq) (0,5 mol⋅dm−3)// CuSO4(aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3)/Cu(s)
The experimentally determined cell potential is 0,34 V at 25 °C. For the zinc-copper cell:
As the chemical reaction proceeds, the rate of the
forward reaction will decrease, so the rate of transfer If a value of 0,00 V is given to the hydrogen half-cell, it means that The anode reaction is: Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn (s); Eθ = −0,76 V 
of electrons will also decrease which results in the the value of the copper half-cell must be 0,34 V. The cathode reaction is: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s); Eθ = +0,34 V
Eθcell value decreasing. When the cell potential
decreases the current in the circuit will also decrease Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode
θ
The cell potential will continue to decrease gradually 0,34 = E (Cu) − 0,00 = 0,34 − (−0,76)
until equilibrium is reached at which point the cell po- θ
tential will be zero and the battery is “flat”. E (Cu) = 0,34 V = + 1,1 V
59
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
An electrolytic cell reaction is always a non-spontaneous, endo- REFINING OF COPPER EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM (HALL-HEROLT PROCESS)
thermic reaction which requires a battery. The electrical
energy is converted to chemical energy. When copper is purified, the process is similar to electroplating. Aluminium is found in the mineral known as bauxite which contains primarily
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in an impure form.
Impure copper is used as the anode and the cathode is pure cop-
STRUCTURE
per. Bauxite is not found in South Africa so is imported from Australia for refining.
Two electrodes (in the same container): 
Step 1: Converting impure Al2O3 to pure Al2O3
Anode – where oxidation takes place – positive electrode 
Cathode – where reduction takes place – negative electrode At the anode the copper is Bauxite treated with NaOH – impure Al2O3 becomes Al(OH)3
oxidised to produce Cu2+ Pure Impure
The anode and cathode are connected to an external circuit, ions in the electrolyte. The copper Al(OH)3 is heated (T > 1000 °C)
copper
which is connected to a DC power source. mass of the impure cop- Al(OH)3 becomes pure Al2O3 – alumina
per anode decreases.
− + Step 2: Melting Al2O3
At the cathode the Cu2+ Cu2+
ions in the electrolyte is Alumina is dissolved in cryolite (sodium aluminium hexafluoride – Na3AlF6).
reduced to form a pure Cu2+ Melting point reduced from over 2000 °C to 1000 °C.
− + copper layer on the cath-

ode. The mass of the cath-
Reduces energy requirements, costs and less environmental impact.
Zn Ag Pt Au
ode increases. Step 3: 
Anion
Molten Alumina (Al2O3) – cryolite mixture placed in reaction vessel
(−)
Anodes (+) are carbon rods in mixture
Ca#on Electrolyte The other elements and compounds found in the impure copper
anode are precipitated to the bottom of the reaction vessel. Cathode (-) is the carbon lining of the tank
(+)
At cathode Al3+ ions are reduced to Al metal
ELECTROPLATING Oxidation (anode): Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e−  Carbon anodes (+)
Reduction (cathode): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of one metal
onto another metal. Nett cell: Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) Steel tank
EXAMPLE: Silver plating of a metal spoon Solu9on of aluminium
ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) CHLORIDE
oxide in molten cryolite
The anode is silver, it will be oxi-
dised to Ag+ ions. The mass of the Molten aluminium
silver electrode decreases.
Carbon lining for
The cathode is the object (spoon) − +
cathode (−)
to be plated. The Ag+ ions from the Ag+
electrolyte will be reduced to form   Cl−
silver metal, which plates the
spoon. Ag+ Cu2+
Oxidation (Anode): 2O2− (aq) → O2(g) + 4e−  
CuCl2 (aq) Reduction (Cathode): Al3+ (aq) + 3e− → Al (l)
AgNO3 (aq)
Oxidation (anode): 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−   Nett cell: 2Al2O3 (aq) → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g)
The anode and electrolyte always contains the plating metal. Reduction (cathode): Cu 2+
(aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
  Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cl2 (g) + Cu (s) Due to the high temperature of the reaction, the oxygen produced reacts
Oxidation (anode): Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e−  with the carbon electrodes to produce carbon dioxide gas. The carbon elec-
Reduction (cathode): Ag+ (s) + e− → Ag (s) trodes therefore need to be replaced regularly.
Chlorine gas is produced at the anode, while copper metal is pro-
Nett cell: Ag+ (aq) + Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + Ag (s) duced at the cathode. Aluminium extraction uses a large amount of electrical energy, therefore the
cost of aluminium extraction is very high.
60
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTIONS MEMBRANE CELL

