West-Ge-Cpdp-Esp51-001 Student Manual

SAFETY IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS
PARTICIPANT'S MANUAL
Company Details for Booking and Enquiries

West Group Treinamentos Industriais
Website: www.westgroup.com.br
Revision: 01
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COURSE PRESENTATION
The business philosophy of West Group Industrial Training Ltda can be synthesized
in the recognition of the value of people and in the ability to add new skills, aiming at
their development not only professional, but above all as an integral human being.
In this way, we are able to offer and develop solutions that meet the needs of
business consulting and training focusing on life preservation in its broadest sense,
contributing significantly to the achievement of our clients' business excellence goals.
This Participant Manual is applied to the training of professionals to carry out the
activities of installation, operation, maintenance and inspection in boilers, in a safe
way.
We believe that your achievement in this course is effective in coping with everyday
problems and can contribute effectively to your individual and professional growth.
Welcome!
West Group Training Industrial Ltda

Company Details For Booking and Inquiries
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED PHYSICS ..................................................... 6
1.1 PRESSURE ............................................................................................... 6
1.2 HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................... 12
1.3 THERMODYNAMICS .............................................................................. 15
1.4 FLUID MECHANICS ................................................................................ 19
CHAPTER 2 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY ............................................. 23
2.1 DENSITY.................................................................................................. 24
2.2 SOLUBILITY ............................................................................................ 26
2.3 DIFFUSION OF GASES AND VAPORS.................................................. 27
2.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACID AND BASE (ALKALIS) - DEFINITION

OF pH ............................................................................................................ 29
2.5 BASIC FOUNDATIONS ON CORROSION ............................................. 30
CHAPTER 3 - TOPICS ON INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT

AND RECORDS ....................................................................................................... 35
3.1 MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT .......................................................... 36
3.2 EQUIPMENT INSPECTION ..................................................................... 39
3.3 RECORDS ............................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 4 - BOILERS - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................... 50
4.1 TYPES OF BOILERS AND THEIR USES ............................................... 54
4.2 BOILER ACCESSORIES......................................................................... 67
4.3 BOILER INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL DEVICES ............................. 69
CHAPTER 5 - OPERATION OF BOILERS .............................................................. 82
5.1 STARTING AND STOPPING ................................................................... 84
5.2 REGULATION AND CONTROL .............................................................. 89
5.3 OPERATIONAL FAULTS, CAUSES AND PROVIDENCE ...................... 96

5.4 DAILY VARIOUS SCRIPT ....................................................................... 98
5.5 OPERATION OF A VARIOUS BOILER SYSTEM ................................... 98
5.6 PROCEDURES IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS..................................... 99
CHAPTER 6 - WATER TREATMENT .................................................................... 101
6.1 WATER IMPURITIES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ......................... 101
6.2 WATER TREATMENT ........................................................................... 105
6.3 BOILER WATER CONTROL ................................................................. 108
CHAPTER 7 - PREVENTION AGAINST EXPLOSION AND OTHER RISKS ........ 111
7.1 GENERAL RISK OF ACCIDENTS AND RISK TO HEALTH................. 112
7.2 EXPLOSION HAZARDS ........................................................................ 114
7.3 CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................... 121
CHAPTER 8 - LEGISLATION AND STANDARDIZATION .................................... 124
8.1 REGULATORY STANDARD 13 - NR-13............................................... 125
8.2 CATEGORIES OF BOILERS ................................................................. 127

SAFETY IN THE OPERATION OF
BOILERS
STUDY TIPS
2. The very slow reading favors that at the end of a

1. Read all titles. Be aware of content so that the paragraph, you have already forgotten the beginning
mind has a long view and reaches all content. of it and have to go back to review it. Those who
read well and quickly find time to read and make
their time to render.
4. Study without distraction. Look for a way to

3. The reading environment greatly influences appease the external noises, which hinders are
performance. It is preferable to read in a wide, airy, sporadic noises, different sounds, shouting type,
well lit and silent environment. In addition to the text beaten horn, etc. Study at night when there is
being read, it is important to have a good dictionary, silence, or, very early (Sunday morning is a great
pencil, and a pad of paper at hand. time).
5. Emphasize with intelligence. Underpinning is an

art that helps highlight key ideas, keywords, and 6. The growing mastery of vocabulary enriches our
important details. Those who underline with ability to understand and competes to increase
intelligence are constantly attentive to reading. reading speed.
7. Do not interrupt reading; the sequence of the text

will make clear the meaning of the word unknown; 8. Read and understand what you have read.
write down the unfamiliar word on a loose paper and Interact with the subject making it part of your day-to-
continue reading. At the end of a chapter, pick up the day life.
dictionary to clarify all words noted as unknown.
9. Do not complain about not having studied

