IR001

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
TestCode:_________
IR002

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
TestCode:_________
IR003

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
TestCode:_________
IR004

34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
TestCode:_________
IR005

45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
TestCode:_________
IR006

57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
TestCode:_________
IR007

69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
TestCode:_________
IR008

82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
TestCode:_________
IR009

95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
TestCode:_________
IR010

108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
TestCode:_________
IR011

120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
TestCode:_________
IR012

133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
TestCode:_________
IR013

147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
TestCode:_________
IR014

159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
TestCode:_________
IR015

172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
TestCode:_________
IR016

185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
TestCode:_________
IR017
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-14, which are based on Reading Passage
1 below.
!
Tattoo on Tikopia
A There’re still debates about the origins of Polynesian culture (debate details can be
found by searching “Polynesian Culture” in wikipedia), but one thing we can ensure
is that Polynesia is not a single tribe but a complex one. Polynesians which includes
Marquesans, Samoans, Niueans, Tongans, Cook Islanders, Hawaiians, Tahitians,
and Māori, are genetically linked to indigenous peoples of parts of Southeast Asia.
It’s a sub-region of Oceania, comprising of a large grouping of over 1 ,000 islands
scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean, within a triangle that has New
Zealand, Hawaii and Easter Island as its corners.!

B Polynesian history has fascinated the western world since Pacific cultures were first
contacted by European explorers in the late 18th century. The small island of Tikopia,
for many people — even for many Solomon Islanders - is so far away that it seems
like a mythical land; a place like Narnia, that magical land in C.S. Lewis’ classic, “The
Chronicles of Narnia.’ Maybe because of it - Tikopia, is people, and their cultures
have long fascinated scholars, travelers, and casual observers. Like the pioneers
Peter Dillion, Dumont D’Urville and John Colleridge Patterson who visited and wrote
about the island in the 1800s, Raymond Firth is one of those people captured by the
alluring attraction of Tikopia. As a result, he had made a number of trips to the island
since 1920s and recorded his experiences, observations and reflections on Tikopia,
its people, cultures and the changes that have occured.
C While engaged in study of the kinship and religious life of the people of Tikopia, Firth
made a few observations on their tattooing. Brief though these notes are they may
be worth putting on record as an indication of the sociological setting of the practice
in this primitive Polynesian community. The origin of the English word ‘tattoo’ actually
comes from the Tikopia word ‘tatau’. The word for tattoo marks in general is tau, and
the operation of tattooing is known as ta tau, ta being the generic term for the act of
striking.!

D The technique of tattooing was similar throughout Polynesia. Traditional tattoo artists
create their indelible tattoos using pigment made from the candlenut or kukui nut.
First, they burn the nut inside a bowl made of half a coconut shell. Then they scrape
out the soot and use a pestle to mix it with liquid. Bluing is sometimes added to
counteract the reddish hue of the carbon-based pigment. It also makes the outline of
the inscribed designs bolder on the dark skin of tattooing subjects.!

197
E For the instruments used when tattooing, specialists used a range of chisels made
from albatross wing bone which were hafted onto a handle which was made from the
heart wood of the bush and struck with a mallet. The tattooer began by sketching
with charcoal a design on the supine subject, whose skin at that location was
stretched taut by one or more apprentices. The tattooer then dipped the appropriate
points — either a single one or a whole comb - into the ink (usually contained in a
coconut-shell cup) and tapped it into the subject’s skin, holding the blade handle in
one hand and tapping it with the other. The blood that usually trickled from the
punctures was wiped away either by the tattooer or his apprentice, the latter having
also served by restraining a pain-wracked subject from moving, for the operation was
inevitably painful — a test of fortitude that tattooers sought to shorten by working as
fast as possible. In fact, tattoos nearly always festered and often led to sickness —
and in some cases death.
F In ancient Polynesian society, nearly everyone was tattooed. It was an integral part of
an ancient culture and was much more than a body ornament. Tattooing indicated
one’s genealogy and/or rank in society. It was a sign of wealth, of strength and of the
ability to endure pain. Those who went without them were seen as persons of lower
social status. As such, chiefs and warriors generally had the most elaborate tattoos.
Tattooing was generally begun at adolescence, and would often not be completed for
a number of years. Receiving tattoo constituted an important milestone between
childhood and adulthood, and was accompanied by many rites and rituals. Apart
from signaling status and rank, another reason for the practice in tradtional times
was to make a person more attractive to the opposite sex.

G The male facial tattoo is generally divided into eight sections of the face. The center
of the forehead designated a person’s general mark. The area around the brows
designated his position. The area around the eyes and the nose designated his
hapu, or sub-tribe rank. The area around the temples served to detail his marital
status, like the number of marriages. The area under the nose displayed his
signature. This signature was once memorized by tribal chiefs who used it when
buying property, signing deeds, and officiating orders. The cheek area designated
the nature of the person’s work. The chin area showed the person’s mana. Lastly, the
jaw area designated a person’s birth status.

H A person’s ancestry is indicated on each side of the face. The left side is generally
the father’s side, and the right side was the mother’s. The manutahi design is worked
on the men’s back. It consists of two vertical lines drawn from the spine, with short
vertical lines between them. When a man had the manutahi on his back, he took
pride in himself. At gatherings of the people he could stand forth in their midst and
display his tattoo designs with songs. And rows of triangles design on the men’s
chest indicate his bravery.!

I Tattoo was a way delivering information of its owner. It’s also a traditional method to
fetch spiritual power, protection and strength. The Polynesians use this as a sign of
character, position and levels in a hierarchy. Polynesian peoples believe that a
person’s mana, their spiritual power or life force, is displayed through their tattoo.!

198
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement is true
NO if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
!
1 Scientists like to do research in Tikopia because this tiny place is of great remoteness.
2 Firth was the first scholar to study on Tikopia.
3 Firth studied the culture differences on Tikopia as well as on some other islands of
Pacific.
4 The English word ‘tattoo’ is evolved from the local language of the island.
!
Questions 5-9
Label the diagram below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

bowl made of 5 ………………

burn the material inside to get 6 ……………
and stir in the 7 ……………….

produced from 8 ………………… of small trees

produced from 9 ……………. of seabird

!
!

199
Questions 10-14
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.
!
LOCATION ON THE
SIGNIFICANCE GEOMETRIC PATTERNS
BODY

10 ……………. of male face general rank

11 ……………. of male face prestige

Female’s right side of the face 12 ………………..

male back sense of pride 13 ……………………….

male chest bravery 14 ………………………

200
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 15-26, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.
!
MARS
A On Mars, signs of wetness keep pouring in: deeply carved river valleys, vast deltas
and widespread remnants of evaporating seas have convinced many experts that
liquid water may have covered large parts of the Red Planet for a billion years or
more. But most efforts to explain how Martian climate ever permitted such clement
conditions come up dry. Bitterly cold and parched today, Mars needed a potent
greenhouse atmosphere to sustain its watery past. A thick layer of heat-trapping
carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably shrouded the young planet, but climate
models indicate time and again that CO2 alone could not have kept the surface
above freezing.!

B Now, inspired by the surprising discovery that sulfur minerals are pervasive in the
Martian soil, scientists are beginning to suspect that CO2 had a warm-up partner:
sulfur dioxide (SO2). Like CO2, SO2 is a common gas emitted when volcanoes
erupt, a frequent occurrence on Mars when it was still young. A hundredth or even a
thousandth of a percent SO2 in Mars’s early atmosphere could have provided the
extra boost of greenhouse warming that the Red Planet needed to stay wet, explains
geochemist Daniel P. Schrag of Harvard University.!

C That may not sound like much, but for many gases, even minuscule concentrations
are hard to maintain. On our home planet, SO2 provides no significant long-term
warmth because it combines almost instantly with oxygen in the atmosphere to form
sulfate, a type of salt. Early Mars would have been virtually free of atmospheric
oxygen, though, so SO2 would have stuck around much longer.!

D “When you take away oxygen, it’s a profound change, and the atmosphere works
really differently,” Schrag remarks. According to Schrag and his colleagues, that
difference also implies that SO2 would have played a starring role in the Martian
water cycle—thus resolving another climate conundrum, namely, a lack of certain
rocks.!

201
E Schrag’s team contends that on early Mars, much of the SO2 would have combined
with airborne water droplets and fallen as sulfurous acid rain, rather than
transforming into a salt as on Earth. The resulting acidity would have inhibited the
formation of thick layers of limestone and other carbonate rocks. Researchers
assumed Mars would be chock-full of carbonate rocks because their formation is
such a fundamental consequence of the humid, CO2-rich atmosphere on Earth. Over
millions of years, this rock-forming process has sequestered enough of the carbon
dioxide spewed from earthly volcanoes to limit the buildup of the gas in the
atmosphere. Stifling this CO2-sequestration step on early Mars would have forced
more of the gas to accumulate in the atmosphere—another way SO2 could have
boosted greenhouse warming, Schrag suggests.!

F Some scientists doubt that SO2 was really up to these climatic tasks. Even in an
oxygen-free atmosphere, SO2 is still extremely fragile; the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
splits apart SO2 molecules quite readily, points out James F. Kasting, an atmospheric
chemist at Pennsylvania State University. In Kasting’s computer models of Earth’s
early climate, which is often compared with that of early Mars, this photochemical
destruction capped SO2 concentrations at one thousandth as much as Schrag and
his colleagues describe. “There may be ways to make this idea work,” Kasting says.
“But it would take some detailed modeling to convince skeptics, including me, that it
is actually feasible.”!

G Schrag admits that the details are uncertain, but he cites estimates by other
researchers who suggest that early Martian volcanoes could have spewed enough
SO2 to keep pace with the SO2 destroyed photochemically. Previous findings also
indicate that a thick CO2 atmosphere would have effectively scattered the most
destructive wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation—yet another example of an
apparently mutually beneficial partnership between CO2 and SO2 on early Mars.!

H Kasting maintains that an SO2 climate feedback could not have made early Mars as
warm as Earth, but he does allow for the possibility that SO2 concentrations may
have remained high enough to keep the planet partly defrosted, with perhaps enough
rainfall to form river valleys. Over that point, Schrag does not quibble. “Our
hypothesis doesn’t depend at all on whether there was a big ocean, a few lakes or
just a few little puddles,” he says. “Warm doesn’t mean warm like the Amazon. It
could mean warm like Iceland—just warm enough to create those river valleys.” With
SO2, it only takes a little. If sulfur dioxide warmed early Mars, as new hypothesis
suggests, minerals called sulfites would have formed in standing water at the surfae.
No sulfites have yet turned up, possibly because no one was looking for them. The
next-generation rover, the Mars Science Laboratory, is well equipped for the search.
Scheduled to launch in 2009, the rover (shown here in an artist’s conception) will be
the first to carry an x-ray diffractometer, which can scan and identify the crystal
structure of any mineral it encounters.!

202
Questions 15-20
The Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-H, in boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
15 A problem indirectly solved by SO2
16 A device with an astounding ability for detection
17 A potential contributor to the warmth of the Mars interacting with CO2
18 The destructive effect brought by the sunlight proposed by the opponents
19 A specific condition on early Mars to guarantee the SO2 to maintain in the atmostphere
for a long time
20 Conflicting climatic phenomena co-existing on the Mars
!
Questions 21-23
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 21-23 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
21 Schrag has provided concrete proofs to fight against the skeptics for his view.
22 More and more evidences show up to be in favor of the leading role SO2 has for
warming up the Mars.
23 The sulfites have not been detected probably because of no concern for them.
!
Questions 24-26
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage 2.
Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet.
!
An opinion held by Schrag’s team indicates that 24 …………….. formed from the
integration of SO2 with 25 ……………. would have stopped the built up of thicks layers of
limestone as well as certain carbonate rocks. Wetness and abundance in CO2 could directly
result in the good production of 26 ……………. . As time went by, sufficient CO2 was
emitted from the volcanoes and restricted the formation of the gas in the air.


203
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.
!
Movie of Metropolis!
… being the science-fiction film that is steadily becoming fact
A When German director Fritz Lang visited the United States in 1924, his first glimpse
of the country was a night-time view of the New York skyline from the deck of an
ocean liner. This, he later recalled, was the direct inspiration for what is still probably
the most innovative and influential science-fiction film ever made - Metropolis.!

B Metropolis is a bleak vision of the early twenty-first century that is at once both
chilling and exhilarating. This spectacular city of the future is a technological marvel
of high-rise buildings connected by elevated railways and airships. It’s also a world of
extreme inequality and social division. The workers live below ground and exist
solely to operate the city’s machines in an endless routine of mind-numbing 10-hour
shifts while the city’s élite lead lives of luxury high above. Presiding over them all is
the Master of Metropolis, John Fredersen, whose sole satisfaction seems to lie in the
exercise of power.!

C Lang’s graphic depiction of the future is conceived in almost totally abstract terms.
The function of the individual machines is never defined. Instead this mass of dials,
levers and gauges symbolically stands for all machines and all industry, with the
workers as slave-like extensions of the equipment they have to operate. Lang
emphasizes this idea in the famous shift-change sequence at the start of the movie
when the workers walk in zombie-like geometric ranks, all dressed in the same dark
overalls and all exhibiting the same bowed head and dead-eyed stare. An
extraordinary fantasy sequence sees one machine transformed into a huge open-
jawed statue which then literally swallows them up. !

D On one level the machines and the exploited workers simply provide the wealth and
services which allow the élite to live their lives of leisure, but on a more profound
level the purpose of all this demented industry is to serve itself. Power, control and
the continuance of the system from one 10-hour shift to the next is all that counts.
The city consumes people and their labour and in the process becomes a perverse
parody of a living being.!

204
E It is enlightening, I think, to relate the film to the modern global economy in which
multinational corporations now routinely close their factories in one continent so that
they can take advantage of cheap labour in another. Like the industry in Metropolis,
these corporations’ goals of increased efficiency and profits have little to do with the
welfare of the majority of their employees or that of the population at large. Instead
their aims are to sustain the momentum of their own growth and to increase the
monetary rewards to a tiny élite – their executives and shareholders. Fredersen
himself is the essence of the big company boss: Rupert Murdoch would probably feel
perfectly at home in his huge skyscraper office with its panoramic view of the city
below. And it is important that there is never any mention of government in
Metropolis – the whole concept is by implication obsolete. The only people who have
power are the supreme industrialist, Fredersen, and his magician/scientist cohort
Rotwang. !

F So far so good: when the images are allowed to speak for themselves the film is
impeccable both in its symbolism and in its cynicism. The problem with Metropolis is
its sentimental story-line, which sees Freder, Fredersen’s son, instantly falling in love
with the visionary Maria. Maria leads an underground pseudo-religious movement
and preaches that the workers should not rebel but should await the arrival of a
‘Mediator’ between the ‘Head’ (capital) and the ‘Hands’ (labour). That mediator is the
‘Heart’ - love, as embodied, finally, by Freder’s love of Maria and his father’s love of
him.!

G Lang wrote the screenplay in collaboration with his then wife Thea von Harbou. In
1933 he fled from the Nazis (and continued a very successful career in Hollywood).
She stayed in Germany and continued to make films under the Hitler regime. There
is a constant tension within the film between the too-tidy platitudes of von Harbou’s
script and the uncompromisingly caustic vigour of Lang’s imagery.!

H To my mind, both in Metropolis and in the real world, it’s not so much that the ‘Head’
and ‘Hands’ require a ‘Heart’ to mediate between them but that the ‘Hands’ need to
develop their own ‘Head’, their own political consciousness, and act accordingly –
through the ballot box, through buying power and through a sceptical resistance to
the materialistic fantasies of the Fredersens.!

I All the same, Metropolis is probably more accurate now as a representation of

industrial and social relations than it has been at any time since its original release.
And Fredersen is certainly still the most potent movie symbol of the handful of
elusive corporate figureheads who increasingly treat the world as a Metropolis-like
global village.!

205
Questions 27-30
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement is true
NO if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
!
27 The inspiration of the movie Metropolis comes from the director’s visit in the USA in
1924.
28 The Master of Metropolis, John Fredersen, is portrayed from an industrialist that the
director met in the US.
29 The start of the movie exhibits the workers working in full energy.
30 The director and his wife got divorced because his wife decided to stay in Germany.
!
Questions 31-36
Complete the summary below, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading
Passage 3 for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet.
!
The director depicts a world of inequality and 31 ……………. . In the future, the mindless
masses of workers living underground are treated as 32 …………. . And the master of
them is 33 ………….., who is in charge of the whole city. The write claims that the
director, Frit Lang, present the movie in an 34 ……………. term, where the 35
………………. of the individual machines is not defined. Besides the writer compares the
film to the modern global economy which multinational corporations concern more about
the growing 36 ……………. and money.
!
!

206
Questions 37-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.
!
37 The first sentence in paragraph B indicates
A the author’s fear about technology
B the inspiration of the director
C the contradictory feelings towards future
D the city elite’s well management of the workers

38 Why the function of the individual machines is not defined?

A Because Lang sticks to theme in a symbolic way.
B Because workers are more important to exploit.
C Because the fantasy sequence is difficult to take.
D Because the focus of the movie is not about machines.

39 The writer’s purpose in paragraph E is to

A emphasize the multinational corporations’ profit-oriented goal.
B compare the movie with the reality in modern global economy.
C exploit the difference between fantasy and reality.
D enlighten the undeveloped industry

40 What is the writer’s opinion about the movie?

A The movie’s story line is excellent.
B The movie has a poor implication of symbolism.
C The movie is perfect in all aspects.
D The movie is good but could be better.