In the electrolysis of NaCl, the Na+ ions are not reduced as might be An ion-exchange membrane is used to separate the sodium and chloride ions of the sodium chloride. The selectively permeable ion-
expected. To identify which ions are oxidised/reduced apply the follow- exchange membrane is a fluoro-polymer which allows only Na+ ions to pass through it. The cell consists of two half cells separated by the
ing rules: membrane. The electrolytic cell has the lowest environmental impact. It is also the most cost effective to run, as the internal resistance is
far lower than that of the diaphragm and mercury cells.
OXIDATION (ANODE): 
Either the anion or H2O will be oxidised. Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas
Anode (+) Cathode (−)
− − − −
If a HALOGEN ION (Cl , Br , I , not F ) is present, the HALOGEN ION
is oxidised.
The cathode is filled with pure water Dilute
If no halogen ion is present, water is oxidised according to:  NaCl (aq) NaOH (aq)
At cathode - Reduction: 
2H2O (l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− Cl2 (g)
TITANIUM
2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− H2 (g)
STEEL
 
Membrane
REDUCTION (CATHODE): 
Either the cation or H2O will be reduced. H2O
The anode is filled with the brine solution Conc.
If a GROUP I OR GROUP II METAL CATION is present, WATER will be
reduced according to: NaCl (aq) Cl− (aq) OH− (aq) H2O
At anode - Oxidation: 
2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
Na+ (aq) Na+ (aq)
Water is reduced because it is a stronger oxidising agent than other
group I and II elements. If any other cation is present, the cation will
be reduced and not water. Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + OH− (aq)
ELECTROLYSIS OF NaCl (CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY) Overall reaction: 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Brine (concentrated NaCl solution) is placed in an electrolytic cell to
produce chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.
Overall reaction: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
At the anode, Cl− ions are oxidised to form Cl2 (g). Cl2 gas bubbles
form on the electrode.
At the cathode, water is reduced to form H2 (g) and OH− (aq). H2 (g)
bubbles form on the electrode.
 
 
 
 
  Cl− Na+
 
  H2O
 
Oxidation (anode): 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e− 
Reduction (cathode): 2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + OH− (aq)
Overall reaction:  
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
The electrolysis is conducted in specialised electrolytic cells to control
the reaction process and allow reactions to occur under controlled con-
ditions.
61
Fertilisers SCIENCE CLINIC 2017 ©
PLANT NUTRIENTS NPK FERTILISERS Fractional Distillation SASOL 

