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Microorganisms are found everywhere in the environment and play a leading role in
countless natural processes. Among other things, they operate the basic drug cycles that are
necessary for the plants' supply of nutrients via the reaction of organic matter in soil. At these
processes, greenhouse gases are released to the atmosphere at the same time, so
microorganisms also play a key role in relation to climate and climate change.

In addition to exercising their function in the environment, microorganisms also have a great
potential for use. Some bacteria and fungi, so-called biocontrol organisms, can inhibit the
growth of harmful microorganisms, technical enzymes and enzymes for food production can
be isolated from bacteria, yeasts and fungi, which are also major suppliers of pharmaceuticals
such as e.g. antibiotics.

 Microorganisms can therefore be seen as suppliers of so-called "ecosystem services",

which are fundamental to the environment and to human life and activity. The Section
for Microbiology and Biotechnology is therefore researching the following topics:
 The effect of biochar in agricultural soil - eg what effect does the supply of biochar
have on the soil's microorganisms and macrofauna (eg earthworms).
 Enzymes from Arctic bacteria whose physiology is adapted to very cold temperatures
and which therefore have enzymes that have potential technical / industrial utility, for
example in sustainable industrial food processes and in washing powders that work
efficiently at energy-saving low washing temperatures.
 Interactions between micro-organisms and between micro-organisms and plants that
can enhance our understanding of how we can utilize nature's useful microbiological
resources to combat plant pathogens and as manufacturers of pharmaceuticals (eg
antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer).
 Find good bioindicators for microorganisms that destroy food under storage
conditions - especially volatile metabolites that can act as early warning bioindicators.
 Biodegradation of foreign matter in soil and groundwater (here a link to the areas that
focus on this topic)

(1) Generate Oxygen in the Atmosphere.

Almost all of the production of oxygen by bacteria on Earth today occurs in the oceans by the
cyanobacteria or "blue-green algae. And over time, most of the oxygen produced in Earth's
history has been done by bacteria.

(2) Recycle nutrients stored in organic matter to an inorganic form.

Decomposition releases the mineral nutrients (e.g., N, P, K (potassium)) bound up in dead

organic matter in an inorganic form that is available for primary producers to use. Without
this recycling of inorganic nutrients, primary productivity on the globe would stop.

On land, most of the decomposition (also called "mineralization") of dead organic matter
occurs at the soil surface, and the rate of decomposition is a function of moisture and
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temperature (too little or too much of either reduces the rate of decomposition). Fungi are
important in terrestrial systems, but not in aquatic. They are present even before the leaves
and twigs enter the soil and so decomposition starts in the living or senescent plant material.
Fungi are the most important decomposers of structural plant compounds (cellulose and
lignin – but note that lignin is not broken down when oxygen is absent). The fungi invade the
organic matter in soils first and are then followed by bacteria.

In water, the decomposition of organic matter is mostly oxic in streams and in the ocean and
anoxic in the bottoms of lakes or in swamps. As shown in the table above, oxic
decomposition proceeds faster (produces higher energy yields for the bacteria) than
decomposition in environments where there is no oxygen. In the open ocean, the water is so
deep (average 3900 m) and contains so much oxygen, that most of the algal-formed organic
matter at the surface decomposes aerobically before it reaches the bottom. For example, only
2% of the primary productivity in the upper ocean sinks to a depth of 3500 m. Most of the
world is ocean, and most of the ocean is deep, so most of the aquatic decomposition must be
aerobic. But in shallow waters, coastal oceans, lakes and estuaries, 25-60% of the organic
matter produced may settle out of the upper waters rapidly and be decomposed anaerobically
(without oxygen).

Of course another important impact of decomposition besides generating inorganic nutrients

is to produce CO2 and CH4 that is released to the atmosphere (we will examine this more
closely in later lectures).

1.1 (3) Fix nitrogen from the Atmosphere into a Useable Form.