yesterday. Start now. Never say "Monday I start";
10. Pronounce the words: "I am going to study two
pages", "I will master these rules now". Say it all with
firm words to yourself; a firm proposition for your
subconscious.
11. Too many repetitions help to fix. From so much 12. Give class to someone. Demonstrate a piece of
seeing you get used to the subject. Review matter the story to a colleague and the classmate
always; because at each review small unnoticed demonstrates part of the story to you. Studying as a
problems are solved and others are better fixed. team encourages when there is participation and one
helps the other not to give up and so the study can
go further.
14. Food is the energy of life, look for foods that

contain natural sugars (fruits); because the brain
feeds exclusively on sugar (try not to get stuffy and
13. Tired body assimilates less matter. That is why not to eat during your studies because it can mess
sleep is fundamental. up - you will waste time because concentration will
be divided between eating and reading use this
moment to look afar and breathe deeply).
All rights reserved. No part of this document can be reproduced, stored or introduced in a recovery system, or transmitted of any way, means (electronic, mechanic,
copied, recording or other), or purpose, without express permission, written, from West Group.
5
BOILERS
CHAPTER 1 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED PHYSICS
Physics is the science that studies the phenomena that exist in nature, such as
pressure, heat, corrosion, among others. In this way, to establish a measurement
parameter and studies we have the physical quantities, which numerically express
the occurrence of these phenomena.
Mathematics and Physics are sciences that have evolved over the years and
throughout history have changed our perception about the events of the world and
the universe. Until the seventeenth century the great thinkers of the world believed
that Planet Earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and other stars
gravitated around us. Nowadays we know that Planet Earth is gravitating around the
sun and that this is the center of our system. This theory that our planet gravitates
around the sun began with the publication of Copernicus's book "From the Revolution
of Celestial Spheres" in 1543.
This new concept has led thinkers like Galileo Galilei to describe new theories by
considering that Planet Earth was round, giving rise to many of the laws of physics
we know today.
But if Planet Earth is round and is always spinning how come we never fall off the
surface of the planet?
This is a question that echoed until Isaac Newton described the "Law of Universal
Gravitation" which, among other things, explains the attraction that the center of the
Earth exerts on all bodies. This attraction that the center of the Earth exerts on us is
called the Force of Gravity.
Isaac Newton's study changed the way he thought about the universe and gave rise
to countless other mathematical models, based on his teachings that would later
explain many other events, as well as the pressure, heat, and relationships between
them.
There are many concepts and thinkers that we will study in this chapter to
understand and learn about the universe of boilers.
1.1 PRESSURE
1.1.1 Atmospheric pressure
The concept of pressure arose from the need to understand what was beyond the
force of gravity here on planet Earth, with the Evangelical Evangelist Torricelli,
inspired by Galileo Galilei.
Let us understand step by step the experience of Torricelli, joining all the knowledge
described up to that moment.
The concept of pressure can be described by the following mathematical equation:

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Where:
P = Pressure
F = Normal Force to a surface
A = Area where the force is being applied.
The force of gravity was an initial impetus for understanding what would become the
concept of pressure. In the first experiment, Torricelli elaborated a hypothesis from a
glass tube containing mercury (whose specific gravity is greater than that of water) of
exactly 1 meter, wedged in a vessel.
Figure 1: Torricelli's experience
The fully filled tube, when it was concealed in the vessel, resulted in an empty space
at the top, which the scholar attributed to the vacuum. In repeating the experience
more and more times in Florence, Torricelli realized that the mercury column always
stood at a height of 76cm inside the 1 meter tube. His discovery on the relation
between pressure and vacuum was so important that in his honor the unit of measure
"torr" was created.
From this discovery, Blaise Pascal, another important thinker whose homage gave
rise to the main unit of pressure measurement, the unit used in the International
System, repeated the experience in different cities with different altitudes and
realized that the mercury column was smaller as measured that the altitude
increased.
That is, the pressure is lower at higher altitudes.