207
TestCode:_________
IR018
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
Robots with a sense of self
At Yale University, scientists
have created a humanoid
robot named Nico. When
Nico sits in front of a
mirror and raises an arm,
he recognises the arm
moving in the mirror as his
own. It may not sound like
much of a feat, but he has
just become the first of his
kind to recognise his own
reflection in a mirror.
The ability to recognise your
reflection is considered an
important milestone in infant
development and as a mark of
self-awareness, sociability and
intelligence in a non-human
animal. Nico’s ability to perform
the same feat could pave the
way for more sophisticated
robots that can recognise their
own bodies even if they are
damaged or reconfigured.
The achievement is one of a
cluster of recent instances in
which robots have begun to
approach the major milestones
in cognitive development. If
robots can be taught to move
from one developmental stage to
the next, as infants do, they may
eventually be capable of learning
more complicated tasks and
therefore become more useful to
humans. ‘It’s less about recreating
a human than making a human-
compatible being,’ says Matt
Berlin, a robotics researcher
at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
To give Nico the ability to
recognise himself, Kevin
Gold and his supervisor Brian
Scassellati equipped Nico with
a video camera behind one of
his eyes. They also gave him a
jointed arm with an attached
computer running some clever
software. When Nico points his
camera eye at the mirror, the
software assigns sections of the
image a probability of being
‘self ’, ‘another’ or ‘neither’. At
the same time, motion sensors
in Nico’s arm tell the software
when he is moving. Whenever
a section of the image changes
at the same time as his motion
sensors detect movement in the
arm, he assigns that section a
high probability of being ‘self ’.
If a section of the image shifts
and Nico detects no movement
in his arm, he assigns that image
section a high probability of
being ‘another’, while static
sections are likely to be ‘neither’.
This allows him to recognise not
only his own moving limbs, but
those of other robots or people.
To test the self-recognition
software, Gold programmed
Nico to move his arm for
four minutes while filming it
with his camera, allowing him
to learn when movement of
his arm, detected by his arm
sensors, corresponded to motion
of the arm in the video. Nico
was then positioned so that
he could see both his own
reflection in a mirror and Gold
standing beside it. Gold carried
out a range of different tasks,
including juggling balls, while
Nico moved his arm around.
Nico’s software was able to
correctly classify the movements
corresponding to his own
reflection and those of Gold
95% of the time.
The same system should also
make it possible for robots to
recognise their own limbs even
if they are damaged, or wearing
different clothes by correlating
movement detected by on-board
cameras with those reported by
sensors on their limbs, says Gold.
This should help them carry
out tasks such as manipulating
objects or let them adapt the
way they walk to a changing
terrain, when conventional
vision software can be fooled
by changes in appearance or
environment.
The ability to tell self from
other should also allow
robots to carry out more
sophisticated tasks, says Olaf
Sporns, a cognitive scientist and
roboticist at Indiana University
in Bloomington. For instance,
researchers are investigating
imitation as a way of helping
robots learn how to carry out
tasks. To successfully and safely
imitate someone, though, robots
will need to distinguish between
their own limbs and those of
another person, as Nico can.
208
 ‘The distinction between self
and other is a fundamental
problem for humanoid robotics,’
says Sporns.
Meanwhile, a furry robot called
Leonardo, built at MIT recently,
reached another developmental
milestone, the ability to grasp
that someone else might believe
something you know to be
untrue.You can test the capacity
for ‘false belief ’ in children by
showing them a scene in which
a child puts chocolate in a
drawer and goes away. While he
is out of sight, his mother moves
the chocolate somewhere else.
Young children are incapable
of seeing the world through
the other child’s eyes, and so
predict that he will look for
the chocolate in the place his
mother has left it. Only when
they reach four or five can they
predict that the other child
will mistakenly look for the
chocolate in the drawer.
Leonardo, developed by Cynthia
Breazeal together with Berlin
and colleague Jesse Gray,
uses face, image and voice
recognition software running on
an array of attached computers
to build a ‘brain’ for himself –
basically a list of objects around
him in the room and events that
he has witnessed. Whenever he
spots a new face, he builds and
stores another ‘brain’ which
processes information in the
same way as his own but sees
the world from the new person’s
point of view.
When faced with the false-belief
test, Leonardo knows that the
object has been moved and also
that a person who left the room
before this would not know this.
It is more than just a cute trick,
however. Gray found that the
ability to model other people’s
beliefs allows Leonardo to gain
a better understanding of their
goals.
As well as helping to build
better robots, such research
could ultimately enhance our
understanding of cognitive
development in infants.
Developmental milestones
such as self-recognition and
modelling other people’s beliefs
are believed to be associated
with the development of other
important capabilities, such as
empathy and sociability. By
performing feats associated
with these milestones, such
robots could help researchers
understand what capabilities
infants need to reach them,
says Sporns. ‘It shows us that
complex phenomena can
sometimes be explained on the
basis of simple mechanisms.’

Questions 1–4
Look at the following people (Questions 1–4) and the list of statements below.
Match each person with the correct statement, A–E.
Write the correct letter, A–E, in boxes 1–4 on your answer sheet.
1 Matt Berlin
2 Kevin Gold
3 Olaf Sporns
4 Jesse Gray

A suggests that robots cannot yet discriminate between themselves and others
B thinks that research using robots can help us understand the skills young children need to develop
C wants robots to be able to respond to varying conditions
D is working on a number of different versions of a robot
E is not trying to make a human being but a machine to help humans

209
Questions 5–8
Label the diagrams below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 5–8 on your answer sheet.

5 6 robot’s arm fitted with computer software and

placed inside robot’s ‘head’

7 robot films own 8 researcher performs separate actions, e.g.

movement

Questions 9–13
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 9–13 on your answer sheet.
9 Nico has reached a significant developmental stage by identifying a
as his own.
10 Nico classifies what he sees as being ‘ ’ if he detects no movement
on the image or his sensors.
11 Researchers are developing robots that can recognise broken belonging to them.
12 Researchers investigate among youngsters using chocolate.
13 Robotic research can help us learn about children’s .

210
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Consumer behaviour
A ‘Consumer behaviour’ is the behaviour that consumers display in seeking, purchasing, using, evaluating
and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their personal needs. The study of
consumer behaviour is the study of how individuals make decisions to spend their available resources
(money, time and effort) on products and services. Consumer behaviour includes both mental decisions
and the physical actions that result from those decisions. Although some social scientists limit their
understanding of ‘behaviour’ to observable actions, it is apparent that the reasons and decisions behind
the actions involved in human (and consumer) behaviour are as important to investigate as the actions
themselves.
B People engage in activities for many purposes other than consumption but, when acting as a customer,
individuals have just one goal in mind – to obtain goods and services that meet their needs and wants.
All consumers face varying problems associated with acquiring products to sustain life and provide for
some comforts. Because solutions to these problems are vital to the existence of most people, and the
economic well-being of all, they are usually not taken lightly. The process is complex, as choices must be
made regarding what, why, how, when, where and how often to buy an item.
C Take, for instance, the product bottled water – a multimillion-dollar industry. A study of consumption
behaviour in this area would investigate what kinds of consumers buy bottled water, and why, when
and where they buy it. The study might find that, among some consumers, the growing use of bottled
water is tied to concerns with fitness; and, among others, with the quality of tap water. It might find
that domestic brands have a totally different image from imported brands, and that the reasons and
occasions for usage vary among consumers. By contrast, a more durable product such as a document
scanner would have a very different target market. What kinds of consumers buy, or would buy, a
scanner for home use? What features do they look for? How much are they willing to pay? How many
will wait for prices to come down? The answers to these questions can be found through consumer
research, and would provide scanner manufacturers with important input for product design
modification and marketing strategy.
D The word ‘consumer’ is often used to describe two different kinds of consuming entities; the personal
consumer and the organisational consumer. The personal consumer buys goods and services for his
or her own use (e.g. shaving cream), for the use of the whole household (television set), for another
member of the household (a shirt or electronic game) or as a gift for a friend (a book). In all these
contexts, the goods are bought for final use by individuals who are referred to as ‘end-users’ or ‘ultimate
consumers’.
E The second category of consumer includes profit and non-profit businesses, public sector agencies
(local and national) and institutions (schools, churches, prisons), all of which buy products, equipment
and services in order to run their organisations. Manufacturing companies must buy the raw materials
and other components to manufacture and sell their products; service companies must buy the
equipment necessary to render the services they sell; government agencies buy the office products
needed to operate agencies; institutions must buy the materials they need to maintain themselves and
their populations.
F The person who purchases a product is not always the sole user of the product. Nor is the purchaser
necessarily the person who makes the decision or pays for the product. Thus the marketplace activities
of individuals entail three functions, or roles, as part of the processes involved in consumer behaviour.
The three functions are the consumer, the person who consumes or uses the product or service; the
purchaser, the person who undertakes the activities to obtain the product or service; and the payer, the
person who provides the money or other object of value to obtain the product or service. Marketers
must decide whom to direct their marketing efforts toward. For some products or services, they

211
 must identify the person who is most likely to influence the decision. Some marketers believe that
the buyer of the products is the best prospect, others believe it is the user of the product, while still
others play it safe by directing their promotional efforts to both buyers and users. For example, some
toy manufacturers advertise their products on children’s television shows to reach the users, others
advertise in magazines to reach the buyers, and others run dual campaigns designed to reach both
children and their parents.
G In addition to studying how consumers use the products they buy, consumer researchers are also
interested in how individuals dispose of their once-new purchases when they are finished with
them. The answer to this question is important to marketers, as they must match production to the
frequency with which consumers buy replacements. It is also important to society as a whole, as solid
waste disposal has become a major environmental problem that marketers must address in their
development of products and packaging. Recycling is no longer a sufficient response to the problem.
Many manufacturers have begun to remanufacture old components to install in new products, because
remanufacturing is often cheaper, easier and more efficient than recycling.

Questions 14–18
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A–G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–G, in boxes 14–18 on your answer sheet.
14 a description of the organisational consumer
15 the reason why customers take purchasing decisions seriously
16 reference to a way of re-using materials
17 ways of exposing products to a range of potential customers
18 a term used to describe someone who buys for the family

Questions 19–22
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 19–22 on your answer sheet.

Market research
Market research carried out on non-durable products like 19 aims to find out who buys
these goods and why. Researchers look at what motivates buyers, such as issues of personal
20 or environmental factors. They may discover that 21 are viewed differently from
a local product.
Alternatively, research on durable, manufactured goods is likely to focus more on pricing, and
the results may help suggest appropriate changes to the 22 of the product, as well as
showing how best to market it.

212
Questions 23–26
Complete the notes below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 23–26 on your answer sheet.

Marketplace activities involve:

• consumer
• 23
• payer

Marketers target

buyer

user 24

Researchers study:
• patterns of consumer usage
• methods of 25
• product replacement frequency
Remanufacture is replacing 26 .

213
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
You are what you speak
Does your mother tongue really affect the way you see the world?
Alison Motluk looks at some of the findings
Does the language you speak
influence the way you think? Does it
help define your world view? Anyone
who has tried to master a foreign
tongue has at least thought about the
possibility.
At first glance the idea seems
perfectly plausible. Conveying even
simple messages requires that
you make completely different
observations depending on your
language. Imagine being asked to
count some pens on a table. As an
English speaker, you only have to
count them and give the number.
But a Russian may need to consider
the gender and a Japanese speaker
has to take into account their shape
(long and cylindrical) as well, and
use the number word designated for
items of that shape.
On the other hand, surely pens
are just pens, no matter what your
language compels you to specify
about them? Little linguistic
peculiarities, though amusing, don’t
change the objective world we are
describing. So how can they alter the
way we think?
Scientists and philosophers have
been grappling with this thorny
question for centuries. There have
always been those who argue that our
picture of the Universe depends on
our native tongue. Since the 1960s,
however, with the ascent of thinkers
like Noam Chomsky, and a host of
cognitive scientists, the consensus
has been that linguistic differences
don’t really matter, that language is
a universal human trait, and that our
ability to talk to one another owes
more to our shared genetics than to
our varying cultures. But now the
pendulum is beginning to swing
the other way as psychologists re-
examine the question.
A new generation of scientists is
not convinced that language is innate
and hard-wired into our brain and
they say that small, even apparently
insignificant differences between
languages do affect the way speakers
perceive the world. ‘The brain is
shaped by experience,’ says Dan
Slobin of the University of California
at Berkeley. ‘Some people argue
that language just changes what
you attend to,’ says Lera Boroditsky
of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. ‘But what you attend
to changes what you encode and
remember.’ In short, it changes how
you think.
To start with the simplest and
perhaps subtlest example, preparing
to say something in a particular
language demands that you pay
attention to certain things and ignore
others. In Korean, for instance,
simply to say ‘hello’ you need to know
if you’re older or younger than the
person you’re addressing. Spanish
speakers have to decide whether they
are on intimate enough terms to call
someone by the informal tu rather
than the formal Usted. In Japanese,
simply deciding which form of the
word ‘I’ to use demands complex
calculations involving things such as
your gender, their gender and your
relative status. Slobin argues that
this process can have a huge impact
on what we deem important and,
ultimately, how we think about the
world.
Whether your language places
an emphasis on an object’s shape,
substance or function also seems
to affect your relationship with the
world, according to John Lucy,
a researcher at the Max Planck
Institute of Psycholinguistics in
the Netherlands. He has compared
American English with Yucatec
Maya, spoken in Mexico’s Yucatan
Peninsula. Among the many
differences between the two
languages is the way objects are
classified. In English, shape is implicit
in many nouns. We think in terms of
discrete objects, and it is only when
we want to quantify amorphous
things like sugar that we employ
units such as ‘cube’ or ‘cup’. But in
Yucatec, objects tend to be defined
by separate words that describe
shape. So, for example, ‘long banana’
describes the fruit, while ‘flat banana’
means the ‘banana leaf’ and ‘seated
banana’ is the ‘banana tree’.
To find out if this classification
system has any far-reaching
effects on how people think, Lucy
asked English- and Yucatec-speaking
volunteers to do a likeness task. In
one experiment, he gave them three
combs and asked which two were
most alike. One was plastic with
a handle, another wooden with a
handle, the third plastic without a
handle. English speakers thought the
combs with handles were more alike,
but Yucatec speakers felt the two
plastic combs were. In another test,
Lucy used a plastic box, a cardboard
box and a piece of cardboard. The
Americans thought the two boxes
belonged together, whereas the
214
 Mayans chose the two cardboard
items. In other words, Americans
focused on form, while the Mayans
focused on substance.
Despite some criticism of his
findings, Lucy points to his studies
indicating that, at about the age of
eight, differences begin to emerge that
reflect language. ‘Everyone comes
with the same possibilities,’ he says,
‘but there’s a tendency to make the
world fit into our linguistic categories.’
Boroditsky agrees, arguing that even
artificial classification systems, such
as gender, can be important.
Nevertheless, the general
consensus is that while the
experiments done by Lucy, Boroditsky
and others may be intriguing, they
are not compelling enough to shift
the orthodox view that language does
not have a strong bearing on thought
or perception. The classic example
used by Chomskians to back this
up is colour. Over the years many
researchers have tried to discover
whether linguistic differences
in categorising colours lead to
differences in perceiving them.
Colours, after all, fall on a continuous
spectrum, so we shouldn’t be surprised
if one person’s ‘red’ is another person’s
‘orange’. Yet most studies suggest that
people agree on where the boundaries
are, regardless of the colour terms used
in their own language.

Questions 27–31
Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 27–31 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
27 Learning a foreign language makes people consider the relationship between language and thought.
28 In the last century cognitive scientists believed that linguistic differences had a critical effect on
communication.
29 Dan Slobin agrees with Chomsky on how we perceive the world.
30 Boroditsky has conducted gender experiments on a range of speakers.
31 The way we perceive colour is a well established test of the effect of language on thought.

215
Questions 32–36
Look at the following features (Questions 32–36) and the list of languages below.
Match each feature with the correct language, A–E.
Write the correct letter, A–E, in boxes 32–36 on your answer sheet.
32 the importance of the relative age of speakers
33 the use of adjectives to distinguish the names of objects or things
34 a need to use some numbers with the correct gender
35 a relationship between form and number
36 the need to know how friendly your relationship is with the person you are addressing

List of Languages
A Russian
B Japanese
C Korean
D Spanish
E Yucatec Maya

Questions 37–40
Complete the summary using the list of words, A–J, below.
Write the correct letter, A–J, in boxes 37–40 on your answer sheet.

Lucy’s Experiments
In the likeness task, Lucy gave his subjects three combs. Two of these were made of the same
37 and two were alike in that they had the same 38 . In another experiment, plastic
and 39 items were used.
The 40 that English and Yucatec speakers used to group these objects helped him show
that speakers of different languages think about things differently.

A method E purpose I similarity

B language F gender J wood
C cardboard G box
D design H material

216
TestCode:_________
 IR019

Passage 1
Questions 1–9 Reading Passage 1 has nine paragraphs A–I.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.

List of Headings
i Island legends
ii Resources for exchange
iii Competition for fishing rights
iv The low cost of equipment
v Agatti’s favourable location
vi Rising income levels
vii The social nature of reef occupations
viii Resources for islanders’ own use
ix High levels of expertise
x Alternative sources of employment
xi Resources for earning money
xii Social rights and obligations

1 Paragraph A ....................................

2 Paragraph B ....................................

3 Paragraph C ....................................

4 Paragraph D ....................................

5 Paragraph E ....................................

6 Paragraph F ....................................

7 Paragraph G ....................................

8 Paragraph H ....................................

9 Paragraph I ....................................

Questions 10–13 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

10 What proportion of poor households get all their income from reef products?
A 12% B 20% C 29% D 59%

11 Kat moodsal fishing

A is a seasonal activity. C requires little investment.
B is a commercial activity. D requires use of a rowing boat.