The only organisms capable of removing N2 gas from the atmosphere and "fixing" it into a
useable nitrogen form, ammonia and ammonium, (NH3, NH4), are bacteria. The specific
bacteria that can perform N fixation are scattered throughout the groups including the
cyanobacteria. All organisms that fix nitrogen use the same mechanisms and the same
enzymes – this ability probably evolved only once and early in the history of life. Symbiotic
N2 fixation costs the plant photosynthate to support the fixation and the NH3 assimilation; this
cost could be from 15-30% of the total carbon assimilated by the plant. In fact, to fix one
molecule of N2 requires about 25 molecules of ATP, so it is expensive from the bacterial
standpoint, and that means that the plant must support that energy requirement. In return the
plant receives nitrogen, which may otherwise be a limiting nutrient for the plant.

Another difficulty for the bacteria is that one of the enzymes necessary for nitrogen fixation
is destroyed by oxygen (which is necessary for efficient ATP formation). One solution to this
problem is to form symbiotic relationships with other organisms that can provide
carbohydrates; these include diatoms, the fungi of certain lichens, shipworms, termites, and
certain plants especially in nodules of the roots. These symbiotic relationships are often
inside nodules surrounded by thick tissues, which limit the diffusion of oxygen and keep the
bacterial enzymes from being inactivated by oxygen. 

1.2 (4) Allow Herbivores to Consume Poor Quality Food.

In the ocean, most of the primary productivity is consumed by herbivores. In contrast, in

terrestrial systems most of the primary productivity is not consumed by the herbivores. The
reasons for this difference are: (1) animals lack digestive enzymes capable of using cellulose
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and lignin and other structural plant compounds; (2) plants often have anti-grazing toxins,
aromatic resins, or thorns; (3) most land plant tissue is poor in mineral nutrients (especially N
and P) compared to the tissue in the herbivore

1.3 (5) Give Plant Roots Access to Nutrients in the Soil.

As plant roots scavenge the soil they create a zone of nutrient depletion around themselves.
To have access to new sources of nutrients, a plant can either grow more roots and small root
hairs (some as small as 10 um) or form an association with a fungus whose hyphae provide
an even longer and more efficient absorptive structure. Most vascular plants can form such
associations, which are called "mycorrhizae". Mycorrhizal fungi include those living on the
surface of plants (ectotrophic or sheathing) and those which enter the host (endotrophic or
vesicular-arbuscular or simply "V-A").

The added advantage to the plant of forming these relationships with fungi is that the hyphae
can secrete enzymes that break down organic molecules and make inorganic nutrients
available. While the plants gain nutrients, the fungi gain carbohydrate food from the plant.
There is also a cost to the plant in this association; one study reported that mycorrhizal
biomass was only 1% of a fir forest ecosystem but used 15% of the net primary production.
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2 Confederation:
2.1 Introduction:
Confederations are voluntary associations of independent states that, to secure some common
purpose, agree to certain limitations on their freedom of action and establish some joint
machinery of consultation or deliberation. The limitations on the freedom of action of the
member states may be as trivial as an acknowledgment of their duty to consult with each
other before taking some independent action or as significant as the obligation to be bound by
majority decisions of the member states.

Confederations usually fail to provide for an effective executive authority and lack viable

central governments; their member states typically retain their separate military
establishments and separate diplomatic representation; and members are generally accorded
equal status with an acknowledged right of secession from the confederation. The
term federation is used to refer to groupings of states, often on a regional basis, that establish
central executive machinery to implement policies or to supervise joint activities. In some
cases such groupings are motivated primarily by political or economic concerns; in others,
military objectives are paramount.

Historically, confederations have often proved to be a first or second step toward the
establishment of a national state, usually as a federal union. Thus, the federal union of
modern Switzerland was preceded by a confederation of the Swiss
cantons; Germany’s modern federal arrangements may be traced to the German
Confederation of the 19th century (the Deutsche Bund); and the federal constitution of the
United States is the successor to the government of the Articles of Confederation. In some
other cases, confederations have replaced more centralized arrangements, as, for example,
when empires disintegrate and are replaced by voluntary associations of their former
colonies. The Commonwealth, formerly (1931–49) the British Commonwealth of Nations,
and the French Community are cases of this type.