In continuing his study, Blaise Pascal experimented with different methods to prove
his theory and in describing it mathematically realized the pressure is a normal
component of the force applied on a surface.
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BOILERS
Figure 2: Normal Force always perpendicular to the surface where it is applied.
That is, a perpendicular force (angled at 90 °) to a surface therefore could be applied

in any direction and is capable of significantly altering the behavior of any fluid,
whether liquid or gaseous.
1.1.2 Manometric pressure and absolute pressure
Even knowing mathematically that the pressure could be applied in any direction
there were no measuring instruments capable of measuring the pressure in any
situation that was not perpendicular to the surface of the earth until Eugène Bourdon
invented the Bourdon tube.
Eugène Bourdon is the inventor of the most widely used and best known pressure
measuring instrument in the world, the manometer.
Figure 3: Pressure gauge.
The instrument was composed of a curved tube (made the letter C) open at the end
that is in contact with the fluid, prior to its study was steam, and at the other end
interconnected to a series of small gears (such as gears of a watch) and these gears
connected to a pointer.
As the pressure of the steam rose the tube made an effort to rectify itself, this effort
moved the small gears and consequently the pointer.
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BOILERS
Bourdon's invention allowed the measurement of pressure in closed reservoirs and
was especially interesting in his day as the world underwent an industrial revolution
whose steam was the main engine.
The instrument was able to show the internal pressure of an equipment when it was
greater than the atmospheric pressure. At this differential pressure we call Relative or
Manometric.
Figure 04: Bourdon tube inside a manometer.
The atmospheric pressure is the same inside and outside the equipment, no matter
where it is located. If a reservoir is located in the city of Santos / SP the pressure
inside and outside it is approximately 1 atm and is an absolute pressure. However, if
the equipment is installed in the city of Machu Picchu in Peru the absolute pressure
inside and outside the equipment will be about 0.6 atm.
Thus, the absolute pressure only changes with altitude, as Blaise Pascal has proved
through his study, whereas the relative pressure only considers the differential, which
is above the atmosphere.
If a boiler installed in Santos shows a pressure of 10 atm in its manometer, then it will
be subject to a pressure of 11 atm (10 atm gauge plus 1 atm absolute pressure). If
the same Boiler is installed in the city of Machu Picchu and its pressure gauge
indicates a pressure of 10 atm, then we know that it will be subject to a pressure of
10.6 atm.
To never forget:
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure

Manometric Pressure = Relative, differential.
For most processes the manometer that measures the relative pressure meets the
needs, for more critical processes where a reaction should occur to an exact
pressure are used manometers capable of measuring both absolute and differential
pressure, but are quite unusual .
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BOILERS
1.1.3 Internal pressure in boilers
Boilers are reservoirs intended for the production of steam at a pressure above
absolute pressure, ie at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, and where the
pressure is distributed throughout its internal surface.
Considering that pressure is a normal component of the force on a surface area note
the figure:
Figure 05: Distribution of forces in a circular section.
Note that each arrow (which we will call the force vector) points in a different
direction, distributing along the circular section equally.
Now let's look at the drawing below:
Figure 06: Distribution of forces in a flat section.
In this scheme it is possible to notice that the behavior of the force vectors (our
arrows) has changed! Now they are all pointing in the same direction. It can be said
that a there is an accumulation of forces in flat sections and the larger the area of the
flat section, the greater the accumulation of forces in that direction.
And how important is this knowledge to the boiler operator?
Any pressurized equipment having flat sections is subject to an accumulation of

forces in the same direction and therefore represents a greater risk.
Take note:
The safest place during a pressure test on a tubular fire boiler is on the side of the
cylindrical body. NEVER face the mirrors!
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BOILERS
1.1.4 Pressure units
The first unit of measurement known is the cubit quoted in several religious books
(The Christian Holy Bible, The Jewish Torah and The Islamic Koran) to tell the story
of Noah.
In history there is a quotation of the dimensions of the Ark used to save the animals
from the flood, the ark had 3 floors in a total of 30 cubits high, 50 cubits wide and 300
cubits long, that is, converting to the International System of Units of Measure would
be 13.5 meters high, 22.5 meters wide and 135 meters long, estimated by the
Russian mathematician Yakov Perelman, who established the size of 1 cubit in 45
cm.
Historically the units of measurement were anthropometric measurements, that is,

measurements of parts of the human body.
With the evolution of constructions of houses and machinery there was a need to
unify these measures, since the size of each human being is private and more
people became part of an integrated group where each could build a part, a piece or
a for a particular piece of equipment.
The first unification of known measures was based on the measures of the King,
Emperor, or Pharaoh of a region. Whenever royalty ascended the throne it was
necessary for all builders, tailors and inventors to arrange a meeting to take the new
basic measures.
This unit of measure was called the Imperial System, and as you can imagine it was
particular to each place.
But the population grows, kingdoms and empires increase in size and the king is not
always available to take new measures after days and days of travel on horseback or
on foot.
Here's the subway! The metro is a unit of measurement created by astronomers

Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Delambre and Pierre-François-Andrè Méchain, in an attempt
to unify units of measurement.
By establishing the correct distance of 1 meter, a platinum-iridium bar with the exact
size of the new unit was created so that everyone could access the measurement
(this bar is currently on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris).
The creation of units of measure followed its course, unifying the units of length, time
and mass. And, from these 3 main ones, the derivatives that we use in our day-to-
day life.
Examples:
Speed = unit of measure that derives from a distance from a time traveled: m / s; km
/ h, etc.
Weight = unit of measure deriving from a mass subject to a force: kgf, N, etc.
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BOILERS
Pressure = Unit of measure that relates a force applied to an area: kgf / cm²; Pa (Pa
is Pascal, the unit of measure whose name is a tribute to Blaise Pascal), bar, torr
(torr is the unit of measurement whose name comes from Torricelli, and is a tribute to
Evangelist Torricelli), etc.
The International System uses Pa and its multiples (kPa, MPa, etc.) as a unit of
measure for pressure, but not all countries in the world use the International System.
How do you know the actual pressure of an equipment when the manufacturer uses
a different measurement system than we are accustomed to?
The table below shows some of the major pressure measurement units used in the
world with their conversion rates.
Table 01: Measurement Conversion Table.
MULTIPLY THE VALUES BELOW FOR THE NUMBER YOU WISH TO

CONVERSION TABLE OF CONVERT.
PRESSURE UNITS
kPa bar kgf/cm² PSI
BELOW BY THE NUMBER
YOU WISH TO CONVERT
kPa 1 100 98,0665 6,895

DIVIDE THE VALUES
bar 0,01 1 0,980665 0,06895
kgf/cm² 0,0102 1,0197 1 0,07031
PSI 0,145 14,504 14,223 1
Example:
Suppose you want to convert 15 bar to the unit in kPa, in this case multiply the
number 15 per 100 = 1,500 kPa.
Suppose you want to convert the 32 PSI, used to calibrate your car tires in bar,
multiply 32 by 0.06895 = 2.2064 bar.
1.2 HEAT TRANSFER
1.2.1 General: what is heat, what is temperature
"Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature gradient". Heat is the transfer
of energy from one system to another, or over the same system and will be in transit
whenever there is a temperature difference.
The heat always flows from the "plus" to the "less", it will always be transferred from
the place where there is greater thermal energy to the place where there is less
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thermal energy. "Temperature is the measure of the average amount of kinetic
energy of the particles in a body or system."
All bodies and systems have particles that upon receiving heat (thermal energy)
agitate and as they stir (kinetic energy) promote temperature increase. Temperature
is a physical quantity that can be felt.
1.2.2 Heat Transfer Modes
Heat can be transmitted in 3 different ways: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

Conduction is the transmission of heat from one solid to another, or along the same
solid.
Convection is the transmission of heat from a fluid to a solid, or between 2 or more

fluids in contact.
In the two forms of transfer mentioned above it is necessary that there be contact,
between solids, between fluids or between solids and fluids. This contact is not
necessary in the transfer of heat by radiation.
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves and is the only form
of heat transfer capable of traversing the vacuum. It is the way the sun warms the
Earth's surface, or the way the microwave in our homes warms our food, or the way
the fire heats everything around it.
Boilers use the 3 forms of heat transfer.
Figure 07: Heat transfer modes. Radiation, Convection, Conduction;
In the figure there is an example of the 3 forms of heat transfer. The fire heats the
pan through the radiation, the pan warms the water through the convection, and the
pan heats the cable through the conduction.
In the boilers the same phenomena happen. Fire heats the furnace plating by
radiation, the hot gases from the combustion heat the tubes by convection. The tubes
heat the water by convection. And while all this happens, the boiler's own material
transfers heat by conduction over itself and to the components and instruments that
are in direct contact with the boiler.
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BOILERS
1.2.3 Specific heat, sensible heat and latent heat
We can divide the heat in 3 different ways: Sensitive Heat, Latent Heat and Specific
Heat.
By definition, "Specific Heat is the amount of energy required to raise one gram of
water at 1 ° C" and is called specific because it is different for each material and fluid
in the universe, and commands the energy required to raise and lower the
temperature of a particular body or fluid and its phase transformations and is usually
expressed in kJ / kg.
Figure 08: Sensitive heat and latent heat diagram of water.
Boiling point and melting point.
In the graph which shows the temperature as a function of time - T ° C (t) of water, it
can be noted that from 0 ° C to 100 ° C the temperature rises, varying over time. This
variation is called sensible heat. At 0 ° C the temperature is stabilized for a time until
it begins to vary. The same occurs at 100ºC. We know that the melting point of the
water is at 0 ° C and the boiling point is at 100 ° C, the phase transformation at these
two points is called latent heat.
During the phase of sensible heat and latent heat it is necessary to supply or
withdraw energy so that there is a change of temperature or phase, any increase or
decrease of the rate of energy supplied can lead to changes of greater or lesser
speed.
Let's simplify thinking: It is known that the boiling point of water is 100 ° C, at sea
level. When it reaches the saturation temperature the water begins to transform into
vapor with the temperature maintained. This temperature will only change when the
water is fully vaporized. If we add more energy the temperature will not change,
always continuing at 100ºC until its transformation is complete, but the speed at
which the process occurs will be greater. The opposite is also true, by decreasing the
power supply the speed of the transformation process will be lower.
1.2.4 Heat transfer at constant temperature
The heat transfer at the constant temperature is nothing more than the latent heat
phase. As seen earlier is the state transformation phase of a fluid.
At this stage the fluid is absorbing or donating thermal energy continuously, no longer
to change temperature, but to change state.
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BOILERS
For a heat transfer to take place at a constant temperature, the losses generated in a
system must be absorbed in a reversible manner, ie they can not be dissipated
outside the system where it was generated.
1.3 THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that studies the relationship between heat,