12 Which characteristic of present-day islanders do the writers describe?

A physical strength C courage
B fishing expertise D imagination

13 What do the writers say about the system for using the reef on Agatti?
A Fish catches are shared equally. C There are frequent disputes.
B The reef owner issues permits. D There is open access.

217
 The coral reefs of
Agatti Island
A Agatti is one of the Lakshadweep Islands off the south-
west coast of India. These islands are surrounded by lagoons
and coral reefs which are in turn surrounded by the open
ocean. Coral reefs, which are formed from the skeletons of
minute sea creatures, give shelter to a variety of plants and
animals, and therefore have the potential to provide a stream
of diverse benefits to the inhabitants of Agatti Island.
B In the first place, the reefs provide food and other
products for consumption by the islanders themselves. Foods
include different types of fish, octopus and molluscs, and in
the case of poorer families these constitute as much as 90%
of the protein they consume. Reef resources are also used for
medicinal purposes. For example, the money cowrie, a shell
known locally as Vallakavadi, is commonly made into a paste
and used as a home remedy to treat cysts in the eye.
C In addition, the reef contributes to income generation.
According to a recent survey, 20% of the households on
Agatti report lagoon fishing, or shingle, mollusc, octopus and
cowrie collection as their main occupation (Hoon et al,
2002). For poor households, the direct contribution of the
reef to their financial resources is significant: 12% of poor
households are completely dependent on the reef for their
household income, while 59% of poor households rely on
the reef for 70% of their household income, and the
remaining 29% for 50% of their household income.
D Bartering of reef resources also commonly takes place,
both between islanders and between islands. For example,
Agatti Island is known for its abundance of octopus, and this
is often used to obtain products from nearby Androth Island.
Locally, reef products may be given by islanders in return for
favours, such as help in constructing a house or net
mending, or for other products such as rice, coconuts or fish.
E The investment required to exploit the reefs is minimal. It
involves simple, locally available tools and equipment, some
of which can be used without a boat, such as the fishing
practice known as Kat moodsal. This is carried out in the
shallow eastern lagoon of Agatti by children and adults, close
to shore at low tide, throughout the year. A small cast net, a
leaf bag, and plastic slippers are all that are required, and the
activity can yield 10–12 small fish (approximately 1 kg) for
household consumption. Cast nets are not expensive, and all
the households in Agatti own at least one. Even the boats,
which operate in the lagoon and near-shore reef, are
constructed locally and have low running costs. They are
either small, non-mechanised, traditional wooden rowing
boats, known as Thonis, or rafts, known as Tharappam.
F During more than 400 years of occupation and survival,
the Agatti islanders have developed an intimate knowledge
of the reefs. They have knowledge of numerous different
types of fish and where they can be found according to the
tide or lunar cycle. They have also developed a local naming
system or folk taxonomy, naming fish according to their
shape. Sometimes the same species is given different names
depending on its size and age. For example, a full grown
Emperor fish is called Metti and a juvenile is called Killokam.
The abundance of each species at different fishing grounds is
also well known. Along with this knowledge of reef
resources, the islanders have developed a wide range of skills
and techniques for exploiting them. A multitude of different
fishing techniques are still used by the islanders, each
targeting different areas of the reef and particular species.
G The reef plays an important role in the social lives of the
islanders too, being an integral part of traditions and rituals.
Most of the island’s folklore revolves around the reef and
sea. There is hardly any tale or song which does not mention
the traditional sailing crafts, known as Odams, the journeys
of enterprising ‘heroes’, the adventures of sea fishing and
encounters with sea creatures. Songs that women sing
recollect women looking for returning Odams, and
requesting the waves to be gentler and the breeze just right
for the sails. There are stories of the benevolent sea ghost
baluvam, whose coming to shore is considered a harbinger
of prosperity for that year, bringing more coconuts, more fish
and general well-being.
H The reef is regarded by the islanders as common property,
and all the islanders are entitled to use the lagoon and reef
resources. In the past, fishing groups would obtain
permission from the Amin (island head person) and go
fishing in the grounds allotted by him. On their return, the
Amin would be given a share of the catch, normally one of
the best or biggest fish. This practice no longer exists, but
there is still a code of conduct or etiquette for exploiting the
reef, and common respect for this is an effective way of
avoiding conflict or disputes.
I Exploitation of such vast and diverse resources as the reefs
and lagoon surrounding the island has encouraged
collaborative efforts, mainly for purposes of safety, but also
as a necessity in the operation of many fishing techniques.
For example, an indigenous gear and operation known as
Bala fadal involves 25–30 men. Reef gleaning for cowrie
collection by groups of 6–10 women is also a common
activity, and even today, although its economic significance is
marginal, it continues as a recreational activity.
218
 Passage 2
Questions 14–19 Complete the summary below using words from the box.
Singapore
When Singapore became an independent, self-sufficient state it decided to build up
its 14 ...................................., and government organisations were created to support
this policy. However, this initial plan met with limited success due to a shortage of
15 .................................... and land. It was therefore decided to develop the
16 .................................... sector of the economy instead.
Singapore is now a leading city, but planners are working to ensure that its
economy continues to grow. In contrast to previous policies, there is emphasis on
17 .................................... . In addition, land will be recovered to extend the financial
district, and provide 18 .................................... as well as housing. The government
also plans to improve the quality of Singapore’s environment, but due to the
shortage of natural landscapes it will concentrate instead on what it calls
19 .................................... .

decentralisation fuel industry transport

hospitals loans deregulation service
trade transport entertainment recycling
labour tourism hygiene beautification
agriculture

Questions 20–26 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
Write True if the statement agrees with the information
False if the statement contradicts the information
Not Given if there is no information on this.

20 After 1965, the Singaporean government switched the focus of the island’s
economy. ....................................

21 The creation of Singapore’s financial centre was delayed while a suitable site was
found. ....................................

22 Singapore’s four regional centres will eventually be the same size as its central
business district. ....................................

23 Planners have modelled new urban developments on other coastal cities.

....................................

24 Plants and trees are amongst the current priorities for Singapore’s city planners.
....................................

25 The government has enacted new laws to protect Singapore’s old buildings.
....................................

26 Singapore will find it difficult to compete with leading cities in other parts of the
world. ....................................

219

in Singapore
planning
Urban
British merchants established a trading
post in Singapore in the early nineteenth
century, and for more than a century
trading interests dominated. However, in
1965 the newly independent island state
was cut off from its hinterland, and so it
set about pursuing a survival strategy.
The good international communications
it already enjoyed provided a useful
base, but it was decided that if
Singapore was to secure its economic
future, it must develop its industry. To
this end, new institutional structures
were needed to facilitate, develop, and
control foreign investment. One of the
most important of these was the
Economic Development Board (EDB), an
arm of government that developed
strategies for attracting investment. Thus
from the outset, the Singaporean
government was involved in city
promotion.
Towards the end of the twentieth
century, the government realised that,
due to limits on both the size of the
country’s workforce and its land area, its
labour-intensive industries were
becoming increasingly uncompetitive. So
an economic committee was established
which concluded that Singapore should
focus on developing as a service centre,
and seek to attract company
headquarters to serve South East Asia,
and develop tourism, banking, and
offshore activities. The land required for
this service-sector orientation had been
acquired in the early 1970s, when the
government realised that it lacked the
banking infrastructure for a modern
economy. So a new banking and
corporate district, known as the ‘Golden
Shoe’, was planned, incorporating the
historic commercial area. This district
now houses all the major companies and
various government financial agencies.
Singapore’s current economic strategy
is closely linked to land use and
development planning. Although it is
already a major city, the current
development plan seeks to ensure
Singapore’s continued economic growth
through restructuring, to ensure that the
facilities needed by future business are
planned now. These include transport
and telecommunication infrastructure,
land, and environmental quality. A major
concern is to avoid congestion in the
central area, and so the latest plan
deviates from previous plans by having a
strong decentralisation policy. The plan
makes provision for four major regional
centres, each serving 800,000 people,
but this does not mean that the existing
central business district will not also
grow. A major extension planned around
Marina Bay draws on examples of other
‘world cities’, especially those with
waterside central areas such as Sydney
and San Francisco. The project involves
major land reclamation of 667 hectares
in total. Part of this has already been
developed as a conference and
exhibition zone, and the rest will be used
for other facilities. However the need for
vitality has been recognised and a mixed
zoning approach has been adopted, to
include housing and entertainment.
One of the new features of the current
plan is a broader conception of what
contributes to economic success. It
encompasses high quality residential
provision, a good environment, leisure
facilities and exciting city life. Thus there
is more provision for low-density housing,
often in waterfront communities linked to
beaches and recreational facilities.
However, the lower housing densities will
put considerable pressure on the very
limited land available for development,
and this creates problems for another of
the plan’s aims, which is to stress
environmental quality. More and more of
the remaining open area will be
developed, and the only natural
landscape surviving will be a small zone
in the centre of the island which serves
as a water catchment area.
Environmental policy is therefore very
much concerned with making the built
environment more green by introducing
more plants – what is referred to as the
‘beautification’ of Singapore. The plan
focuses on green zones defining the
boundaries of settlements, and running
along transport corridors. The incidental
green provision within housing areas is
also given considerable attention.
Much of the environmental provision,
for example golf courses, recreation
areas, and beaches, is linked to the
prime objective of attracting business.
The plan places much emphasis on good
leisure provision and the need to exploit
Singapore’s island setting. One way of
doing this is through further land
reclamation, to create a whole new island
devoted to leisure and luxury housing
which will stretch from the central area to
the airport. A current concern also
appears to be how to use the planning
system to create opportunities for greater
spontaneity: planners have recently given
much attention to the concept of the 24-
hour city and the cafe society. For
example, a promotion has taken place
along the Singapore river to create a cafe
zone. This has included the realisation,
rather late in the day, of the value of
retaining older buildings, and the creation
of a continuous riverside promenade.
Since the relaxation in 1996 of strict
guidelines on outdoor eating areas, this
has become an extremely popular area in
the evenings. Also, in 1998 the Urban
Redevelopment Authority created a new
entertainment area in the centre of the
city which they are promoting as ‘the
city’s one-stop, dynamic entertainment
scene’.
In conclusion, the economic
development of Singapore has been very
consciously centrally planned, and the
latest strategy is very clearly oriented to
establishing Singapore as a leading
‘world city’. It is well placed to succeed,
for a variety of reasons. It can draw upon
its historic roots as a world trading
centre; it has invested heavily in
telecommunications and air transport
infrastructure; it is well located in relation
to other Asian economies; it has
developed a safe and clean environment;
and it has utilised the international
language of English.
220
 Passage 3
Questions 27–33 Reading Passage 3 has nine paragraphs, labelled A–I.
Which paragraphs contain the following information?

27 an example of a food which particularly benefits from the addition of spices

..................
28 a range of methods for making food safer to eat ..................

29 a comparison between countries with different climate types ..................

30 an explanation of how people first learned to select appropriate spices ..................

31 a method of enhancing the effectiveness of individual spices ..................

32 the relative effectiveness of certain spices against harmful organisms ..................

33 the possible origins of a dislike for unspiced foods ..................

Questions 34–39 Answer the questions below with words taken from Reading Passage 3.
Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer.

34 According to the writers, what might the use of spices in cooking help people
to avoid? ....................................

35 What proportion of bacteria in food do four of the spices tested destroy?

....................................

36 Which food often contains a spice known as ‘quatre epices’?

....................................

37 Which types of country use the fewest number of spices in cooking?

....................................

38 What might food aversions often be associated with?

....................................

39 Apart from spices, which substance is used in all countries to preserve food?
....................................

Question 40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, or D.

Which is the best title for Reading Passage 3?
A The function of spices in food preparation
B A history of food preservation techniques
C Traditional recipes from around the world
D An analysis of the chemical properties of spice plants

221
A Spice plants, such as coriander,
cardamom or ginger, contain
compounds which, when added to
food, give it a distinctive flavour.
Spices have been used for centuries
in the preparation of both meat
dishes for consumption and meat
dishes for long-term storage.
However, an initial analysis of
traditional meat-based recipes
indicated that spices are not used
equally in different countries and
regions, so we set about
investigating global patterns of
spice use.
B We hypothesized initially that the
benefit of spices might lie in their
anti-microbial properties. Those
compounds in spice plants which
give them their distinctive flavours
probably first evolved to fight
enemies such as plant-eating
insects, fungi, and bacteria. Many
of the organisms which afflict spice
plants attack humans too, in
particular the bacteria and fungi
that live on and in dead plant and
animal matter. So if spices kill
these organisms, or inhibit their
production of toxins 1, spice use in
food might reduce our own chances
of contracting food poisoning.
C The results of our investigation
supported this hypothesis. In
common with other researchers, we
found that all spices for which we
could locate appropriate
information have some
antibacterial effects: half inhibit
more than 75% of bacteria, and
four (garlic, onion, allspice and
oregano) inhibit 100% of those
bacteria tested. In addition, many
spices are powerful fungicides.
D Studies also show that when
combined, spices exhibit even
greater anti-bacterial properties
than when each is used alone. This
is interesting because the food
recipes we used in our sample
specify an average of four different
spices. Some spices are so
frequently combined that the
blends have acquired special
names, such as ‘chili powder’
(typically a mixture of red pepper,
onion, paprika, garlic, cumin and
oregano) and ‘oriental five spice’
(pepper, cinnamon, anise, fennel
and cloves). One intriguing
example is the French ‘quatre
epices’ (pepper, cloves, ginger and
nutmeg) which is often used in
making sausages. Sausages are a
rich medium for bacterial growth,
and have frequently been
implicated as the source of death
from the botulism toxin, so the
value of the anti-bacterial
compounds in spices used for
sausage preparation is obvious.
E A second hypothesis we made was
that spice use would be heaviest in
areas where foods spoil most
quickly. Studies indicate that rates
of bacterial growth increase
dramatically with air temperature.
Meat dishes that are prepared in
advance and stored at room
temperatures for more than a few
hours, especially in tropical
climates, typically show massive
increases in bacterial counts. Of
course temperatures within houses,
particularly in areas where food is
prepared and stored, may differ
from those of the outside air, but
usually it is even hotter in the
kitchen.
F Our survey of recipes from around
the world confirmed this
hypothesis: we found that countries
with higher than average
temperatures used more spices.
Indeed, in hot countries nearly
every meat-based recipe calls for at
least one spice, and most include
many spices, whereas in cooler
ones, substantial proportions of
dishes are prepared without spices,
or with just a few. In other words,
there is a significant positive
correlation between mean
temperature and the average
quantity of spices used in cooking.
G But if the main function of spices
is to make food safer to eat, how did
our ancestors know which ones to
use in the first place? It seems
likely that people who happened to
add spice plants to meat during
preparation, especially in hot
climates, would have been less
likely to suffer from food poisoning
than those who did not. Spice users
may also have been able to store
foods for longer before they spoiled,
enabling them to tolerate longer
periods of scarcity. Observation
and imitation of the eating habits
of these healthier individuals by
others could spread spice use
rapidly through a society. Also,
families that used appropriate
spices would rear a greater number
of more healthy offspring, to whom
spice-use traditions had been
demonstrated, and who possessed
appropriate taste receptors.
H Another question which arises is
why did people develop a taste for
spicy foods? One possibility
involves learned taste aversions. It
is known that when people eat
something that makes them ill,
they tend to avoid that taste
subsequently. The adaptive value of
such learning is obvious. Adding a
spice to a food that caused sickness
might alter its taste enough to
make it palatable again (i.e. it
tastes like a different food), as well
as kill the micro-organisms that
caused the illness, thus rendering it
safe for consumption. By this
process, food aversions would more
often be associated with unspiced
(and therefore unsafe) foods, and
food likings would be associated
with spicy foods, especially in
places where foods spoil rapidly.
Over time people would have
developed a natural preference for
spicy food.
I Ofwaycourse, spice use is not the only
to avoid food poisoning.
Cooking, and completely
consuming wild game immediately
after slaughter reduces
opportunities for the growth of
micro-organisms. However, this is
practical only where fresh meat is
abundant year-round. In areas
where fresh meat is not
consistently available, preservation
may be accomplished by
thoroughly cooking, salting,
smoking, drying, and spicing
meats. Indeed, salt has been used
worldwide for centuries to preserve
food. We suggest that all these
practices have been adopted for
essentially the same reason: to
minimize the effects of harmful,
food-borne organisms.
1 poisons produced by living organisms,
especially bacteria
222
TestCode:_________
IR020
READING PASSAGE l!
!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.!
!
!
!
Questions 1-7!
!
Reading Passage 1 has ten paragraphs A-J.!
Choose the correct headings for paragraphs D-J from the list of headings below.!
Write the correct number i-x in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.!
!
!
List of Headings!
!
i! Limited success in suppressing the game!
ii! Opposition to the role of football in schools!
iii! A way of developing moral values!
iv! Football matches between countries!
v! A game that has survived!
vi! Separation into two sports!
vii! Proposals for minor improvements!
viii! Attempts to standardise the game!
ix! Probably not an early version of football!
x! A chaotic activity with virtually no rules!