An example of confederal arrangements that gave birth to a federal union is the Articles of

Confederation (1781–89) that preceded the Constitution of the United States. The Articles
established a Congress of the confederation as a unicameral assembly of ambassadors from
the 13 states, each possessing a single vote. The Congress was authorized to appoint an
executive committee of states

In the scientific literature there are the following a classic example of the confederation:
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 Swiss Confederation in 1291-1798

 The German Confederation in 1815-1866
 United States of America in 1781-1787
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Reconciling economy and environmental protection is not an easy task. Up to a point, the two
concerns may appear contradictory. On one side, several economic activities have a negative
environmental impact. They use natural resources in the production process and contribute to
reducing natural capital (directly through the use of exhaustible resources, indirectly by
overexploitation of resources, renewable). On the other side, environmental protection goals
can negatively impact economic development by constraining businesses and consumers'
behavior through regulations or fiscal measures.

Environmental pollution leads to several damages that impede the process of economic
development, through:

 Low productivity of economically exploited natural systems, such as

agriculture and fishing.
 The high costs of using the natural environment, such as the high costs of
drinking water treatment.
 The high costs of spending in the field of reducing and remedying damage
resulting from pollution in order to protect the environment.
 The direct and indirect costs resulting from the loss of raw materials and
energy resources
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3 How biotechnology affect agriculture and environment:

3.1 How it affects environment:

Like any other man-made technology, biotechnology has both positive and negative
effects on the environment. The use of biotechnical methods - including genetically-
engineered micro-organisms - is indispensable for the manufacture of many products
essential to mankind. It is thus important that the unquestionable benefits of this technology
be exploited. At the same time, however, it is necessary to minimize the negative
environmental effect and hazards which result from its application.

3.1.1 Negative impacts:

Since biotechnical production processes take place in aqueous medium, and the
corresponding transformations are fairly similar to chemical conversions, they also give rise
to the same problems with:

 Incomplete utilization of substrates or starting products (nutrient solutions)

 Formation of intermediates or end products which cannot be exploited otherwise
 Technological and biological limitations with regard to realizing maximum yields or
conversions.

These processes accordingly result in effluents which are polluted to a greater or lesser
extent. As is the case with chemical syntheses, biochemical production processes also lead to
by-products which cannot be utilized and which as a rule have to be disposed of via the waste
water. Even biological waste-water purification processes, which make use of mixed cultures,
produce organic end metabolites which cannot be degraded further microbially.

 The concerns surrounding potential negative environmental and eco-system function

outcomes of agricultural biotechnology include impacts stemming from changes in
pesticide use, impacts on non-target species, and pest and virus resistance.
 It can be taken up by other organisms and become integrated into their genetic
material. This has the potential to create new viruses and bacteria that cause diseases.
Another danger is that the transgenic DNA can jump into the genetic material of
our cells and cause damages including cancer.

3.2 Positive:
 Biotech crops help to reduce the environmental impact of productive agriculture in
several ways. Biotech crops have helped reduce the use of pesticides for several
economically important crops, contributing to reductions in fuel, water and packaging
that are eliminated from the manufacturing, distribution and application processes.
 Micro-organism are also used to treat waste water (ASP)
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3.3 How it affects agriculture:

 In agricultural biotechnology, genetic engineering has enabled the production of crops that
are able to grow in non-ideal soil or in dry conditions. These genetically modified, or
transgenic, crops are of higher quality and higher yield, and have increased shelf life. In
addition, they have been engineered to be resistant to pests, which allows farms to use less
pesticide. Biotechnology has also enabled the mass production of previously unavailable
medicines, such as insulin, and facilitated research into molecular biology using genetically
modified organisms.

3.3.1 Negative Impact on Agriculture

Biotechnology has indeed done a lot of good for the world, but it also has disadvantages, and
there are some concerns about its potential negative impacts. In agriculture, there are
concerns that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into natural,
unmodified plants. For instance, a crop that is herbicide resistant may transfer some of its
traits to a weed, which would result in an herbicide resistant weed. Another concern about
agricultural biotechnology centers around the uncertainty of genetically modified crops’ long-
term biological viability.