temperature and pressure in one or more systems. The word term comes from the
Greek (thermos) and means "hot", "ardent" therefore means heat. The dynamic word,
which also comes from the Greek (dunamokós) refers to the movement. In this way,
thermodynamics is the science that studies the interactions and movement of thermal
energy and is governed by two main laws.
1.3.1 Concepts
1st Law of Thermodynamics: "Principle of Energy Conservation"

The energy put into a system must remain in it.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics: "The entropy quantity of any single system tends to
increase over time until it reaches a maximum value."
Establishing the conditions under which thermodynamic transformations should

occur.
To understand the concepts brought about by the first and second laws of
thermodynamics it is necessary to know some basic principles.
Enthalpy = the maximum energy of a system that can be extracted in the form of
thermal energy.
Entropy = determines the degree of irreversibility of a system.
Exergy = useful energy.
The enthalpy is the maximum energy that a fluid is able to absorb and donate in a
system where it is subjected to the variation of thermal energy. The entropy is the
losses calculated in each phase, each transformation and that are not reversible, that
is, they will not return to the fluid. Exergy is the useful energy resulting from the
maximum with calculated losses.
When we supply energy to the water, it is heating up and at a given temperature it

begins to turn into steam. When it turns into steam absorbs the thermal energy
donated to it (enthalpy), but not all the energy of the system goes to the water, a part
of this energy will be lost, dissipated (entropy), calculating the energy that was
actually used by the water and the losses of the system will have a real energy
contained in it (exergy).
By the first law of thermodynamics all energy placed in a system should remain
within this system, ie, the energy that enters must be the same energy that comes
out. The same mass of water entering the system should equal the mass of water
15
BOILERS
that returns. So that a mounted system where the boiler that generates steam from a
mass X of water, should receive the same mass X in the condensate return, without
needing to be supplied. The thermal energy expended in the mass X water must
return in the form of thermal energy, or kinetic, in the same magnitude X.
In a perfect cycle the pump adds energy only to the water that will enter the boiler, in
an ideal Compression that we will call Adiabatic. The Boiler supplies thermal energy
only to water, transforming it into steam, and this process will be called Isothermal
Expansion. In a state of vapor it passes through the turbine transforming all its
energy into movement, resulting in an ideal work that we will call Adiabatic
Expansion. When leaving the turbine the steam passes through a condenser
delivering all its heat, to return to the liquid state, in an Isothermal Compression.
The cycle described above is an ideal cycle where there are no losses and was
proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot.
Figure 09: Ideal cycle proposed by Carnot.
Heat input, Turbine, Boiler, Pump, Condenser, Work input, Heat output, Job output;
Adiabatic Compression, Isothermal Expansion, Adiabatic Expansion, and Isothermal Compression.
In Carnot's ideal cycle there are no losses, so there is no generation of entropy and
there is no!
In the real cycle there is generation of entropy at all stages of the process and heat
dissipates into the vicinity of the system.
Suppose your wife, or mother, is cooking a nice family lunch. She turns on the oven
and waits for its interior to be at the correct temperature to bake a chicken. The heat
produced by the oven bakes the chicken, heats the baking sheet, heats the oven
itself and even the kitchen. In an ideal cycle without losses all this heat would be
absorbed only by the chicken. Or at least it would return to the chicken once the oven
was turned off, but that's not how things work, is it?
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BOILERS
Figure 10: While the man bakes the birds the heat also dissipates throughout the kitchen.
In boilers, the heat supplied by the fuel turns the water into steam and also heats the
boiler material itself and the boiler room. When leaving the boiler the steam heats the
pipeline and so on generating entropy in all phases of this cycle until these losses are
maximum.
At this point, counting on the losses, somewhere near this system the temperature of
the neighborhood and the system will be in equilibrium.
1.3.2 Saturated steam and superheated steam
Considering all that has been learned so far we will now combine all the concepts
and knowledge acquired up to this point.
Imagine that by adding pressure the latent heat-point of the water will change, and
that the sensible heat will remain longer. That water instead of turning into steam at
100 ° C becomes steam only upon reaching the temperature of 150 ° C. For that is