!
!
Example Paragraph C Answer v
!
1 Paragraph D!
2 Paragraph E!
3 Paragraph F!
4 Paragraph G!
5 Paragraph H!
6 Paragraph I!
7 Paragraph J!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

223
 The Origins of Football!
!
A Football as we now know it developed in Britain in the 19th century, but the game is far older
than this. In fact, the term has historically been applied to games played on foot, as opposed to
those played on horseback, so 'football' hasn't always involved kicking a ball. It has generally
been played by men, though at the end of the 17th century, games were played between married
and single women in a town in Scotland. The married women regularly won.!
!
B The very earliest form of football for which we have evidence is the 'tsu'chu', which was played
in China and may date back 3,000 years. It was performed in front of the Emperor during
festivities to mark his birthday. It involved kicking a leather ball through a 30-40cm opening into a
small net fixed onto long bamboo canes - a feat that demanded great skill and excellent
technique.!
!
C Another form of the game, also originating from the Far East, was the Japanese 'kemari',
which dates from about the fifth century and is still played today This is a type of circular football
game, a more dignified and ceremonious experience requiring certain skills, but not competitive
in the way the Chinese game was, nor is there the slightest sign of struggle for possession of the
ball. The players had to pass the ball to each other, in a relatively small space, trying not to let it
touch the ground.!
!
D The Romans had a much livelier game, 'harpastum'. Each team member had his own specific
tactical assignment, and the crowds of spectators took a noisy interest in the proceedings and
the score. The role of the feet was so small as scarcely to be of consequence. The game
remained popular for 700 or 800 years, but, although it was taken to England, it is doubtful
whether it can be considered as a forerunner of contemporary football.!
!
E The game that flourished in Britain from the 8th to the 19th centuries was substantially
different from all the previously known forms - more disorganised, more violent, more
spontaneous and usually played by an indefinite number of players. Frequently, the games took
the form of a heated contest between whole villages. Kicking opponents was allowed, as in fact
was almost everything else.!
!
F There was tremendous enthusiasm for football, even though the authorities repeatedly
intervened to restrict it, as a public nuisance. In the 14th and 15th centuries, England, Scotland
and France all made football punishable by law, because of the disorder that commonly
accompanied it, or because the well-loved recreation prevented subjects from practising more
useful military disciplines. None of these efforts had much effect.!
!
G The English passion for football was particularly strong in the 16th century, influenced by the
popularity of the rather better organised Italian game of 'calcio'. English football was as rough as
ever, but it found a prominent supporter in the school headmaster Richard Mulcaster. He pointed
out that it had positive educational value and promoted health and strength. Mulcaster claimed
that all that was needed was to refine it a little, limit the number of participants in each team and,
more importantly, have a referee to oversee the game.!
!
H The game persisted in a disorganised form until the early 19th century, when a number of
influential English schools developed their own adaptations. In some, including Rugby School,
the ball could be touched with the hands or carried, opponents could be tripped up and even
kicked. It was recognised in educational circles that, as a team game, football helped to develop
such fine qualities as loyalty, selflessness, cooperation, subordination and deference to the team
spirit. A 'games cult' developed in schools, and some form of football became an obligatory part
of the curriculum.!
!

224
!
!
!
I In 1863, developments reached a climax. At Cambridge University, an initiative began to
establish some uniform standards and rules that would be accepted by everyone, but there were
essentially two camps: the minority - Rugby School and some others - wished to continue with
their own form of the game, in particular allowing players to carry the ball. In October of the same
year, eleven London clubs and schools sent representatives to establish a set of fundamental
rules to govern the matches played amongst them. This meeting marked the birth of the Football
Association.!
!
J The dispute concerning kicking and tripping opponents and carrying the ball was discussed
thoroughly at this and subsequent meetings, until eventually, on 8 December, the die-hard
exponents of the Rugby style withdrew, marking a final split between rugby and football. Within
eight years, the Football Association already had 50 member clubs, and the first football
competition in the world was started - the FA Cup.!

!
!
Question 8-13!
!
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-I from the box below. !
Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.!
!
8! Tsu’chu!
9! Kemari!
10! Harpastum!
11! From the 8th to the 19th centuries, football in the British Isles!
12! In the 14th and 15th centuries, the authorities acted on the belief that football!
13 ! In 19th-century England, football!

A was seen as something to be encouraged in the young!

B involved individual players having different responsibilities!
C was influenced by a game from another country.!
D was a cooperative effort by all the players.!
E distracted people from more important activities!
F was played by teams of a fixed size.!
G was less popular than it later became.!
H was often played by one community against another!
I formed part of a celebration!

!






!
!
!
!
!

225
 !
!
READING PASSAGE 2!
!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2

What does the future hold?!

!
The prospects for humanity and for the world as a whole are somewhere between glorious and
dire. It is hard to be much more precise.!
!
By 'glorious', I mean that our descendants - all who are bom on to this Earth - could live very
comfortably and securely, and could continue to do so for as long as the Earth can support life,
which should be for a very long time indeed. We should at least be thinking in terms of the next
million years. Furthermore, our descendants could continue to enjoy the company of other
species - establishing a much better relationship with them than we have now. Other animals
need not live in constant fear of us. Many of those fellow species now seem bound to become
extinct, but a significant proportion could and should continue to live alongside us. Such a future
may seem ideal, and so it is. Yet I do not believe it is fanciful. There is nothing in the physical
fabric of the Earthor in our own biology to suggest that this is not possible.!
!
'Dire' means that we human beings could be in deep trouble within the next few centuries, living
but also dying in large numbers in political terror and from starvation, while huge numbers of our
fellow creatures would simply disappear, leaving only the ones that we find convenient -
chickens, cattle – or that we can't shake off, like flies and mice. I'm taking it to be self-evident that
glory is preferable.!
!
Our future is not entirely in our own hands because the Earth has its own rules, is part of the
solar system are quite beyond habitation, because their temperature is far too high or too low to
be endured, and ours, too, in principle could tip either way. Even relatively unspectacular
changes in the atmosphere could do the trick. The core of the Earth is hot, which in many ways is
good for living creatures, but every now and again, the molten rock bursts through volcanoes on
the surface. Among the biggest volcanic eruptions in recent memory was Mount St Helens, in the
USA, which threw out a cubic kilometre of ash – fortunately in an area where very few people
live. In 1815, Tambora (in present-day Indonesia) expelled so much ash into the upper
atmosphere that climatic effects seriously harmed food production around the world for season
after season. Entire civilisations have been destroyed by volcanoes.!
!
Yet nothing we have so far experienced shows what volcanoes can really do. Yellowstone
National Park in the USA occupies the caldera '-he crater formed when a volcano collapses) of
an exceedingly ancient volcano of extraordinary magnitude. Modem surveys show that its centre
is now rising. Sometime in the next 200 million years, Yellowstone could erupt again, arid when it
does, the whole world will be transformed. Yellowstone could erupt tomorrow. But there’s a very
good chance that it will give us another million years, and that surely is enough to be going on
with. It seems sensible to assume that this will be the case.!
!
below.!
!
!
!
!

226
!
!
!
!
The universe at large is dangerous, too: in particular, we share the sky with vast numbers of
asteroids, and every now and again, they come into our planet's atmosphere. An asteroid the size
of a small island, hitting the Earth at 15,000 kilometres an hour (a relatively modest speed by the
standards of heavenly bodies), would strike the ocean bed like a rock in a puddle, send a tidal
wave around the world as high as a small mountain and as fast as a jumbo jet, and propel us into
an ice age that could last for centuries. There are plans to head off such disasters (including
rockets to push approaching asteroids into new trajectories), but in truth it's down to luck. On the
other hand, the archaeological and the fossil evidence shows that no truly devastating asteroid has
struck since the one that seems to have accounted for the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million
years ago. So again, there seems no immediate reason for despair. The Earth is indeed an
uncertain place, in an uncertain universe, but with average luck, it should do us well enough. If the
world does become inhospitable in the next few thousand or million years, then it will probably be
our own fault. In short, despite the underlying uncertainty, our own future and that of our fellow
creatures is very much in our own hands.!
!
Given average luck on the geological and the cosmic scale, the difference between glory and
disaster will be made, and is being made, by politics. Certain kinds of political systems and
strategies would predispose us to long-term survival (and indeed to comfort and security and the
pleasure of being alive), while others would take us more and more frenetically towards collapse.
The broad point is, though, that we need to look at ourselves - humanity - and at the world in
general in a quite new light. Our material problems are fundamentally those of biology. We need to
think, and we need our politicians to think, biologically. Do that, and take the ideas seriously, and
we are in with a chance. Ignore biology and we and our fellow creatures haven't a hope.!
!
!
!
Questions 14-19!
!
Do the following statements reflect the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 2?!
!
In boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet write!
YES! ! if the statement reflect the claims of the writer!
NO! ! if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer!
NOT GIVEN! if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this!
!
14 It seems inevitable that some species will disappear.!
15 The nature of the Earth and human biology make it impossible for human beings to survive
another million years.!
16 An eruption by Yellowstone is likely to be more destructive than previous volcanic eruptions.!
17 There is a greater chance of the Earth being hit by small asteroids than by large ones.!
18 If the world becomes uninhabitable, it is likely to be as a result of a natural disaster.!
19 Politicians currently in power seem unlikely to change their way of thinking.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
227
!
!
Questions 20-25!
Complete the summary below.!
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.!
Write your answers in boxes 20-25 on your answer sheet.!
!
The Earth could become uninhabitable, like other planets, through a major change in the
20 ............................ . Volcanic eruptions of 21 ............................ can lead to shortages of
22............................ in a wide area. An asteroid hitting the Earth could create a
23 ............................ that would result in a new 24 ............................. Plans are being made to use
25 ......................... for the Earth.!
!
Question 26!
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.!
Write your answer in box 26 on your answer sheet.!
!
What is the writer's purpose in Reading Passage 2?!
!
A! to propose a new theory about the causes of natural disasters!
B! to prove that generally held beliefs about the future are mistaken!
C! to present a range of opinions currently held by scientists!
D! to argue the need for a general change in behaviour!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
228
!
!
READING PASSAGE 3!
!
The study of electricity in the 18th century!
!
A In the last two centuries, our lives have been transformed by electricity, although we have
been aware of it for far longer: over 2,600 years ago, the Ancient Greeks discovered that rubbing
a piece of amber would make feathers stick to it. This was what we now call 'static electricity',
which is electricity that does not move However, the Ancient Greeks couldn't explain the
phenomenon or work out how to use it.!
!
B There was little progress until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert described the
electrification of many substances and coined the term electricity, from the Greek word for
'amber'. Attempts were then made to generate usable amounts of static electricity, notably by the
German Otto von Guericke. The electrostatic generator that he built in 1660 helped scientists to
study electric shocks and sparks.!
!
C In the late 1720s, the British scientist Stephen Gray discovered a way of making static
electricity move: electricity produced by applying friction to a glass container could be conducted
along a wire to an ivory ball. As a result, the ball behaved as though it had itself been rubbed,
attracting paper and other light objects. It is also thought that Gray carried out 'flying boy'
experiments: suspending a boy with silk cords and conducting static electricity to his hands so
that pieces of paper stuck to them.!
!
D A few years later, the French scientist Charles du Fay (or DuFay) realised that electricity could
vary: he in fact identified what we now know as positive and negative charges. He also
discovered that opposite charges attract, while similar ones repel each other. Like Gray, du Fay
realised that certain materials conducted electricity, while others acted as insulation, stopping the
loss of electricity from charged objects.!
!
E Electricity was often thought of as an invisible fluid - du Fay believed two were involved - and
attempts were made to collect and store it. In 1746, the Dutchman Pieter van Musschenbroek
invented the Leyden (or Leiden) jar, named after the town where he carried out his research. This
was a glass container, lined both inside and out with a thin layer of metal and filled with water. It
stored static electricity, but could only discharge it all at the same time.!
!
F The American Benjamin Franklin did considerable research into electricity in the 1740s and
1750s, and argued against du Fay by proposing a one-fluid model of electricity. His most famous
experiment in this area took place in 1752, though the details are disputed. He is thought to have
attached a key to a kite - to lift it into the air - and attached the end of the kite string to a Leyden
jar. He carried out the experiment when a storm was approaching, and found that the electrified
air caused the key to spark, and that electricity travelled along the string into the Leyden jar. This
confirmed the suspicion that lightning was actually electricity.!
!
G In the 1780s, the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani carried out a number of experiments on animal
electricity. He found that the muscles of a dead frog would move if they were connected to an
electrical machine, or if the frog was lying on a metal surface during a thunderstorm. Galvani
concluded that the muscles themselves manufactured and stored electricity.

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3
below.!
!

229
 H Not everyone was convinced by his theory. His fellow-countryman Alessandro Volta argued
that the electricity was caused by the interaction between water and chemicals in the animal and
the metal probes that Galvani had used. He tested his ideas by touching different pairs of metals
with his tongue; that way, he could feel tiny electrical currents that could not be detected by the
instruments of the time. In order to magnify the currents, he invented the 'voltaic pile' - later to
become the modern battery. He was the first person to generate electricity through a chemical
reaction.!
!
I The voltaic pile, which Volta publicly demonstrated in 1799, consisted of a number of metal
discs, alternately silver and zinc, all of them separated by layers of cardboard. These had
previously been saturated in salt water. When the top and bottom discs were connected by
means of a wire, a fairly steady current was produced. Volta's invention led to a major step
forward in the study of electrical currents. Almost immediately, the Englishman William Nicholson
found that the current from such a pile could be used to decompose water into hydrogen and
oxygen, the first hint of what a powerful tool for science the invention would soon become. Before
long, electricity was replacing animals and steam as the power used to operate machines.!

!
!
!
!
!
!
Questions 27-31!
!
Look at the following statements (Questions 27-31) and the list of people below.!
Match each statement with the person it describes.!
Write the correct letter A-J in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more
than once.!
!
27 disagreed with the claim that animals contain electricity!
28 discovered that electricity could be made to travel between objects!
29 found a way of strengthening electrical currents!
30 proposed that electricity could be found in two forms!
31 gave electricity its name!
!
List of People!
!
A! the Ancient Greeks!
B! Gilbert!
C! von Guericke!
D! Gray!
E! du Fay!
F! van Musschenbroek!
G! Franklin!
H! Galvani!
I! Volta!
J! Nicholson

230
!
Questions 32-35!
Reading Passage 3 has nine paragraphs labelled A-l.!
Which paragraph contains the following information?!
!
Write the correct letter A-l in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.!
!
32 a description of a glass device for storing electricity!
!
33 an outline of an experiment intended to show that human beings could be charged with !
! electricity!
!
34 examples of the application of electrical currents!
!
35 a claim that the theory that electricity consisted of two fluids was wrong!
!
!
Questions 36-40!
Complete the notes below.!
Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.!
Write your answers in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.!
!
Voltaic pile!
• consisted of pile of discs made of two types of 36 ...........................!
• discs separated by pieces of 37 ............................ soaked in salt water!
• linking top and bottom of pile with a 38 ............................ created a 39 .....................!
• was soon used to separate 40 ............................ into constituent elements

231
TestCode:_________
IR021

232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
TestCode:_________
IR022

241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
TestCode:_________
IR023
Test 1 Exam practice Reading Passage 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
Walking with dinosaurs
Peter L. Falkingham and his colleagues at Manchester
University are developing techniques which look set to
revolutionise our understanding of how dinosaurs and other
extinct animals behaved.
The media image of palaeontologists who study prehistoric
life is often of field workers camped in t he desert in the hot
sun, ca refu lly picking away at the rock surrou nding a large
dinosaur bone. But Peter Falkingham has done little of that
for a whi le now. Instead, he devotes himself to his computer.
Not because he has become inundated with paperwork, but
because he is a new kind of palaeontologist: a computational
palaeontologist.
What few people may consider is that uncovering a skeleton,
or discovering a new species, is where the research begins,
not where it ends. What we really want to understand is
how the extinct animals and plants behaved in their natural
habitats. Drs Bill Sellers and Phil Manning from the University
of Manchester use a 'genetic algorithm' - a kind of computer
code t hat can change itself and 'evolve' - to explore how
extinct animals like dinosaurs, and our own early ancestors,
walked and stalked.
The fossi lised bones of a complete dinosaur skeleton can
tell scientists a lot about the animal, but they do not make
up the complet e picture and the computer can try to fill the
gap. The computer model is given a digitised skeleton, and
the locations of known muscles. The model then randomly
activates the muscles. Thi s, perh aps unsurprisingly, results
almost without fail in the animal falling on its face. So the
computer alters the activation pattern and tries again ...
usually to similar effect. The modelled 'dinosaurs' quickly
'evolve: If there is any improvement, the computer discards
the o ld pattern and adopt s the new one as the base for
alteration. Eventually, the muscle activation pattern evolves
a stable way of moving, the best possible solution is reached,
and the dinosaur can wal k, run, chase or graze. Assuming
natu ral selection evolves the best possible solution too, the
modelled animal should be moving in a manner similar to
its now-extinct counterpart. And indeed, using the same
method for living animals (humans, emu and ostriches) similar
top speeds were achieved on t he computer as in reality. By
comparing their cyberspace results with real measurements
of living species, the Manchester team of palaeonto logist s ca n
be confident in t he resu lts computed showing how extinct
prehistoric animals such as dinosaurs moved.
24 Test 1 Exam practice
The Manchester University team have used the computer
simulations to produce a model of a giant meat-eating
dinosaur. It is called an acrocanthosaurus wh ich literally
means 'high spined lizard' because of the spines which run
along its backbone.lt is not really known why th ey are there
but sci entists have speculated they could have supported a
hump that stored fat and water reserves.There are also those
who believe that the spines acted as a support fo r a sail. Of
these, one half think it was used as a display and could be
flushed with blood and the other half think it was used as a
temperature-regulating device. It may have been a mixture of
the two. The skull seems out of proportion with its thick, heavy
body because it is so narrow and the jaws are delicate and fine.
The feet are also worthy of note as they look surprisingly small
in contrast to the animal as a w hole. It has a deep broad tail
and powerful leg muscles to aid locomotion. lt wa lked on its
back legs and its front legs were much shorter with powerful
claws.
Falkingham himself is investigating fossilised tracks, or
footprints, using computer simulations to help analyse how
extinct an imals moved. Modern-day trackers who study the
habit ats of wild animals ca n tell you what animal made a
track, whether that animal was walking or running, sometimes
even the sex of the animal. But a fossil track poses a more
considerable challenge to interpret in the same way. A crucial
consideration is knowing what the environment including
the mud, or sediment, upon w hich the animal walked w as like
millions of years ago when the track was made. Experiments
can answer these questions but the number of variables is
st aggering.To physically recreate each scenario with a box
of mud is extremely time-consuming and difficult to repeat
accurately. This is where computer simulation comes in.
Falkingham uses computational techniques to model a
volume of mud and control the moisture content, consistency,
and other cond itions t o simu late the mud of prehistoric times.
A footprint is th en made in the d igital mud by a virt ual foot.
This footprint can be chopped up and viewed from any angle
and stress values can be extracted and calculat ed from inside
it. By running hundreds of these simulations simultaneously
on supercomputers, Falkingham can st art to understand w hat
types of footprint would be expected if an animal moved
in a certain way over a given kind of ground. Looking at t he
variation in the virtual tracks, researchers can make sense of
fossil tracks with greater confidence.
The application of computational tech niques in palaeontology
is becoming more prevalent every year. As computer power
continues to increase, the ra nge of problems that can be
tackled and questions that can be answered will o nly expand.
Reading Passage 1
254
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE
FALSE
NOT GIVEN
if the statement agrees with the information
if the statement contradicts the information
if there is no information on this
c
In his study of prehistoric life, Peter Falkingham rarely spends
time on outdoor research these days.