4 How can biotechnology, bioengineering, and the increasing use of

genetically modified organisms help us deal with increasing food demand:
4.1 Introduction:
The increase in human population worldwide has become a major threat to food security.
Population growth, particularly in countries with developing economies, will result in the
need for a 70% increase in food production by the year 2050 (Delaney, 2015), making the
significant enhancement of agricultural productivity in the next several decades a priority. In
this respect, efforts of biotechnology have been concentrated on creating technologies that
can increase crop yields.

4.2 Origin of the field of biotechnology:

Although biotechnology applications can be traced to 6000 BC, it was in the 1970s when the
development of genetic tools and cellular and tissue engineering gave the biotechnology field
new momentum that allowed a range of possible novel applications.

4.3 Explanation:
Biotechnology holds tremendous possibilities for the developing world. The use of high-
yielding, disease- and pest-resistant crops will have a direct bearing on improved food
security, poverty alleviation and environmental conservation. GM crops will hopefully
produce more yield on less land. This may increase the overall productivity and may offer
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developing countries a means to sustain themselves and reduce worldwide hunger. Ninety per
cent of the world's 13.3 million "biotech crop farmers" are from developing countries. India,
with 7.6 million hectares, is the fourth among the 14 "mega-biotech crop" countries. For
instance, five million farmers in India are engaged in planting 7.6 million hectares of Bt or
Bacillus thuringiensis, cotton, which protects itself from insects without requiring external
pesticide. The shift to Bt cotton has been possible because of the 31 per cent increase in its
yield, 39 per cent decrease in insecticide use, and higher profits equivalent to $250 per
hectare.

One remarkable example of biotechnology innovation is the production of genetically

modified (GM) crops aimed at insect and weed control that result in increased crop yields.

4.4 History:
Agriculture is considered one of the oldest activities practiced by humankind. In the
beginning, agriculture was manually practiced; later, primitive technologies based on the use
of the plow and the harrow allowed an increase in agricultural productivity. The Industrial
Revolution, which spanned from 1875 to 1885, enabled an accelerated economic
development that became strategic for the growth of countries (FAO, 2012), which in turn
triggered the migration of people from rural areas to industrialized cities. To increase
agricultural production and meet consumer and producer needs, the use of machinery on
farms was imperative, progressing through remarkable improvements. The introduction of
chemical fertilizers around the same period of time enabled crop protection against disease
and attainment of higher yields. One of the first chemicals employed was nitrogen based,
although its use was restricted due to high costs.

In 1960, a new movement changed farming: The Green Revolution, which is a term used for
the rapid increase in food production, especially in underdeveloped and developing nations,
via the introduction of high-yield crop varieties and the application of modern agricultural
techniques (FAO, 2004). The Green Revolution arose as the technological response to a
worldwide food shortage, which became threatening in the period after World War II. The
technologies developed during this period, which usually involve bioengineered seed that
worked in conjunction with chemical fertilizers and heavy irrigation, had a huge impact on
three main cereals (maize, wheat and rice). A particularly important finding was the
discovery how the biological molecule of DNA was responsible for inheritance. In the 1960s,
the genetic code was cracked, and subsequent studies began the transfer of genetic material
from one organism to another by genetic engineering techniques. The intersection between
genetic engineering and biotechnology was the main factor in the creation of genetically
modified organisms

4.5 Can biotechnology, bio-engineering and the increasing use of genetically

modified organisms help us deal with increasing food demands?
Despite the great biotechnological advances in agricultural production achieved over the past
50 years, the efforts to mitigate poverty and inequality have proven to be insufficient, mostly
in rural areas. Food safety is handled by different approaches in different regions and social
strata (FAO, 2012), and in fully developed countries, there still are people suffering from
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starvation and illnesses linked to it. Considering the advances in technology, hunger has been
translated into an avoidable harm that must not be forgotten.