Non-mineral nutrients Fertilisers are classified according to
Some non-mineral nutrients are not derived from their NPK content ratio. The ratio is of Liquid Air   
soil: given as: N2 H2
Carbon (C): From CO2 in the atmosphere N:P:K (%)
Oxygen (O): From CO2 and O2 in the atmosphere N- Ratio of nitrogen (N)
Hydrogen (H): From rainwater in the soil P- Ratio of phosphorus (P) HARBER PROCESS ( NH3 )  OSTWALD PROCESS ( HNO3 ) 
K- Ratio of potassium (K)
These non-mineral nutrients are needed in great   N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 Catalytic oxidation of ammonia 
EXAMPLE 1
quantities for the synthesis of glucose through pho- 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
3:2:1 (25)
tosynthesis.
3 of 6 parts are N
Mineral nutrients
2 of 6 parts are P Ammonium nitrate  Oxidation of nitrogen monoxide 
1 of 6 parts are K
Mineral nutrients are dissolved in water in the soil NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
and are absorbed by the roots of the plants. These
25% of the total mass is pure  2NO + O2 → 2NO2
fertiliser.
nutrients can be supplemented by means of fertilis-
ers to ensure healthy plant development. EXAMPLE 2 Absorption of NO2 in water 
2:6:3 (40) Potassium nitrate 
Nitrogen (N): NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
Nitrogen is absorbed from nitrate- and ammonium
2 of 11 parts are N KCl + HNO3 → KNO3 + HCl
6 of 11 parts are P
salts in the soil. 3 of 11 parts are K
• Assists protein formation 40% of the total mass is pure 
• Promotes leaf growth fertiliser. UREA ( CO(NH2)2 )  CONTACT PROCESS ( H2SO4 ) 
• Improves the rate of above-ground growth
The percentages of each nutrient can NH3 + CO2 → CO(NH2)2 Combustion of sulfur 
Nitrogen can be found naturally in guano, or syn- be determined as follows: S + O2 → SO2
thetically in nitrate- and ammonium salts. (FROM EXAMPLE 2)
2
Phosphorus (P): % N: × 40 = 7,27% Ammonium sulphate  Catalytic oxidation of SO2 
11
Phosphorus is absorbed from bonemeal, superphos- 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
phate and dissolved fertilsers. 6 NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
% P: × 40 = 21,82%
• Stimulates early root growth 11
• Assists in photosynthesis Formation of oleum (H2S2O7) 
• Early formation of flowers and maturation of 3
% K: × 40 = 10,91% Monoammonium phosphates  2SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
fruits and seeds 11
NH4H2PO4 
Phosphorus can be found naturally in bonemeal, or ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT  Diammonium phosphates  Conversion of oleum to H2SO4 
synthetically in superphosphate fertilisers. OF FERTILISERS
(EUTROPHICATION) (NH4)2HPO4 H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
Potassium (K): Due to over-irrigation dissolved minerals
Potassium is found is small quantities in organic and phosphates are ‘leached’ from the
plant and animal material (compost and manure). soil and ends up in rivers and dams mak-
• Promotes protein and carbohydrate synthesis ing them nutrient rich. Triple super phosphates ( Ca(H2PO4)2∙H2O )  Superphosphates  
• Assists photosynthesis No CaSO4 byproduct, ∴Higher P concentration Ca(H2PO4)2∙H2O
• Improves quality of flowers and fruit. The nutrient rich water allows algae to
• Makes plants more heat, drought and disease grow rapidly. When algae die, it de-
resistance. pletes the dissolved O2 in the water.
Fish and other water-life die. PHOSPHORIC ACID ( H3PO4 ) 
Potassium can be found naturally in compost and
manure, but is primarily imported from Germany in Excess nitrates in drinking water is also Ca5(PO4)3F + 5H2SO4 + 5H2O → 5CaSO4∙H2O + 3H3PO4 + HF
the form of potash. harmful to humans.
62
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www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa c Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2016

WHY YOU SHOULD STUDY SCIENCE

PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy Δt (s)

2. Write down given variables Nega%ve

vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

Accera&on due to force

by surface during bounce

HOT AIR BALLOON LIFT BOUNCING BALL

RESOLVING INTO COMPONENTS Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

Normal force (N/FN)

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

f smax = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

Connected objects Objects attached by rope/cable

Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN

Same axis Fnet = m a F f FA Ff F f FAB Fnet = m a

Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP

MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40)

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB

Collide and rebounds Springs

Objects can collide and move off

Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

EXAMPLE 3: Pendulum EXAMPLE 4: Rollercoaster

W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

non-conservative force is the frictional force. EXAMPLE:

moving an object from point A Ff Δt

to point B is independent of the

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

FLASHBACK!! Prefix Conversion CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

F = force of attraction between objects (N) 2 Dimensional

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

I DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

GENERATORS ALTERNATING CURRENT

Induced emf (V)

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO RULE INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

ejected per second (current)

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA

ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

Listener to source (+) Source to listener (−)

F 2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2F− + 2,87

All organic compounds belong to a specific group which allows us to

Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be H

4 but− Alkyl CH3CH2− C C C H ethyl−

bonded to a small highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F. (2 bonding sites)

●Between slightly polar molecules. Ketones

ADDITION REACTIONS (UNSATURATED → SATURATED) ELIMINATION REACTIONS (SATURATED → UNSATURATED)

SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS (SATURATED → SATURATED) COMBUSTION/OXIDATION REACTIONS

POLYMERS ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

O H H O O H There are two ways in which the polymerization can terminate.

C R C O H H O C •Two radicals join together and terminate.

MONOMER FREE RADICAL

1. Draw a sketch diagram  Δy Δt (s)

2. Write down given variables  Nega%ve

  f smax = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40)  

W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system. 

FLASHBACK!!  Prefix Conversion CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

F = force of attraction between objects (N)  2 Dimensional

●Between slightly polar molecules.  Ketones

STEPS TO WRITING BALANCED REDOX  EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

PLANT NUTRIENTS NPK FERTILISERS Fractional Distillation SASOL 