2 Several attempts are usually needed before the computer model of

a dinosaur used by Sellers and Manning manages to stay upright.

3 When the Sellers and Manning computer model was used for people, it
showed them moving faster than they are physically able to.

4 Some palaeontologists have expressed reservations about the

conclusions reached by the Manchester team concerning the
movement of dinosaurs.

5 An experienced tracker can analyse fossil footprints as easily as those

made by live animals.

6 Research carried out into the composition of prehistoric mud has been
found to be inaccurate.

255
256
257
Test 1 Exam pradice Reading Passage 2

You
You should
should spend
spend about
about 20 minutes
20 minutes on Questions
on Questions 14-26,
14-26, whichwhich are based
are based on Reading
on Reading Passage
Passage 2 below.
2 below.

The robots are coming - or are they?

What is the current state of play
in Artificial Intelligence? QV
0
A Can robots advance so far that they become
the ultimate threat to our existence? Some
scientists say no, and dismiss the very idea of
Artificial Intelligence. The human bra in, they
argue, is the most complicated system ever
created, and any machine designed to reproduce
human thought is bound to fail. Physicist
Roger Penrose of Oxford University and others
believe that machines are physical ly incapable
of human thought. Co lin McGinn of Rutgers
University backs this up when he says that
Artificial Intelligence 'is like sheep trying to do
complicated psychoanalysis. They just don't have
the conceptual equipment they need in their
limited brains'. C In the 1950s and 1960s great progress was
made, but the shortcomings of these prototype
B Artificial Intelligence, or AI, is different robots soon became clear. They were huge
from most technologies in that scientists still and took hours to navigate across a room .
understand very little about how intelligence Meanwhile, a fruit fly, with a brain containing
works. Physicists have a good understanding only a fraction of the computing power, can
of Newtonian mechan ics and the quantum effortlessly navigate in three dimensions.
theory of atoms and molecules, whereas the Our brains, like the fruit fly's, unconsciously
basic laws of intelligence remain a mystery.
recognise what we see by performing countless
But a sizeable number of mathematicians and calculations. This unconscious awareness of
computer scientists, who are specialists in the patterns is exactly what computers are missing.
area, are optimistic about the possibilities. The second problem is robots' lack of common
To them it is only a matter of time before a sense. Humans know that water is wet and
thinking machine walks out of the laboratory. that mothers are older than their daughters.
Over the years, various prob lems have impeded But there is no mathematics that can express
all efforts to create robots. To attack these these truths. Children learn the intuitive laws
difficulties, researchers tried to use the 'top- of biology and physics by interacting with the
down approach', using a computer in an attempt real world. Robots know only what has been
to program all the essential rules onto a single programmed into them.
disc. By inserting this into a machine, it would
then become self-aware and attain human-like
intelligence.

Reading Passage 2 Test 1 Exam practice 29

258
259
260
261
Reading Passage 3!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.!
!!
Endangered languages
'Never mind whales, save the languages',
says Peter Monaghan, graduate of the Australian National University
!Worried about the loss of rainforests and the
ozone layer? Well, neither of those is doing any
worse than a large majority of the 6,000 to 7,000
languages that remain in use on Earth. One half
of the survivors will almost certainly be gone by
2050, while 40% more will probably be well on
their way out. In their place, almost all humans
will speak one of a handful of megalanguages -
Mandarin, English, Spanish.!
!Linguists know what causes languages to
disappear, but less often remarked is what
happens on the way to disappearance:
languages' vocabularies, grammars and
expressive potential all diminish as one language
is replaced by another. 'Say a community goes
over from speaking a traditional Aboriginal
language to speaking a creole*,'says Australian
Nick Evans, a leading authority on Aboriginal
languages, 'you leave behind a language where
there's very fine vocabulary for the landscape. All
that is gone in a creole. You’ve just got a few
words like 'gum tree' or whatever. As speakers
become less able to express the wealth of
knowledge that has filled ancestors' lives with
meaning over millennia, it's no wonder that
communities tend to become demoralised. !
!If the losses are so huge, why are relatively few
linguists combating the situation? Australian!
linguists, at least, have achieved a great deal in!
terms of preserving traditional languages.
Australian governments began in the 1970s to
support an initiative that has resulted in good
documentation of most of the 130 remaining
Aboriginal languages. In England, another
Australian, Peter Austin, has directed one of the
world 's most active efforts to limit language loss,
at the University of London. Austin heads a
programme that has trained many documentary
linguists in England as well as in language-loss
hotspots such as West Africa and South
America.!
!!
!!
!!


!At linguistics meetings in the US, where the!
endangered-language issue has of late been!
something of a flavour of the month, there is!
growing evidence that not all approaches to the!
preservation of languages will be particularly!
helpful. Some linguists are boasting, for
example, of more and more sophisticated means
of capturing languages: digital recording and
storage, and internet and mobile phone
technologies. But these are encouraging the
'quick dash' style of recording trip: fly in, switch
on digital recorder, fly home, download to hard
drive, and store gathered material for future
research. That's not quite what some
endangered-language specialists have been!
seeking for more than 30 years. Most loud and!
untiring has been Michael Krauss, of the
University of Alaska. He has often complained
that linguists are playing with non-essentials
while most of their raw data is disappearing.!
!Who is to blame? That prominent linguist Noam!
Chomsky, say Krauss and many others. Or, more!
precisely, they blame those linguists who have
been obsessed with his approaches. Linguists
who go out into communities to study, document
and describe languages, argue that theoretical
linguists, who draw conclusions about how
languages work, have had so much influence
that linguistics has largely ignored the continuing
disappearance of languages.!
!Chomsky, from his post at the Massachusetts!
Institute of Technology, has been the great man!
of theoretical linguistics for fa r longer than he!
has been known as a political commentator. His!
landmark work of 1957 argues that all languages!
exhibit certain universal grammatical features,!
encoded in the human mind. American linguists,!
in particular, have focused largely on theoretical!
concerns ever since, even while doubts have!
mounted about Chomsky's universals.
262
Austin and Co. are in no doubt that because!
languages are unique, even if they do tend to
have common underlying features, creating
dictionaries and grammars requires prolonged
and dedicated work. This requires that
documentary linguists observe not only
languages' structural subtleties, but also related
social, historical and political factors. Such work
calls for persistent funding of field scientists who
may sometimes have to venture into harsh and
even hazardous places. Once there, they!
may face difficulties such as community
suspicion. As Nick Evans says, a community who
speak an endangered language may have
reasons to doubt or even oppose efforts to
preserve it. They may have seen support and
funding for such work come and go. They may
have given up using the language with their
children, believing they will benefit from speaking
a more widely understood one.!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
Plenty of students continue to be drawn to the!
intellectual thrill of linguistics field work. That's all!
the more reason to clear away barriers, contend!
Evans, Austin and others. The highest barrier,
they agree, is that the linguistics profession's
emphasis on theory gradually wears down the
enthusiasm of linguists who work in
communities. Chomsky disagrees. He has
recently begun to speak in support of language
preservation. But his linguistic, as opposed to
humanitarian, argument is, let's say,
unsentimental: the loss of a language, he states,
‘is much more of a tragedy for linguists whose
interests are mostly theoretical, like me, than for
linguists who focus on describing specific
languages, since it means the permanent loss of
the most relevant data for general theoretical
work'. At the moment, few institutions award
doctorates for such work, and that's the way it
should be, he reasons. In linguistics, as in every
other discipline, he believes that good!
descriptive work requires thorough theoretical!
understanding and should also contribute to
building new theory. But that's precisely what
documentation does, objects Evans. The
process of immersion in a language, to extract,
analyse and sum it up, deserves a PhD because
it is 'the most demanding intellectual!
task a linguist can engage in'.

!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!

263
264
265
Questions 37-40
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.
!
37 Linguists like Peter Austin believe that every language is unique
!
38 Nick Evans suggests a community may resist attempts to save its language
!
39 Many young researchers are interested in doing practical research
!
40 Chomsky supports work in descriptive linguistics
!
A even though it is in danger of disappearing.
B provided that it has a strong basis in theory.
C although it may share certain universal characteristics.
D because there is a practical advantage to it.
E so long as the drawbacks are clearly understood.
F in spite of the prevalence of theoretical linguistics.
G until they realise what is involved.
!

266
TestCode:_________
IR024
READING PASSAGE 1
!You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.
!!
!
Our Vanishing Night
Most city skies have become virtually empty of stars

by Verlyn Klinkenborg
!
!If humans were truly at home under the light of the moon and stars, it
would make no difference to us whether we were out and about at
night or during the day, the midnight world as visible to us as it is to
the vast number of nocturnal species on this planet. Instead, we are
diurnal creatures, meaning our eyes are adapted to living in the sun's
light. This is a basic evolutionary fact, even though most of us don't
think of ourselves as diurnal beings any more than as primates or
mammals or Earthlings. Yet it's the only way to explain what we've
done to the night: we've engineered it to meet our needs by filling it
with light.
!This kind of engineering is no different from damming a river. Its
benefits come with consequences- called light pollution- whose effects
scientists are only now beginning to study. Light pollution is largely the
result of bad lighting design, which allows artificial light to shine
outward and upward into the sky, where it is not wanted, instead of
focusing it downward, where it is. Wherever human light spills into the
natural world, some aspect of life- migration, reproduction, feeding- is
affected. For most of human history, the phrase 'light pollution' would
have made no sense. Imagine walking toward London on a moonlit
night around 1800, when it was one of Earth's most populous cities.
Nearly a million people lived there, making do, as they always had,
with candles and lanterns. There would be no gaslights in the streets
or squares for another seven years.
!Now most of humanity lives under reflected, refracted light from overlit
cities and suburbs, from light-flooded roads and factories. Nearly all of
night-time Europe is a bright patch of light, as is most of the United
States and much of Japan. In the South Atlantic the glow from a single
fishing fleet - squid fishermen luring their prey with metal halide lamps
- can be seen from space, burn ing brighter on occasions than
Buenos Aires.

267
268
269
270
 READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on
Reading Passage 2 on pages 74-75.

Questions 14-20
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
A comparison between similar buildings
ii The negative reaction ·Of local residents
iii An unusual job for a psychologist
iv A type of building benefiting from prescribed guidelines
v The· need for government action
vi A failure to use available information in practical ways
vii Academics witn an unhelpful attitude
viii A refusal by architects to accept criticism
ix A unique co-operative s·c heme
x The expanding scope of environmental psyct)ology

14 Paragraph A
15 Paragraph B
16 Paragraph C
17 Paragraph 0
18 Paragraph E
19 Paragraph F
20 Paragraph G

271
 Is there a psychologist in the building?
——— CHRISTIAN JARRETT reports on psychology’s place in new architectural development ———

A! The space around us affects us profoundly -

!! emotionally, behaviourally, cognitively. In Britain !! rebuilding of one south London school as a striking
example of how building design can affect human

!! that space is changing at a pace not seen for a !! behaviour positively. Before its redesign, it was ranked
as the worst school in the area - now it is recognised as

!! say
generation. Surely psychology has something to
about all this change. But is anyone listening? !! ! one of the country’s twenty most improved schools.!
‘There is a hug amount of psychology research that
D! Uzzell has been involved in a pioneering project
!! isourselves,’
relevant, but at the moment we’re talking to
says Chris Spencer, professor of
!!
between MSc students in England and Scotland.
Architecture students in Scotland acted as designers
!! Sheffield. Spencer
environmental psychology at the University of
recalls a recent talk he gave in
!!
while environmental psychology students in England
acted as consultants, as together they worked on a
!! which he called on fellow researchers to make a !!
community project in a run-down area of Glasgow. ‘The

!! greater effort to communicate their findings to

architects and planners. ‘I was amazed at the
psychology students encouraged the architecture
!!
students to think about who their client group was, to
consider issues of crowding and social cohesion, and
!! response of many of the senior researchers, who
would say: “I’m dong my research for pure science, !!
they introduced them to psychological methodologies,
for example observation and interviewing local residents

B!
! the industry can take it or leave it”.’ But there are
models of how to apply environmental psychology !!
about their needs.’ The collaborative project currently
stands as a one-off experiment. ‘Hopefully these trainee
!! toProfessor
real problems, if you know where to look.
Frances Kuo is an example.!
!!
architects will now go away with some understanding of
!
!! Kuo’s website provides pictures and plain English the psychological issues involved in design and will take
!! !
into account people’s needs’, says Uzzell.!

!! summaries of research conducted by her Human

Environment Research Laboratory. Among there is
E
!
Hilary Barker, a recent graduate in psychology, now
works for a design consultancy. She’s part of a four-
!! a study using police records that found inner-city person research team that contributes to the overall

!! Chicago apartment buildings surrounded by more

vegetation suffered 52 per cent fewer crimes than
work of the company in helping clients use their office
space more productively. Her team all have
backgrounds in psychology or social science, but the
!! apartment blocks with little or no greenery. Frances
Kuo and her co-researcher William Sullivan believe rest of the firm consists mainly of architects and interior
designers. ‘What I do is pretty rare to be honest,’ Barker
that greenery reduces crime - so long as visibility is
C says. ‘I feel very privileged to be able to use my degree
preserved - because it reduces aggression, bring
in such a way.’ Barker explains that the team carries out
local residents together outdoors, and the observational studies on behalf of companies, to identify
conspicuous presence of people deters criminals.!
! exactly how occupants are using their building. The
companies are often surprised by the findings, for
‘Environmental psychologists are increasingly in example that staff use meeting rooms for quiet,
demand,’ says David Uzzell, professor of individual work.
environmental psychology. ‘We’re asked to
contribute to the planning, design and management
of many different environments, ranging from
neighbourhoods, officers, schools, health,
transport, traffic and leisure environments for the
purpose of improving quality of life and creating a
better people-environment fit.’ Uzzell points to the!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

272
!
F! One area where the findings from environment- !
!! behaviour research have certainly influenced
!! building is in hospital design. ‘The government has
a checklist of criteria that must be met in the design !!private rooms, he says. There’s also research showing
!! of new hospitals, and these are derived largely
from the work of the behavioural scientist Professor
!! Roger Ulrich,’ Chris Spencer says. Ulrich’s work
has shown, for example, how the view from a
!! patient’s window can affect their recovery. Even a
hospital’s layout can impact on people’s health,
!! according to Dr John Zeisel. ‘If people get lost in
hospitals, they get stressed, which lowers their
!! immune system and means their medication works
!! less well. You might think that way-finding round
the hospital is the responsibility of the person who
! puts all the signs up, but the truth is that the basic
layout of a building is what helps people find their
way around,’ he says.!
! between 30 and 40 years ago,’ he warns.
G! Zeisel also points to the need for a better balance
!! between private and shared rooms in hospitals. ‘Falls
are reduced and fewer medication errors occur’ in
important it is that patients have access to the outdoors
!!
and that gardens in hospitals are a major contributor to
well-being. However, more generally, Zeisel shares
!!
Chris Spencer’s concerns that the lessons from
environmental psychology research are not getting
!!
through. ‘There is certainly a gap between what we in
social science know and the world of designers and
!!
architects,’ says Zeisel. He believes that most
industries, from sports to film-making, have now
!!
recognised the importance of an evidence-based
approach, and that the building trade needs to formulate
!
!
itself more in that vein, and to recognise that there is
relevant research out there. ‘It would be outrageous,
silly, to go ahead with huge building projects without
learning the lessons from the new towns established

!
!
!
!
!