4.6 How can biotechnology, bio-engineering and the increasing use of genetically
modified organisms help us deal with increasing food demands?
 In the long term, genetic engineering will also help to increase production of the most
valuable components of specific crops. Cassava and rice, for example, are the main sources
of: calories for millions of people

Genetic engineering can be used to modify the amino acid composition of plant proteins in
order to increase the nutritional value of these staple crops.

4.6.1 How can biotechnology:

Biotechnology can be used in many ways to achieve higher yields; for example by improving
flowering capacity and increasing photosynthesis or the intake of nutritive elements. Use of
biotech plants can produce more food on less land, by reducing the amount of crops lost to
disease and pests. It can reduce CO  emissions from the farming process, the amount of
2

pesticides used to produce foods, and in the future, the amount of water needed to grow
crops.

 In 2011, 16.7 million farmers grew biotechnology-developed crops on almost 400 million
acres in 29 countries, 19 of which were developing countries. Properly managed, such crops
have the potential to lower both pesticide use and tilling which erodes soil
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5 Principals of Fascism:
5.1 Fascism believed in dictatorship of one national leader:
The Fascists do not want to enter into any discussion regarding any theory. They change
themselves according to the needs and interests of the country and work accordingly.
Mussolini himself said, “We permit ourselves the luxury of being aristocrats and democrats,
conservatives and progressive, reactionaries and revolutionaries and legalitarions, according
to circumstances of time, place and environment”. That is why Sabine has said, “Fascism is a
body of ideas taken from different sources put together to fit exigencies of the situation”.

5.2 Fascism believed in dictatorship of one national leader and repudiated

democracy:
Mussolini said that democracy is not suitable for Italy. He had no belief in three main bases
of democracy, liberty, equality and fraternity. He declared that freedom is not the right of the
people; it is the kindness of the state. It depends upon the sweet will of the state whether to
give rights to the people or not.

The people should care more for the performance of their duties than for launching a struggle
for their rights. According to the Fascists, equality is useless, because nature has not made
everybody equal and, therefore, the capable and incapable people cannot be considered
equals. Mussolini had no faith in universal brotherhood.

Mussolini had a blind faith in dictatorship, because he believed that the Italians were not so
capable as to guide their leaders. But the need was that the national leaders should guide them
by performing their duties selflessly.

Mussolini imposed restrictions on all political parties except on his own Fascist party. He
controlled the press also. In this way, he stopped all criticism of the government. Mussolini
emphasised on three elements of dictatorship, i.e., responsibility, obedience to one leader and
discipline.

5.3 It is opposed to Individualism:

The Individualists believed that individual is an end and the state is a means to an end.
Contrary to this, Fascism says individual as a means and the state is end. The Fascists
believed that state is a Spiritual Organism. Therefore, according to them, the individual will
have the same place in the state as the organs in the body.

According to them the individuals cannot have any spiritual or moral life apart from the state.
Mussolini said that every individual should work for the welfare of nation without any selfish
motive and he should seek his interest in the interest of the nation.

A famous Fascist writer Rocco says, “We do not, however, accept a Bill of Rights which
tends to make individual superior to the state and empowers him to act in opposition to
society. Our concept of freedom is that the individual must be allowed to develop his
personality on behalf of the State.”
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5.4 Fascism believes in Totalitarian State:

According to Fascism, state has the right to control all spheres of the state. The state is
considered Supreme in social, economic and political fields. Mussolini’s interference and
leadership was seen in all walks of life. He established discipline in all the spheres economic,
administrative and educational. He said, “All within the state, nothing outside the state.”

5.5 It believes in violence, force and imperialism:

The Fascists believe that the solution of international disputes through peaceful means is not
possible. Therefore, they believe in violence and force. Mano Carli writes, “Fascism is from
war and in war it must find its outlet.” Mussolini was a firm believer in imperialism. He
conquered Ethiopia in order to enhance the power, reputation and prestige of his country.

5.6 Fascism opposes internationalism tooth and nail:

Mussolini had no faith in universal brotherhood. He said that no co-ordination was possible
in the interest of all the nations. That was why he gave up the membership of the League of
Nations and adopted the policy of military alliance and victory, as a result of this policy, the
Second World War broke out in which there was a heavy loss of men and material.