exactly what the Boiler does! By adding pressure, the boiler is capable of producing
steam at temperatures much greater than the 100 ° C our stove is capable of
producing.
In the annex of this booklet there are two important thermodynamic tables of
saturated steam and the heated steam table.
Note how much pressure is capable of modifying the latent heat point. At 1000 kPa
the water turns into steam at 179,88 ° C (remember that conversion of 1,000 kPa
results in 10 bar).
Look at the last line of the saturated steam table and realize that the maximum
pressure to be used in a boiler can not exceed 22,000 kPa (220bar). This is the point
of maximum criticality and at this saturation point the temperature is 373.71.
But how is it possible for the turbine of a thermoelectric to use steam at temperatures
above 500 ° C if the boiler is capable of producing it at most at about 373 ° C?
If you thought: "Superheated Steam" thought of the correct answer! But what is
superheated steam?
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BOILERS
When it turns into steam the water exits the point of latent heat and returns to a point
of sensible heat and may raise temperature again if we reheat it.
The great difference between saturated steam and superheated steam is that by
supplying heat to the steam it will lose the amount of moisture it contains. Saturated
Vapor can contain up to 2% moisture when leaving the boiler, the superheated has
its moisture tending to zero and so is also called Super Dry Steam!
The production of superheated steam is more expensive, therefore it is more used for
the production of electrical energy, but can be used for refrigeration and
transportation.
The superheated steam is produced by reheating, so the design of this type of boiler
is differentiated. To produce the steam with these characteristics, a superheater is
usually used, which consists of a "W" tube, connected to the boiler, which passes
through the furnace for reheating. In this type of special design the steels used are
the best quality and the most resistant and the care with the device are much higher.
Saturated steam can be used for baking, drying and heating processes.
In oil platforms the use of saturated steam is intended for heating to decrease the
viscosity of the oils aiding in their ascent to the surface.
In 2006, Petrobras announced the discovery of signs of oil in an area that stretches
from the State of Santa Catarina to the State of Espírito Santo on the Brazilian coast,
starting prospecting in 2008. The pre-salt receives this name due to its location at
about 5500 meters below the surface of the sea water under a bed of salt.
The formation of petroleum and its derivatives in the Brazilian coast comes from
sedimentary organic matter (mircro-organisms), subject to the pressure and absence
of oxygen and it is believed that its formation refers to about 140 to 60 million years
ago.
Figure 11: Schematic drawing of the oil location in the pre-salt.

ocean, post-salt layer, salt layer, pre-salt layer, sea surface level.
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After its formation, the oil remains contained in a "Rock Reservoir". Petroleum is a
mixture of gases, liquids and solids with a coloration ranging from green, brown and
black and can be classified according to the number of hydrocarbons present, or
according to the density of the product. The latter that considers density is a
classification proposed by the API - American Petroleum Institute and is widely
accepted both in Brazil and in other countries in the world.
The deeper layers contain the "heavier" oils, almost solids, bituminous products
difficult to extract, which is why saturated steam is used.
To make it possible to extract the medium, heavy and extra-heavy oils, it is
necessary to heat them. For this purpose, two perforations are made in the reservoir
rocks: one for extraction and one for injecting the steam that will promote the heating.
The extraction probe is directly connected to a process of storage and refining. The
heating probe is connected to the process that produces steam (the boilers).
Figure 12: Oil Platform.
The steam, when entering the injector probe, exchanges heat with the oils, changing
their properties and allowing them to flow out of the reservoir rock.
1.4 FLUID MECHANICS
The mechanics of fluids are divided into two different sciences: Hydrostatics and
Hydrodynamics.
Hydrostatics is the science that studies the behavior of fluids when static.
Hydrodynamics is the science that studies the behavior of moving fluids.
1.4.1 Fundamental concepts
To understand the behavior of fluids it is necessary to know some fundamental

concepts: Viscosity, Compressibility and Flow.
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Compressibility can be described as the ability to deform and decrease the volume of
a fluid in response to the application of a pressure.
Water is taken as an incompressible fluid, while the gases are regarded as

compressible fluids.
In some bibliographical references it is possible to find the information of the water