273
274
Questions 25-26

!
Complete the sentences below.

!
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer:

!
Write your answers in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet.

!
25
The students from England suggested that the Scottish students should identify
their ............ .

!
26
John Zeisel believes that if the ............ of a building is clear, patient outcomes
will improve.

275
READING PASSAGE 3

276
The human fo ssil record is extremely sparse,
and the number of foss ilised chi ldren minuscule.
Nevertheless, in the past few year·s anthropologists
have begun to look at what can be learned of
the lives of our ancestors from these youngsters.
One of the most studied is the famous Turkana
boy, an almost complete skeleton of Homo erectus
from 1.6 mill ion years ago found in Kenya in
1984.Accurately assessing how old someone is
from their skeleton is a tricky business. Even with
a modern human , you can only make a rough
estimate based on the developmental stage of
teeth and bones and th e skeleton's general size.
You need as many developmental markers as
possible to get an estimate of age. The Turkana
boy's teeth made him I0 or I I years old. The
features of his skeleton put him at 13, but he
was as tall as a modern IS-year-old. Susan Anton
of New York University po ints to research by
Margaret Clegg who studi ed a collection of 18th-
and 19th-century skeletons whose ages at death
were known.When she tried to age the skeletons
without checking the records, she found similar
discrepancies to those of the Turkana boy. One
10-year-old boy, for example, had a dental age of
19. the skeleton of a 6-year-old but was tall enough
to be I I.'The Turkana kid still has a ro unded
. skull, and needs more gmwth to reac h t he adult
shape.' Anton adds. She thin ks that Homo erectus
had already developed modern human patterns
I when researchers in France and Spain published
of growth, with a late, if not qui te so extreme,
adolescent spurt. She believes Turkana boy was ju st
I about to enter it.
IfAnton is right, t hat t heory contradi cts
the orthodox idea linking late growth with
development of a large brain. Anthropologist Steven
Leigh from the Unive rsity of Illino is goes further. He
: believes the idea of adolescence as catch- up growth
does not explain why the growth rate increases so
dramatically. He says that many apes have growth
spurts in particular body regions that are associated
with reaching matu rity, and thi s makes sense
because by timing the short but crucial spells of
maturation to coincide with the seasons when food
is plentiful, they minimise the risk of being without
adequate food supplies w hile growing. What
makes humans unique is that the whole skeleton is
involved. For Leigh, this is the key.
According to his theory, adolescence evolved as an
integral part of efficient upright locomotion, as wel l
as to accommodate more complex brains. Fossil
evidence suggests that ou r ancestors first walked
on two legs six million years ago. If proficient
walking was important for survival, perhaps the
teenage growth spurt has very ancient origins.
While many anthropologists will consider Leigh's
theory a step too far, he is not the only one with
new ideas about the evolution of teenagers.
Another appmach, which has produced a surprising
result, rel ies on th e minute analysis of t ooth
growth. Every nine days or so the gr·owi ng teeth
of both apes and humans acquire ridges on their
enamel surface.These are like rings in a cr·ee trunk:
the number of them tells you how long the crown
of a tooth took to fo rm. Across mammals, the
rate at whi ch teeth develop is closely related to
how fast the brain grows and the age you mature.
Teeth are good indicators of life history because
thei r· growth is less related to th e enviro nment and
nutrition than is the growth of the skeleton.
A more decisive piece of evidence came last year,
their· findings from a study of Neanderthal teeth.
Neanderthals had much faster tooth growth than
Homo erectus who went before them, and hence,
possibly, a shorter childhood. Lead researcher
Fernando Rami rez-Rozzi t hinks Neanderthals died
young - about 25 year·s old - primar·ily because of
the cold , harsh environment they had to endure
in glacial Europe. They evolved to grow up quicke r
than their immediate ancestors . Neanderthals and
Homo erectus probably had to reach adu lthood
fairly quickly, without delaying for an ado lescent
gr·owth spurt. So it still looks as t hough we are the
original teenagers.
277
278
Questions 31-36
!
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading
Passage 3?
!
In boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
!
31 It is difficult for anthropologists to do research on human fossils because
they are so rare.
!
32 Modern methods mean it is possible to predict the age of a skeleton with
accuracy.
!
33 Susan Anton's conclusion about the Turkana boy reinforces an
established idea.
!
34 Steven Leigh's ideas are likely to be met with disbelief by many
anthropologists.
!
35 Researchers in France and Spain developed a unique method of analysing
teeth.
!
36 There has been too little research comparing the brains of Homo erectus
and Neanderthals.

279
280
TestCode:_________
!IR025
!
READING PASSAGE 1!
!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.!
!
Seed vault guard resources for the future
Fiona Harvey paid a visit to a building whose content are very precious

About 1,000 km from the North Pole, Svalbard is one !!

of the most remote places on earth. For this reason, it
is the site of a vault that will safeguard a priceless !!
component of our common heritage - the seeds of our
staple crops. Here, seeds from the world’s most vital !!
food crops will be locked away for hundreds or even
thousands of years. If something goes wrong in the
!!
world, the vault will provide the means to restore
farming. We, or our descendants, will not have to
!!
retread thousands of years of agriculture from scratch.!
! !!
Deep in the vault at the end of a long tunnel, are three !!
storage vaults which are lined with insulated panels to
help maintain the cold temperatures. Electronic !
the end of this tunnel, after about 80 metres, there are
transmitters linked to a satellite system monitor
temperature, etc. and pass the information back to the several small rooms on the right-hand side. One is a
appropriate authorities at Longyearbyen and the transformer room to which only the power company officials
have access - this houses the equipment needed to
Nordic Gene Bank which provide the technical
transform the incoming electrical current down to 220 volts.
information for managing the seed vaults. The seeds A second is an electrical room housing controls for the
are placed in sealed boxes and stored on shelves in compressor and other equipment. The other room is an
the vaults. The minimal moisture level and low office which can be heated to provide comfortable working
temperature ensure low metabolic activity. The remote conditions for those who will make an inventory of the
location, as well as the rugged structure, provide samples in and out of the vault.!
unparalleled security for the world’s agricultural !
Anyone seeking access to the seeds has to pass through
heritage.!
! four locked doors: the heavy steel entrance doors, a second
door approximately 90 metres down the tunnel and finally
The three vaults are buried deep in the hillside. To
reach them, it is necessary to proceed down a long the two keyed doors separated by an airlock, from which it is
and surprisingly large corridor. At 93.3 metres in possible to proceed directly into the seed vaults. Keys are
coded to allow access to different levels of the facility.
length, it connects the 26-metre long entrance building
to the three vaults, each of which extends a further 27
metres into the mountains. Towards!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

281
282
Questions 1-6
Label the diagram below.
!
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS OR A NUMBER from the passage for each
answer.
!
Write your answers in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

!
Questions 7-13
!
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
!
In boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet, write
!
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
!
7 The vault has the capacity to accommodate undiscovered types of seed at a later
date.
8 There are different levels of refrigeration according to the kinds of seeds stored.
9 During winter, the flow of air entering the vault is regularly monitored by staff.
10 There is a back-up refrigeration system ready to be switched on if the present one
fails.
11 The people who work at Svalbard are mainly locals.
12 Once a seed package is in the vault, it remains unopened.
13 If seeds are sent from Svalbard to other banks, there is an obligation for the
recipient to send replacements back.

283
!
!
READING PASSAGE 2!
!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.!
!
!
WHAT COOKBOOKS REALLY TEACH US
A! Shelves bend under the weight of cookery
! books. Even a medium-sized bookshop contains
! many more receipts than one person could hope
! to cook in a lifetime. Although the recipes in one
! book are often similar to those in another, their
! presentation varies wildly, from an array of
! vegetarian cookbooks to instructions on cooking
! the food that historical figures might have eaten.
! The reason for this abundance is the cookbooks
! promise to bring about a kind of domestic
! transformation to the user. The daily routine can
! be put to one side and they liberate the user, if
! only temporarily. To follow their instructions is to
! turn a task which has to be performed every day
! into an engaging, romantic process. Cookbooks
! also provide an opportunity to delve into distant
! cultures without having to turn up at an airport to
! get there.!
! !
B The first Western cookbook appeared just over
1,600 years ago. De re coquinara (it means
‘concerning cookery’) is attributed to a Roman
gourmet named Apicius. It is probably a
compilation of Roman and Greek recipes, some
or all of them drawn from manuscripts that were
later lost. The editor was sloppy, allowing
several duplicated recipes to sneak in. Yet
Apicius’s book set the tone of cookery advice in
Europe for more than a thousand years. As a
cookbook it is unsatisfactory with very basic
instructions. Joseph Vehling, a chef who
translated Apicius in the 1930s, suggested the
author had been obscure on purpose, in case
his secrets leaked out.
!
!
!
!
!
!
C! But a more likely reason is that Apicius’s recipes
! were written by and for professional cooks, who
! could follow their shorthand. This situation
! continued for hundred of years. There was no
! order to cookbooks: a cake recipe might be
! followed by a mutton one. But then, they were
! not written for careful study. Before the 19th
! century few educated people cooked for
! themselves. The wealthiest employed literate
! chefs; others presumably read recipes to their
! servants. Such cooks would have been capable
! of creating dishes from the vaguest of
! instructions.!
! !
D! The invention of printing might have been
! expected to lead to greater clarity but at first the
! reverse was true. As words acquired commercial
! value, plagiarism exploded. Recipes were to set
! through reproduction. A recipe for boiled The
! Good Huswives Jewell, printed in 1596, the cook
! to add three or four dates. By 1653, when the
! recipe was given by a different author in A Book
! of Fruits & Flowers, the cook was told the dish
! aside for three or four days.!
! !
E The dominant theme in 16th and 17th century
cookbooks was order. Books combined recipes
and household advice, on the assumption that a
well-made dish, a well-ordered larder and well-
disciplined children were equally important.
Cookbooks thus became a symbol of
dependability in chaotic times. They hardly seem
to have been affected by the English civil war or
the revolution in America and France.
284
 !
F! In the 1850s Isabella Beeton published The Book
! of Household Management. Like earlier cookery
! writers she plagiarised freely, lifting not just recipes!
! but philosophical observations from other books. If
! Beeton’s recipes were not wholly new, though, the
! way in which she presented them certainly was.
! She explains when the chief ingredients are most
! likely to be in season, how long the dish will take to !
! prepare and even how much it is likely to cost.
! Beeton’s recipes were well suited to her times. Two
! centuries earlier, an understanding of rural ways
! had been so widespread that one writer could
! advise cooks to heat water until it was a little hotter !
! than milk comes from a cow. By the 1850s Britain
! was industrialising. The growing urban middle class
! needed details, and Beeton provided them in full.!
! !
G In France, cookbooks were fast becoming even
more systematic. Compared with Britain, France
had produced few books written for the ordinary
householder by the end of the 19th century. The
most celebrated French cookbooks were written by
superstar chefs who had a clear sense of codifying
a unified approach to sophisticated French
cooking. The 5,000 recipes in Auguste Escoffier’s
Le Guide Culinaire (The Culinary Guide), published
in 1902, might as well have been written in stone,
given the book’s reputation among French chefs,
many of whom still consider it the definitive
reference book.!
!
!
!
H! What Escoffier did for French cooking, Fannie
! Farmer did for American home cooking. She not
only synthesised American cuisines; she elevated
! it to the status of science. ‘Progress in civilisation
! has been accompanied by progress in cookery,’
! she breezily announced in The Boston Cooking-
! School Cook Book, before launching into a
collection of recipes that sometimes resembles a
! book of chemistry experiments. She was
! occasionally over-fussy. She explained that
! currants should be picked between June 28th and
! July 3rd, but not when it is raining. But in the main
her book is reassuringly authoritative. Its recipes
! are short, with no unnecessary chat and no
! unnecessary spices.!
! !
I! In 1950 Mediterranean Food by Elizabeth David
! launched a revolution in cooking advice in Britain.
In some ways Mediterranean Food recalled even
older cookbooks but the smells and noises that
filled David’s books were not mere decoration for
her recipes. They were the point of her books.
When she began to write, many ingredients were
not widely available or affordable. She understood
this, acknowledging in a later edition of one of her
books that ‘even if people could not very often
make the dishes here described, it was stimulating
to think about them.’ David’s books were not so
much cooking manuals as guides to the kind of
food people might well wish to eat.
285
286
Questions 22-26
!
Look at the following statements (Questions 22-26) and list of books (A-E) below.
!
Match each statement with the correct book, A-E.
!
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 22-26 on your answer sheet.
!
22 Its recipes were easy to follow despite the writer's attention to detail.
23 Its writer may have deliberately avoided passing on details.
24 It appealed to ambitious ideas people have about cooking.
25 Its writer used ideas from other books but added additional related
information.
26 It put into print ideas which are still respected today.
!
!
! !
List of cookery books
! A De re coquinara
B The Book of Household Management
C Le Guide Culinaire
D The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book
E Mediterranean Food

287
288
289
290
36 Which of the following does Steven Johnson disagree with?
A the opinion that video games offer educational benefits to the user
B the attitude that video games are often labelled as predictable and
undemanding
C the idea that children's logic is tested more by video games than at
school
D the suggestion that video games can be compared to scientific
procedures
!
37 Which of the following is the most suitable subtitle for Reading Passage 3?
A A debate about the effects of video games on other forms of
technology.
B An examination of the opin ions of young people about video games.
C A discussion of whether attitudes towards video games are outdated.
D An analysis of the principles behind the historical development of video
games.
!
!
!
Questions 38-40
!
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-E, below.
!
Write the correct letter, A-E, on your answer sheet.
!
38 There is little evidence for the traditionalists' prediction that
39 A recent study by the US government found that
40 Richard Bartle suggests that it is important for people to accept the fact that
!
A young people have no problem separating their own lives from the ones
they play on the screen.
B levels of reading ability will continue to drop significantly.
C new advances in technology have to be absorbed into our lives.
D games cannot provide preparation for the ski lls needed in real life.
E young people will continue to play video games despite warnings against
doing so.

291
TestCode:_________
IR026

292
on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently!
discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now!
testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3!
geometric objects from 4.
they were family. Researchers placed each chick in!
!
Even more primitive organisms may share this ability.!
Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down!
a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one!
which contained sugar water, which they like, while!
the other was empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the!
team marked each chamber with a different number!
of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees!
quickly learned to match the number of shapes with!
the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish,!
there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess-!
they could differentiate up to 4 shapes,!
!
5 or 6 shapes. !
These studies still do not show whether animals!
learn to count through training, or whether they are!
born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true,!
it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary!
advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this
may!
be the case has emerged from an experiment testing!
the mathematical ability of three- and four-day-old!
chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around!
as many of their siblings as possible, so they will!
always head towards a larger number of their kin. If!
chicks spend their first few days surrounded by
certain!
objects, they become attached to these objects as if!
the middle of a platform and showed it two groups!
of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind!
screens, changed the quantities and revealed them!
to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple!
computations to decide which side now contained the!
biggest number of its "brothers". Without any prior!
coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at!
a rate well above chance. They were doing some very!
!
simple arithmetic, claim the researchers.!
Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since!
it would help almost any animal forage for food.!
Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly!
decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch !
of flowers will contain the most nectar. These are also!
other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one!
compelling example, researchers in America found!
that female coots appear to calculate how many!
eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid!
by an intruder- before making any decisions about!
adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is!
difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the!
numerical abilities of more and more creatures using!
standardised procedures can we hope to understand!
the basic preconditions for the evolution of number.
293
294
Questions 8-13
!
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage
1?
!
In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
!
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
!
8 Primates are better at identifying the larger of two numbers if one is much
bigger than the other.
!
9 Jurgen Tautz trained the insects in his experiment to recognise the shapes of
individual numbers.
!
10 The research involving young chicks took place over two separate days.
!
11 The experiment with chicks suggests that some numerical ability exists in
newborn animals.
!
12 Researchers have experimented by altering quantities of nectar or fruit
available to certain wild animals.
!
13 When assessing the number of eggs in their nest, coots take into account
those of other birds.

295
296
!
Is it time to halt the rising

tide of plastic packaging?
A Close up, plastic packaging can be a marvellous
to plastic: it is lighter, so requires less energy for

thing. Those who make a living from it call it
transportation than glass, for example; it requires

a forgotten infrastructure that allows modern
relatively little energy to produce; and it is often

urban life to exist. Plastics have helped society
re-usable. An Austrian study found that if plastic

defy natural limits such as the seasons, the rotting
packaging were removed from the supply chain,

of food and the distance most of us live from
other packaging would have to increase fourfold

where our food is produced. And yet we do not
to make up for it.

like it. Partly we do not like waste, but plastic

waste, with its hydrocarbon roots and industrial

!
B So are we just wrong about plastic packaging?

manufacture, is especially galling. In 2008, the
Is it time to stop worrying and learn to love

UK, for example, produced around two million
the disposable plastic wrapping around

tonnes of plastic waste, twice as much as in the
sandwiches? Certainly there are bigger targets

early 1990s. The very qualities of plastic - its
for environmental savings such as improving

cheapness, its indestructible aura - make it a
household insulation and energy emissions.

reproachful symbol of an unsustainable way of
Naturally, the plastics industry is keen to point

life. The facts, however, do not justify our unease.
them out. What's more, concern over plastic

All plastics are, at least theoretically, recyclable.
packaging has produced a squall of conflicting

Plastic packaging makes up just 6 to 7 per cent
initiatives from retailers, manufacturers and

of the contents of British dustbins by weight and
local authorities. It's a squall that dies down and

less than 3 per cent of landfill. Supermarkets and
then blows harder from one month to the next.

brands, which are under pressure to reduce the
'It is being left to the individual conscience and

quantity of packaging of all types that they use,
supermarkets playing the market: says Tim Lang,

are finding good environmental reasons to turn
a professor specialising in food policy. ' It's a
! mess.’