5.7 Fascism believes in the National State:

Fascism believed that sovereignty lay with the national state and not with the individual and
it had the right to utilise it without any restriction. The Fascists lay special emphasis on
patriotism and nationalism. They believed that war was essential for the enhancement of
nation’s prestige and power.

5.8 Fascists supported the corporate state:

The Fascists said that the state was not a collection of people but it consisted of many
corporations, which could be considered a unit of social and political life. That is why the
Fascists were in favour of forming a separate organisation of different professions.

However, they said that all of them should be under the state control and they should function
according to the will of the state. Joad is of the view, “Corporations should be subordinate
parts of the whole which is the state specialised channels through which the State’s will
is canalised and diffused for special purpose.”

5.9 Opposition of socialism and Communism:

The Fascists are bitter opponents of Socialism and Communism. They do not believe in
Marx’s materialistic interpretation, class struggle and the Theory of Surplus Value, on the
contrary, they say that the capitalists and the labourers should give up their selfish interests
and should work in the interest of the nation.

They are not in favour of the abolition of capitalism and private property completely, but
instead they want a system in which the profits of the capitalists are controlled, and the wages
of the workers are fixed by the state. The disputes between the capitalists and the labourers
should be decided by Industrial Courts
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5.10 New Economic System:

The Fascists neither liked the individualists’ contention that the state should not interfere in
the economic affairs of the individual nor believed in the socialist’s policy of the socialisation
of industries. They wanted to naiionali.se only a few important industries for the society. As
regards the rest, they allowed private ownership. In the larger interest of the country, they
wanted to control and regulate it. They said that neither the capitalists nor the workers would
be allowed to work against the national interest, because their interests were not above the
interests of the nation.
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6 Carbon sequestration:
carbon sequestration, the long-term storage of carbon in plants, soils, geologic formations,
and the ocean. Carbon sequestration occurs both naturally and as a result
of anthropogenic activities and typically refers to the storage of carbon that has the immediate
potential to become carbon dioxide gas. In response to growing concerns about climate
change resulting from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere,
considerable interest has been drawn to the possibility of increasing the rate of carbon
sequestration through changes in land use and forestry and also through geoengineering
techniques such as carbon capture and storage.

6.1 Carbon sources and carbon sinks:

Reservoirs that retain carbon and keep it from entering Earth’s atmosphere are known
as carbon sinks. For example, deforestation is a source of carbon emission into the
atmosphere, but forest regrowth is a form of carbon sequestration, with the forests themselves
serving as carbon sinks. Carbon is transferred naturally from the atmosphere to terrestrial
carbon sinks through photosynthesis; it may be stored in aboveground biomass as well as
in soils. Beyond the natural growth of plants, other terrestrial processes that sequester carbon
include growth of replacement vegetation on cleared land, land-management practices that
absorb carbon (see below Carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation), and increased
growth due to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and enhanced nitrogen deposition.
It is important to note that carbon sequestered in soils and aboveground vegetation could be
released again to the atmosphere through land-use or climatic changes. For
example, combustion (which is caused by fires) or decomposition (which results from
microbe activity) can cause the release of carbon stored in forests to the atmosphere. Both
processes join oxygen in the air with carbon stored in plant tissues to produce carbon dioxide
gas.

6.2 Carbon capture and storage

Some policy makers, engineers, and scientists seeking to mitigate global warming have
proposed new technologies of carbon sequestration. These technologies include
a geoengineering proposal called carbon capture and storage (CCS). In CCS processes,
carbon dioxide is first separated from other gases contained in industrial emissions. It is then
compressed and transported to a location that is isolated from the atmosphere for long-term
storage. Suitable storage locations might include geologic formations such as deep saline
formations (sedimentary rocks whose pore spaces are saturated with water containing high
concentrations of dissolved salts), depleted oil and gas reservoirs, or the deep ocean.
Although CCS typically refers to the capture of carbon dioxide directly at the source of
emission before it can be released into the atmosphere, it may also include techniques such as
the use of scrubbing towers and “artificial trees” to remove carbon dioxide from the
surrounding air