possessing the property of up to 3% of compressibility, this is due to the fact that
water has dissolved gases in its composition, therefore the compressibility is not in
the water but in the gases dissolved in it.
Water to become steam increases from 6 to 8 times its volume. This new volume can
be compressed by adding pressure to it. In a boiler the mass of steam and water are
confined, the water, incompressible by nature occupies the largest space and the
compressed steam forms an upper blade.
When compressed, the steam absorbs energy and is ready to flow at a speed
through the vapor outlet.
Another important concept is the viscosity which can be described as the resistance
of a fluid to the flow. For a fluid to flow it must undergo shear forces between its
layers.
The particles of the fluids are distributed in layers like styrofoam pellets in a sealed
glass box. When opening one side of the styrofoam box, from the bottom up, the
Styrofoam balls begin to slide one under another towards the opening of the box, that
slip between layers of styrofoam balls called shear. In the case of the glass box
styrofoam balls are undergoing shear forces from the atmospheric pressure itself that
push the balls down towards the exit.
The viscosity of the fluid is closely related to the rate at which it is able to flow from a
reservoir, or even along a line or pipeline.
The flow velocity of a fluid in a given section is a component of the flow.
The flow can be described as a function of volume for a given time, V (t), or as a
function of mass by time, M (t).
The capacity of a boiler is usually expressed as a function of the mass flow for a
given time, examples: 10 kilos of steam per hour (10kg / h), or 50 tons of steam per
hour (50ton / h).
To increase the flow of oil out of the reservoir rock it is necessary to decrease its
viscosity by promoting heat and increasing the shear force by increasing the
pressure in the reservoir which will push the oil and its derivatives towards the
extraction probe.
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1.4.2 Flow pressure
Every time we apply pressure to a line or pipe, we increase the flow rate at that point
by increasing the shear forces. When the shear forces are applied continuously and
evenly the fluid responds with a type of flow that we will call laminar. The laminar flow
is a continuous and organized flow.
Figure 13: Laminar (a) and turbulent (b) flow.
When the shear forces are abruptly applied the fluid responds with a turbulent flow.
The turbulent flow is a disorganized and usually noisy flow.
Figure 14: Example of installation that tends to increase the pressure drop.
The more turbulent a flow, the greater the loss of charge in the flow. The concept of
charge loss refers to the loss of kinetic energy of the particles of the fluid during a
flow.
1.4.3 Gas flow
As the charge loss increases, the energy contained in the fluid decreases. The load
loss can be promoted by several factors, among them the most common are: The
roughness of the tubes, presence of valves, curves and bottlenecks.
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Whenever a flow becomes turbulent the average of the kinetic energy contained in
the fluid decreases, resulting in loss of velocity and decrease of the pressure of the
fluid in that given section.
When the vapor loses pressure it tends to return to the liquid state, so the fluid with
dew point particles becomes a mixture of saturated and condensed vapor.
To reduce the pressure drop the probes are usually made of tubes whose roughness
follows a high quality standard such as small tolerance limits. The minimum possible
valves are arranged along the line and there are no curves along the route.
For use on oil rigs the title of steam is extremely important. We call the degree of
moisture the vapor may contain. The distance between the unit that produces steam
and the place where it will actually be used is very large, about 5.5 km and the
vicinity of the probe very cold, so it is common for the produced steam to reach its
destination with reduced quality.
In order to do this, the operator must pay attention to the heating curve rules of the
boiler and the injection probe and to the required pressure inside the boiler to ensure
that the steam has the desired quality and title upon reaching the reservoir rock.
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CHAPTER 2 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Chemistry, by definition, is the science that studies the properties of matter in its
complex composition and organization, as well as the changes undergone by the
action of chemical reactions and their connection with energy in general. Today,
modern chemistry has been focusing more and more on the study of elementary
particles and their interactions.
The idea of elementary particles was first proposed by Democritus, a Greek

philosopher who lived in the 5th century BC. Democritus believed that everything was
composed of tiny, indivisible, immutable particles, moving freely in empty spaces and
that when they collide, some with the others, formed different bonds giving rise to the
various different bodies that exist.
And what are we, if not the result of the union of many particles arranged in different
arrangements?
Your ideas would be valued in the future, many centuries later, and would explain all
the interactions we know today.
Advances in chemistry have come at a slow pace, unlike advances in Physics,