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
297
 C Dick Searle of the Packaging Federation points E One store commissioned a study to find precise
out that societies without sophisticated data on which had less environmental impact:
packaging lose half their food before it reaches selling apples loose or ready-wrapped. Helene
consumers and that in the UK, waste in supply Roberts, head of packaging, explains that in fact
chains is about 3 per cent. In India, it is more they found apples in fours on a tray covered by
than 50 per cent. The difference comes later: the plastic film needed 27 per cent less packaging in
British throw out 30 per cent of the food they transportation than those sold loose. Steve
buy - an environmental cost in terms of Kelsey, a packaging designers, finds the debate
emissions equivalent to a fifth of the cars on their frustrating. He argues that the hunger to do
roads. Packagers agree that cardboard, metals something quickly is diverting effort away from
and glass all have their good points, but there’s more complicated questions about how you truly
nothing quite like plastic. With more than 20 alter supply chains. Rather than further reducing
families of polymers to choose from and then the weight of a plastic bottle, more thought
sometimes blend, packaging designers and should be given to how packaging can be
manufacturers have a limitless variety of recycled. Helene Roberts explains that their
qualities to play with.
greatest packaging reduction came when the
! company switched to re-usable plastic crates and
D But if there is one law of plastic that, in stopped consuming 62,000 tonnes of cardboard
environmental terms at least, prevails over all boxes every year. Plastic packaging is important,
others, it is this: a little goes a long way. This and it might provide a way of thinking about
means, first, that plastic is relatively cheap to use broader questions of sustainability. To target
- it represents just over one-third of the UK plastic on its own is to evade the complexity of
packaging market by value but it wraps more the issues. There seems to be a universal
than half the total number of items bought. eagerness to condemn plastic. Is this due to an
Second, it means that even though plastics inability to make the general changes in society
encases about 53 per cent of products bought, it that are really required? ‘Plastic as a lightweight
only makes up 20 per cent by weight of the food wrapper is now built in as the logical thing,’
packaging consumed. And in the packaging Lang says. ‘Does that make it an
equation, weight is the main issue because the environmentally sound system of packaging? It
heavier something is, the more energy you only makes sense if you have a structure such as
expend moving it around. In view of this, exists now. An environmentally driven
righteous indignation against plastic can look packaging system would look completely
foolish.
different.’ Dick Searle put the challenge another
! way. ‘The amount of packaging used today is a
! reflection of modern life.’

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

298
!
Questions 19-23
!
Look at the following statements (Questions 19-23) and the list of people below.
!
Match each statement to the correct person A-D.
!
Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
!
19 Comparison of two approaches to packaging revealed an interesting result.
!
20 People are expected to do the right thing.
!
21 Most food reaches UK shops in good condition.
!
22 Complex issues are ignored in the search for speedy solutions.
!
23 It is merely because the way societies operate that using plastic seems valid.
!
!
!
People
A Tim Lang
B Dick Searle
C Helene Roberts
D Steve Kelsey

299
Reading Passage 3!
!!
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.!

The growth of intelligence

No one doubts that intelligence develops as children
Furthermore the influences that affect verbal skills are

grow older. Yet the concept of intelligence has proved
not quite the same as those that affect other skills.

both quite difficult to define in unambiguous terms
!
and unexpectedly controversial in some respects.
This approach to investigating intelligence is based

Although, at one level, there seem to be almost as
on the nature of the task involved, but studies of

many definitions of intelligence as people who have
age-related changes show that this is not the only,

tried to define it, there is broad agreement on two key
or necessarily the most important, approach. For

features. That is, intelligence involves the capacity
instance, some decades ago, Horn and Cattell argued

not only to learn from experience but also to adapt
for a differentiation between what they termed ' fluid'

to one's environment. However, we cannot leave the
and 'crystallised ' intelligence. Fluid abilities are best

concept there. Before turning to what is known about
assessed by tests that require mental manipulation of

the development of intelligence, it is necessary to
abstract symbols. Crystallised abilities, by contrast,

consider whether we are considering the growth of
reflect knowledge of the environment in which we

one or many skills. That question has been tackled
live and past experience of similar tasks; they may be

in rather different ways by psychometricians and by
assessed by tests of comprehension and information.

developmentalists.
It seems that fluid abilities peak in early adult life,

! whereas crystallised abilities increase up to advanced

The former group has examined the issue by
old age.

determining how children 's abilities on a wide range
!
of tasks intercorrelate, or go together. Statistical
Developmental studies also show that the

techniques have been used to find out whether the
interconnections between different skills vary with age.

patterns are best explained by one broad underlying
Thus in the first year of life an interest in perceptual

capacity, general intelligence, or by a set of multiple,
patterns is a major contributor to cognitive abilities,

relatively separate, special skills in domains such as
whereas verbal abilities are more important later on.

verbal and visuospatial ability. While it cannot be
These findings seemed to suggest a substantial lack

claimed that everyone agrees on what the results mean
of continuity between infancy and middle childhood.

most people now accept that for practical purposes
However, it is important to realise that the apparent

it is reasonable to suppose that both are involved. ln
discontinuity will vary according to which of the

brief, the evidence in favour of some kind of general
cognitive skills were assessed in infancy. It has been

intellectual capacity is that people who are superior (or
found that tests of coping with novelty do predict later

inferior) on one type of task tend also to be superior
intelligence. These findings reinforce the view that

(or inferior) on others. Moreover, general measures of
young children's intellectual performance needs to be

intelligence tend to have considerable powers to predict
assessed from their interest in and curiosity about the

a person 's performance on a wide range of tasks
environment, and the extent to which this is applied to

requiring special skills. Nevertheless, it is plain that it
new situations, as well as by standardised intelligence

is not at all uncommon for individuals to be very good
testing.
at some sorts of task and yet quite poor at some others.

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

300
 These psychometric approaches have focused on
development. Numerous studies have shown how

children's increase in cognitive skills as they grow
infants actively scan their environment; how they

older. Piaget brought about a revolution in the
prefer patterned to non-patterned objects, how they

approach to cognitive development through his
choose novel over familiar stimuli, and how they

arguments (backed up by observations) that the focus
explore their environment as if to see how it works.

should be on the thinking processes involved rather
Children's questions and comments vividly illustrate

than on levels of cognitive achievement. These ideas
the ways in which they arc constantly constructing

of Piaget gave rise to an immense body of research
schemes of what they know and trying out their ideas

and it would be true to say that subsequent thinking
of how to fit new knowledge into those schemes

has been heavily dependent on his genius in opening
or deciding that the schemes need modification.

up new ways of thinking about cognitive development.
Moreover, a variety of studies have shown that

Nevertheless, most of his concepts have had to be
active experiences have a greater effect on learning

so radically revised, or rejected, that his theory no
than comparable passive experiences. However, a

longer provides an appropriate basis for thinking about
second element concerns the notion that development

cognitive development. To appreciate why that is so,
proceeds through a series of separate stages that have

we need to focus on some rather different elements of
to be gone through step-by-step, in a set order, each

Piaget's theorising.
of which is characterised by a particular cognitive

! structure. That has turned out to be a rather mislead ing

The first element, which has stood the test of time, is
way of thinking about cognitive development, although

his view that the child is an active agent of learning
it is not wholly wrong.
and of the importance of this activity in cognitive

!
!Questions 27-30
!Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
!Write your answers in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.
!27 Most researchers accept that one feature of intelligence is the ability to
A change our behaviour according to our situation.
B react to others' behaviour patterns.
C experiment with environmental features.
D cope with unexpected setbacks.
!28 What have psychometricians used statistics for?
A to find out if cooperative tasks are a useful tool in measuring certain skills
B to explore whether several abilities are involved in the development of intelligence
C to demonstrate that mathematical models can predict test results for different skills
D to discover whether common sense is fundamental to developing children's abilities
!29 Why are Horn and Cattell mentioned?
A They disagreed about the interpretation of different intelligence tests.
B Their research concerned both linguistic and mathematical abilities.
C They were the first to prove that intelligence can be measured by testing a range of special
skills.
D Their work was an example of research into how people's cognitive skills vary with age.

301
302
TestCode:_________
IR027

303
304
305
306
307
Questions 14-18
!
Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F.
!
Which paragraph contains the following information?
!
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 14- 18 on your answer sheet. You may use
any letter more than once.
!
14 the existence of geoengineering projects distracting from the real task of
changing the way we live
!
15 circumstances in which geoengineering has demonstrated success
!
16 maintenance problems associated with geoengineering projects
!
17 support for geoengineering being due to a lack of confidence in governments
!
18 more success in fighting climate change in some parts of the world than others
!
!
Questions 19-23
!
Complete the summary below.
!
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
!
Write your answers in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheet.
!
!
Geoengineering projects
A range of geoengineering ideas has been put forward, which aim either to prevent the
melting of the ice caps or to stop the general rise in global temperatures. One scheme to
discourage the melting of ice and snow involves introducing 19 ............ to the Arctic
because of their colour. The build-up of ice could be encouraged by dispersing ice along
the coasts using special ships and changing the direction of some 20 ............ but this
scheme is dependent on certain weather conditions. Another way of increasing the amount
of ice involves using 21 ………… to bring water to the surface. A scheme to stop ice
moving would use 22 ………… but this method is more likely to be successful in
preventing the ice from travelling in one direction rather than stopping it altogether. A
suggestion for cooling global temperatures is based on what has happened in the past
after 23 ............ and it involves creating clouds of gas.

308
309
Reading Passage 3
'fllshou/d spend about 20 minutes on Questions 2 7-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

=-••••••••r · l.~
America ts oldest art?
•''! ! !·------------·
Set within treacherously steep cliffs, and hidden
away in the secluded valleys of northeast Brazil,
is some of South America's most significant and
Set within treacherously steep cliffs, and hidden
away in therock-art.
spectacular secluded valleys
Most of northeast
of the art so far Brazil,
discovered
from the ongoing excavations comes from theand
is some of South America's most significant
spectacular rock-art. Most of the art so far discovered
from the ongoing excavations
archaeologically-important comes
National Parkfrom
of the
the Serra
archaeologically-important National Park
da Capivara in the state of Piaui, and it is causing of the Serra
da Capivara in the state of Piaui, and it is causing
quitea acontroversy.
quite controversy.The Thereason
reasonfor forthe
theuproar?
uproar?The
The
art is being dated to around 25,000
art is being dated to around 25,000 or perhaps, or perhaps,
according to some archaeologists, even 36,000 years
ago. If correct,
according to some thisarchaeologists,
is set to challengeeventhe widelyyears
36,000 held also
also appear
appear ofof great
great importancetotothese
importance theseancient
ancient
viewIf that
ago. the Americas
correct, this is set were first colonised
to challenge from held
the w idely the artists. Might such lines represent family units or
north, via the Bering Straits from eastern Siberia at artists. Might such lines represent family units or
groups of warriors? On a number of panels, rows of
around
vieyv that 10,000 BC, only
the Americas weremoving down into from
first colonised Central
the
stylised
groups of figures,
warriors?some
On anumbering
number ofuppanels,
to 30 individual
rows of
around
north, viaSouth America
the Bering in the
Straits millennia
from easternthereafter.
Siberia at figures, were painted using the natural undulating
stylised figures, some numbering up to 30 individual
contours of the rock surface, so evoking the contours
Prior to10,000
around the designation of 130,000
BC, only moving down hectares as a
into Central
of the were
figures, surrounding
paintedlandscape. Other interesting,
using the natural undulating but
National
ar]d South Park, the in
America rock-art sites were
the m illennia difficult to
thereafter. very rare, occurrences are scenes that show small
get to, and often dangerous to enter. In ancient contours of the rock surface, so evoking the contours
human figures holding on to and dancing around a
times,
Prior thisdesignation
to the inaccessibilityof must have
130,000 heightened
hectares as athe of tree, possibly involved
the surrounding in some
landscape. forminteresting,
Other of a ritual dance.
but
importance of the sites, and indeed of the people Due to the favourable climatic conditions, the
who painted
National Park, on
thethe rocks.sites
rock-art Wild were
animals and human
difficult to very rare, occurrences are scenes that show small
imagery on many panels is in a remarkable state
get to, and often dangerous to enter. In ancient into
figures dominate the art, and are incorporated of preservation.
human Despite
figures holding on tothis,
andhowever,
dancingthere
aroundarea
often-complex scenes involving hunting, supernatural serious conservation issues that affect their long-term
beings,
times, thisfighting and dancing.
inaccessibility must Thehaveartists depicted
heightened the tree, possibly involved in some form of a ritual dance.
survival. The chemical and mineral qualities of the
the animals that roamed the local ancient
importance of the sites, and indeed of the people brushwood rock on which the imagery is painted is fragile and
forest. The large mammals are usually painted in Due to the favourable climatic conditions, the
on several panels it is unstable. As well as the
groups
who and on
painted tend
thetorocks.
be shownWildinanimals
a runningandstance,
human
secretion
imagery of sodium
on many carbonate
panels on the rockstate
is in a remarkable surface,
as though trying to escape from hunting
figures dominate the art, and are incorporated into parties. complete panel sections have, over the ancient
Processions - lines of human and animal figures - of preservation. Despite this, however, there are
and recent past, broken away from the main rock
often-complex scenes involving hunting, supernatural
serious conservation issues that affect their long-term
beings, fighting and dancing. The artists depicted
survival. The chemical and mineral qualities of the
ttle animals that roamed the local ancient brushwood
rock on which the imagery is painted is fragile and
forest. The large mammals are usually painted in
on several panels it is unstable. As well as the
groups and tend to be shown in a running stance,
secretion of sodium carbonate on the rock surface,
as though trying to escape from hunting parties.
complete panel sections have, over the ancient
Processions - lines of human and animal figures -
and recent past, broken away from the main rock

310
 surface. These have then become buried and sealed
into sometimes-ancient floor deposits. Perversely,
this form of natural erosion and subsequent
deposition has assisted archaeologists in dating
several major rock-art sites. Of course, dating the
art is extremely difficult given the non-existence of
plant and animal remains that might be scientifically
dated. However, there are a small number of sites in
the Serra da Capivara that are giving up their secrets
through good systematic excavation. Thus, at Toea
do Boqueirao da Pedra Furada, rock-art researcher
Niede Guidon managed to obtain a number of dates.
At different levels of excavation, she located fallen
painted,rock fragments, which she was able to date
to at least 36,000 years ago. Along with the painted
fragments, crude stone tools were found. Also
discovered were a series of scientifically datable sites
of fireplaces, or hearths, the earliest dated to 46,000
BC, arguably the oldest dates for human habitation in
the Americas.
However, these conclusions are not without
controversy. Critics, mainly from North America,
have suggested that the hearths may in fact be
a natural phenomenon, the result of seasonal
brushwood fires. Several North American
researchers have gone further and suggested that
the rock-art from this site dates from no earlier than
about 3,730 years ago, based on the results of
limited radiocarbon dating . Adding further fuel to the
general debate is the fact that the artists in the area
of the National Park tended not to draw over old
motifs (as often occurs with rock-art), which makes
it hard to work out the relative chronology of the
148 I Test 5
images or styles. However, the diversity of imagery
and the narrative the paintings create from each of
the many sites within the National Park suggests
different artists were probably making their art at
different times, and potentially using each site over
many thousands of years.
With fierce debates thus raging over the dating,
where these artists originate from is also still very
much open to speculation. The traditional view
ignores all the early dating evidence from the South
American rock-art sites. In a revised scenario, some
palaeo-anthropologists are now suggesting that
modern humans may have migrated from Africa
using the strong currents of the Atlantic Ocean some
60,000 years or more ago, while others suggest
a more improbable colonisation coming from
the Pacific Ocean. Yet, while either hypothesis is
plausible, there is still no supporting archaeological
evidence between the South American coastline and
the interior. Rather, it seems possible that there were
a number of waves of human colonisation of the
Americas occurring possibly over a 60,000-100,000
year period, probably using the Bering Straits as a
'
In
land-bridge to cross into the Americas.
Despite the compelling evidence from South America,
it stands alone: the earliest secure human evidence
yet found in the state of Oregon in North America only
dates to 12,300 years BC. So this is a fierce debate
that is likely to go on for many more years. However, 31
the splendid rock-art and its allied archaeology of
32
northeast Brazil, described here, is playing a huge and
33
significant role in the discussion.
34
35
36
311
Questions 27-29
!
Choose the correct letter, A, B , C or D.
!
Write the correct letter in boxes 27-29 on your answer sheet.
!
27 According to the first paragraph, the rock-art in Serra da Capivara may revolutionise
accepted ideas about
A the way primitive people lived in North America.
B the date when the earliest people arrived in South America.
C the origin of the people who crossed the Bering Straits.
D the variety of cultures which developed in South America.
!
28 How did the ancient artists use the form of the rock where they painted?
A to mimic the shape of the countryside nearby
B to emphasise the shape of different animals
C to give added light and shade to their paintings
D to give the impression of distance in complex works
!
29 In the fourth paragraph, what does the writer say is unusual about the rock-artists of
Serra da Capivara?
A They had a very wide range of subject-matter.
B Their work often appears to be illustrating a story.
C They tended to use a variety of styles in one painting.
D They rarely made new paintings on top of old ones.
!
!
Questions 30-36
!
In boxes 30-36 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
!
30 Archaeologists have completed their survey of the rock-art in Piaui.
31 The location of the rock-art suggests that the artists had a significant role in their
society.
32 The paintings of animals show they were regarded as sacred by the ancient
humans.
33 Some damage to paintings is most likely due to changes in the weather of the
region.
34 The fact that some paintings were buried is useful to archaeologists.
35 The tools found near some paintings were probably used for hunting animals.
36 The North American researchers have confirmed Niede Guidon's dating of the
paintings.

312
313
TestCode:_________
 IR028
READING PASSAGE 1
!You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.
!
Communicating in Color
There are more than 160 known species of
chameleons. The main distribution is in Africa
and Madagascar, and other tropical regions,
although some species are also found in parts
of southern Europe and Asia. There are
introduced populations in Hawaii and probably
in California and Florida too.!
! patterning and shape of the head, and the
New species are still discovered quite
frequently. Dr Andrew Marshall, a
conservationist from York University, was
surveying monkeys in Tanzania, when he
stumbled across a twig snake in the
Magombera forest which, frightened, coughed
up a chameleon and fled. Though a colleague
persuaded him not to touch it because of the
risk from venom, Marshall suspected it might
be a new species, and took a photograph to
send to colleagues, who confirmed his
suspicions. Kinyongia megomberae, literally
“the chameleon from Magombera”, is the result,
and the fact it was not easy to identify is
precisely what made it unique. The most
remarkable
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
feature of chameleons is their ability to
change colour, an ability rivalled only by
cuttlefish and octopi in the animal kingdom.
Because of this, colour is not the best thing
for telling chameleons apart and different
species are usually identified based on the
arrangement of scales. In this case it was the
bulge of scales on the chameleon’s nose.!
!
Chameleons are able to use colour for both
communication and camouflage by switching
from bright, showy colours to the exact colour
of a twig within seconds. They show an
extraordinary range of colours, from nearly
black to bright blues, oranges, pinks and
greens, even several at once. A popular
misconception is that chameleons can match
whatever background they are placed on,
whether a chequered red and yellow shirt or a
Smartie box. But each species has a
characteristic set of cells containing pigment
distributed over their bodies in a specific
pattern, which determines the range of
colours and patterns they can show. To the
great disappointment of many children,
placing a chameleon on a Smartie box
generally results in a stressed, confused, dark
grey or mottled chameleon.!
!
Chameleon are visual animals with excellent
eyesight, and they communicate with colour.
When two male dwarf chameleons encounter
314
!!
each other, each shows its brightest colours. brown and green background colours than
They puff out their throats and present grasslands, so forest-dwelling species might
themselves side-on with their bodies flattened be expected to have greater powers of colour
to appear as large as possible and to show off change. Instead, the males whose display
their colours. This enables them to assess colours are the most eye-catching show the
each other from a distance. If one is clearly greatest colour change. Their displays are
superior, the other quickly changes to composed of colours that contrast highly with
submissive colouration, which is usually a dull each other as well as the background
combination of greys and browns. If the vegetation. This suggests that the species that
opponents are closely matched and both evolved the most impressive capacities for
maintain their bright colours, the contest can colour change did so to enable them to
escalate to physical fighting and jaw-locking, intimidate rivals or attract mates rather than to
each trying to push each other along the facilitate camouflage.!
branch in a contest of strength. Eventually, the !
loser will signal his defeat with submissive How do we know that chameleon display
colouration.! colours are eye-catching to another
! chameleon - or, fot that matter, to a predatory
Females also have aggressive displays used bird? Getting a view from the perspective of
to repel male attempts at courtship. When chameleons or their bird predators requires
courting a female, males display the same information on the chameleon’s or bird’s visual
bright colours that they use during contests. system and an understanding of how their
Most of the time, females are unreceptive and brain might process visual information. This is
aggressively reject males by displaying a because the perceived colour of an object
contrasting light and dark colour pattern, with depends as much on the brain’s wiring as on
their mouths open and moving their bodies the physical properties of the object itself.
rapidly from side to side. If the male continues Luckily, recent scientific advances have made
to court a female, she often chases and bites it possible to obtain such measurements in the
him until he retreats. The range of colour field, and information on visual systems of a
change during female displays, although variety of animals is becoming increasingly
impressive, is not as great as shown by males.! available.!
! !
Many people assume that colour change The spectacular diversity of colours and
evolved to enable chameleons to match a ornaments in nature has inspired biologists for
greater variety of backgrounds in their centuries. But if we want to understand the
environment. If this was the case, then the function and evolution of animal colour
ability of chameleons to change colour should patterns, we need to know how they are
be associated with the range of background perceived by the animals themselves - or their
colours in the chameleon’s habitat, but there is predators. After all, camouflage and
no evidence for such a pattern. For example, conspicuousness are in the eye of the
forest habitats might have a greater range of beholder.
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!
!!

315
!!
Questions 1-4
!
Answer the questions below.
!
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
!
Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
!
1 What kind of climate do most chameleons live in?
2 Which animal caught a chameleon from an undiscovered species?
3 What was the new species named after?
4 Which part of the body is unique to the species Kinyongia magomberae?
!
!
!
!
Questions 5-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
!
In the boxes 5-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
!
5 Few creatures can change colour as effectively as cuttlefish.
6 Chameleons can imitate a pattern provided there are only two colours.
7 Chameleons appear to enjoy trying out new colours.
8 Size matters more than colour when male chameleons compete.
9 After a fight, the defeated male hides among branches of a tree.
10 Females use colour and movement to discourage males.
11 The popular explanation of why chameleons change colour has been proved wrong.
12 There are more predators of chameleons in grassland habitats than in others.
13 Measuring animals' visual systems necessitates removing them from their habitat.

316
READING PASSAGE 2
!You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-21, which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.
!
The Pursuit of Happiness
A!
In the lates 1990s, psychologist Martin
Seligman of the University of Pennsylvania
urged colleagues to observe optimal moods
with the same kind of focus with which they had
for so long studied illness: we would never
learn about the full range of human functions
unless we knew as much about mental
wellness as we do about mental illness. A new
generation of psychologists built up a
respectable body of research on positive
character traits and happiness-boosting
practices. At the same time, developments in
neuroscience provided new clues to what
makes us happy and what that looks like in the
brain. Self-appointed experts took advantage of
the trend with guarantees to eliminate worry,
stress, dejection and even boredom. This
happiness movement has provoked a great
deal of opposition among psychologists who
observe that the preoccupation with happiness
has come at the cost of sadness, an important
feeling that people have tried to banish from
their emotional repertoire. Allan Horwitz of
Rutgers laments that young people who are
naturally weepy after breakups are often urged
to medicate themselves instead of working
through their sadness. Wake Forest
University’s Eric Wilson fumes that the
obsession with happiness amounts to a “craven
disregard” for the melancholic perspective that
has given rise to the greatest works of art. “The
happy man,” he writes, “is a hollow man.”!
!!
!!
!!
!
B!
After all, people are remarkably adaptable.
Following a variable period of adjustment, we
bounce back to our previous level of
happiness, no matter what happens to us.
(There are some scientifically proven
exceptions, notably suffering the unexpected
loss of a job or the loss of a spouse. Both
events tend to permanently knock people
back a step.) Our adaptability works in two
directions. Because we are so adaptable,
points out Professor Sonja Lyubomirsky of the
University of California, we quickly get used
to many of the accomplishments we strive for
in life, such as landing the big job or getting
married. Soon after we reach a milestone, we
start to feel that something is missing. We
begin coveting another worldly possession or
eyeing a social advancement. But such an
approach keeps us tethered to a treadmill
where happiness is always just out of reach,
one toy or one step away. It’s possible to get
off the treadmill entirely by focusing on
activities that are dynamic, surprising, and
attention-absorbing, and thus less likely to
bore us than, say, acquiring shiny new toys.
317
!!
C!
Moreover, happiness is not a reward for
escaping pain. Russ Harris, the author of The
Happiness Trap, calls popular conceptions of
happiness dangerous because they set people
up for a “struggle against reality”. They don’t
acknowledge that real life is full of
disappointments, loss, and inconveniences. “If
you’re going to live a rich and meaningful life,”
Harris says, “you’re going to feel a full range of
emotions.” Action toward goals other than
happiness makes people happy. It is not
crossing the finish line that is most rewarding,
it is anticipating achieving the goal. University
of Wisconsin neuroscientist Richard Davidson
has found that working hard toward a goal,
and making progress to the point of expecting
a goal to be realised, not only activates
positive feelings but also suppresses negative
emotions such as fear and depression.!
! and review all of the bad outcomes that she’s
D!
We are constantly making decisions, ranging
from what clothes to put on, to whom we
should marry, not to mention all those flavors
of ice cream. We base many of our decisions
on whether we think a particular preference
will increase our well-being. Intuitively, we
seem convinced that the more choices we
have, the better off we will ultimately be. But
our world of unlimited opportunity imprisons us
more than it makes us happy. In what
Swarthmore psychologist Barry Schwartz calls
“the paradox of choice,” facing many
possibilities leaves us stressed out - and less
satisfied with whatever we do decide. Having
too many choices keeps us wondering about
all the opportunities missed.
!!
!
E!
Besides, not everyone can put on a happy
face. Barbara Held, a professor of psychology
at Bowdoin College, rails against “the tyranny
of the positive attitude”. “Looking on the bright
side isn’t possible for some people and is even
counterproductive,” she insists. “When you put
pressure on people to cope in a way that
doesn’t fit them, it not only doesn’t work, it
makes them feel like a failure on top of already
feeling bad.” The one-size-fits-all approach to
managing emotional life is misguided, agrees
Professor Julie Norem, author of The Positive
Power of Negative Thinking. In her research,
she has shown that the defensive pessimism
that anxious people feel can be harnessed to
help them get things done, which in turn
makes them happier. A naturally pessimistic
architect, for example, can set low
expectations for an upcoming presentation
imagining, so that she can prepare carefully
and increase her chances of success.!
!
F!
By contrast, an individual who is not living
according to their values, will not be happy, no
matter how much they achieve. Some people,
however, are not sure what their values are. in
the case Harris has a great question: “Imagine
I could wave a magic wand to ensure that you
would have the approval and admiration of
everyone on the planet, forever. What, in that
case, would you choose to do with your life?”
Once this has been answered honestly, you
can start taking steps toward your ideal vision
of yourself. The actual answer is unimportant,
as long as you’re living consciously. The state
of happiness is not really a state at all. It’s an
ongoing personal experiment.!
318
319
Questions 22 and 23!
!
Choose TWO letters, A-E.!
!
Write the correct letters in boxes 22 and 23 on your answer sheet.!
!
Which TWO of the following beliefs are identified as mistaken in the text?!
!
! A! Inherited wealth brings less happiness than earned wealth.!
! B! Social status affects our perception of how happy we are.!
! C! An optimistic outlook ensures success.!
! D! Unhappiness can and should be avoided.!
! E! Extremes of emotion are normal in the young.!
!
!
!
Questions 24-26!
!
Complete the sentences below.!
!
Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.!
!
Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet.!
!
24! In order to have a complete understanding of how people’s mind work, Martin Seligman !
! suggested that research should examine our most positive ………………. as closely as it
! does out psychological problems.!
!
25! Soon after arriving at a ……………… in their lives, people become accustomed to what !
! they have achieved and have a sense that they are lacking something.!
!
26! People who are …………….. by nature are more likely to succeed if they make thorough
! preparation for a presentation.

320
READING PASSAGE 3
!You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.
!!
The Deep Sea !
!
! Until recently, it was impossible to study the
At a time when most think of outer space as
the final frontier, we must remember that a
great deal of unfinished business remains here
on earth. Robots crawl on the surface of Mars,
and spacecraft exit our solar system, but most
of our own planet has still never been seen by
human eyes. It seems ironic that we know
more about impact craters on the far side of the
moon than about the longest and largest
mountain range on earth. It is amazing that
human beings crossed a quarter of a million
miles of space to visit our nearest celestial
neighbor before penetrating just two miles deep
into the earth’s own waters to explore the
Midocean Ridge. And it would be hard to
imagine a more significant part of our planet to
investigate - a chain of volcanic mountains
42,000 miles long where most of the earth’s
solid surface was born, and where vast
volcanoes continue to create new submarine
landscapes.!
! story is every bit as amazing as the history of
The figure we so often see quoted - 71% of
the earth’s surface - understates the ocean’s
importance. If you consider instead three-
dimensional volumes, the land-dwellers’ share
of the planet shrinks even more toward
insignificance: less than 1% of the total. Most of
the ocean’s enormous volume, lies deep below
the familiar surface. The upper sunlit layer, by!
one estimate, contains only 2 or 3% of the total
space available to life. The other 97% of the
earth’s biosphere lies deep beneath the water’s
surface, where sunlight never penetrates.
!!
deep ocean directly. By the sixteenth century,
diving bells allowed people to stay
underwater for a short time: they could swim
to the bell to breathe air trapped underneath it
rather than return all the way to the surface.
Later, other devices, including pressurized or
armored suits, heave metal helmets, and
compressed air supplied through hoses from
the surface, allowed at least one diver to
reach 500 feet or so. !
!
It was 1930 when a biologist named
William Beebe and his engineering colleague
Otis Barton sealed themselves into a new
kind of diving craft, an invention that finally
allowed humans to penetrate beyond the
shallow sunlit layer of the sea and the history
of deep-sea exploration began. Science then
was largely incidental - something that
happened along the way. In terms of technical
ingenuity and human bravery, this part of the
early aviation. Yet many of these individuals,
and the deep-diving vehicles that they built
and tested, are not well known.!
!
It was not until the 1970s that deep-diving
manned submersibles were able to reach the
Midocean Ridge and begin making major
contributions to a wide range of scientific
questions. A burst of discoveries followed in
short order. Several of these profoundly
changed whole fields of science, and their
implications are still not fully understood. For
example, biologists may now be seeing - in
321
 the strange communities of microbes and
animals that live around deep volcanic vents -
clues to the origin of life on earth. No one even
knew that these communities existed before
explorers began diving to the bottom in
submersibles.!
! that water is much heavier than air. At sea
Entering the deep, black abyss presents
unique challenges for which humans must
carefully prepare if they wish to survive. It is an
unforgiving environment, both harsh and
strangely beautiful, that few who have not
experienced it firsthand can fully appreciate.
Even the most powerful searchlights penetrate
only tens of feet. Suspended particles scatter
the light and water itself is far less transparent
than air; it absorbs and scatters light. The
ocean also swallows other types of
electromagnetic radiation, including radio
signals. This is why many deep sea vehicles
dangle from tethers. Inside those tethers,
copper wires or fiber optic strands transmit
signals that would dissipate and die if
broadcast into open water.!
! chamber must withstand the full brunt of deep-
Another challenge is that the temperature
near the bottom in very deep water typically
hovers just four degrees above freezing, and
submersibles rarely have much insulation.
Since water absorbs heat more quickly than
air, the cold down below seems to penetrate a
diving capsule far more quickly than it
!!
!
would penetrate, say, a control van up above,
on the deck of the mother ship.!
!
And finally, the abyss clamps down with
crushing pressure on anything that enters it.
This force is like air pressure on land, except
level on land, we don’t even notice 1
atmosphere of pressure, about 15 pounds per
square inch, the weight of the earth’s blanket
of air. In the deepest part of the ocean, nearly
seven miles down, it’s about 1,200
atmospheres, 18,000 pounds per square inch.
A square-inch column of lead would crush
down on your body with equal force if it were
3,600 feet tall.!
!
Fish that live in the deep don’t feel the
pressure, because they are filled with water
from their own environment. It has already
been compressed by abyssal pressure as
much as water can be (which is not much). A
diving craft, however, is a hollow chamber,
rudely displacing the water around it. That
sea pressure - thousands of pounds per
square inch. If seawater with that much
pressure behind it ever finds a way to break
inside, it explodes through the hole with
laserlike intensity.!
It was into such a terrifying environment
that the first twentieth-century explorers
ventured.
322
323
Questions 31-36!
!
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?!
!
In boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet, write!
!
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
!
31! The Midocean Ridge is largely the same as when the continents emerged.!
!
32! We can make an approximate calculation of the percentage of the ocean which sunlight !
! penetrates.!
!
33! Many unexpected scientific phenomena came to light when exploration of the Midocean !
! Ridge began.!
!
34! The number of people exploring the abyss has risen sharply in the 21st century.!
!
35! One danger of the darkness is that deep sea vehicles become entangled in vegetation.!
!
36! The construction of submersibles offers little protection from the cold at great depths.!
!
!
Questions 37-40!
!
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-I, below.!
!
Deep diving craft!
!
A diving craft has to be 37 ……………. enough to cope with the enormous pressure of the abyss,
which is capable of crushing almost anything. Unlike creatures that live there, which are not!
38 …………….. because they contain compressed water, a submersible is filled with 39
…………… If it has a weak spot in its construction, there will be 40 …………… explosion of water
into the craft.!
!
A! ocean! B! air! C! deep!
D! hollow! E! sturdy! F! atmosphere!
G! energetic H! violent I! heavy

324
TestCode:_________