Mathematics, Classical Mechanics, and all the sciences and concepts we have
studied up to this point.
It would be only from the end of the 16th century that chemistry would be recognized
as an experimental science. New theories about the idea of elementary particles
began to arise giving rise to the notion of chemical elements, their interactions,
connections and the phenomena produced by their existence.
Until the nineteenth century only about 50 different elements had been discovered (of
the 118 confirmed today) and so far no one knew how to organize them. It was then
that in 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev published the first
periodic table with arranged elements arranged in an organized way listing the
elements in a row or column. Mendeleev's table was special in relation to the others
published so far, since the chemist assumed that there were elements that had not
yet been discovered, leaving vague space for their entry into the future, and the
organization of the table followed a different line of reasoning with the elements
grouped by families and with the atomic numbers in ascending order.
Mendeleev's organization is of such importance that we use it exactly as it has been

proposed to date. For its contribution, the chemical element of atomic number 101
takes its name, "Mendelevio", in a homage.
The very premise that there were missing elements led scientists to conduct
experiments to accelerate their discovery. And there were many times when the new
discoveries shone.
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There was the discovery of Radio (used in radiotherapy of cancer patients), which
gave Marie Curie a Nobel Prize in 1911. The discovery of Penicillin (to treat Syphilis),
which yielded Alexander Flemming the Nobel Prize in 1945 and from from which new
antibiotics have been discovered and synthesized.
Figure 15: The atomic element Radio (Nobel of 1911) and Penicillin (Nobel of 195).
The important science born through the need to understand the behavior of gases
and combustion, is part of our day-to-day and is associated with everything we know.
2.1 DENSITY
Density, by definition is the relationship between the volume and the specific mass of
each fluid. Fluid density is closely related to his behavior and interacts with all
concepts in the previous chapter.
We call specific mass, because just like specific heat, the specific mass is particular
to each fluid.
Figure 16: Bodies of different densities behave differently when placed in containers with water.
Density determines how fluids and bodies interact with each other. Fluids and lower-
density bodies tend to move upward, while fluids with higher density tend to move
naturally downward. The natural movement of these fluids is closely related to the
concept of convection.
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The density of a fluid can be modified with the supply of heat.
Example:
1 liter of water has a mass of 1kg. When heating this mass of 1 kg of water,
vaporizing it has a volume of 6 to 8 times greater. In this case the density changed
because the ratio of volume and specific mass changed with the addition of heat.
In a boiler the fluids, water and steam are confined and subject to the variation of
density caused by the supply of thermal energy.
Water and steam, with different densities, divide the same space. The water in the
lower part and the vapor in the upper part, moved only by the natural convection that
the presence of thermal energy from the fire can generate.
Convection is commanded by increasing and decreasing the density of fluids. In the

furnace of a boiler the density of the hot gases from the combustion promotes a
natural convection and forces its exit through the chimney.
Figure 17: Refrigerated air flowing down.
It is for this reason that air conditioning is always installed near the ceiling of the
rooms and the heaters near the floor. Air density, hot or cold, determines which
particles will naturally move upward and which will naturally move downward.
Curiosity:
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit the southeastern coast of the United States causing
about 1,800 deaths and more than $ 2 billion in injury. One of the largest hurricanes
ever recorded with overwhelming winds of over 280 km / h. From time to time you
hear a hurricane alert and you may be wondering why do such cyclones always
happen in the same places?
Hurricanes, also called Tropical Cyclones, are the result of the natural convection of
winds in areas where there is a low atmospheric pressure with a higher temperature
than its surroundings.
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As the winds warm and cool, their density changes, promoting movement
(convection) in closed circulation.
Heat and humidity are the staple foods for the formation and maintenance of
cyclones that intensify as the differential density of the winds increases.
2.2 SOLUBILITY
The concept of solubility can be defined as the maximum amount that a substance
(we call a solute) can dissolve in a solvent.
Solubility is related to the polarity of the solvent and polarity, in turn, is related to the
electronegativity of an element or molecule.
Each chemical element has one or more negatively charged electrons (e⁻). In order
for there to be equilibrium, each layer, in theory, must have a correct number of
electrons, being:
First layer: 2 e⁻, 2nd layer: 8 e⁻, 3rd layer: 18 e⁻, 4th layer: 32 e⁻, 5th layer: 32 e⁻, 6th
layer: 18 e⁻ and the 7th layer: 2 e⁻.
Figure 18: Schematic drawing of the electron layers.
The molecules are formed by bonds (ionic or covalent) between different elements
and the number of electrons in each layer of each element is directly related to the
type and stability of the bond that will form with the next.
In covalent bonds atoms divide one or more electron pairs from their last layer.
In ionic bonds, negative charges from electrons are related to the positive charge
contained in the nuclei of the atoms. The nucleus of the atoms has positively charged
protons, and neutrons, which are neither positively charged nor negative, are
therefore neutral.
Figure 19: Basic structure of an atom with its nucleus containing protons and neutrons and their electron layers.
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Facilitating thinking:
Atoms have positive charges (protons), neutrons (neutrons), and negatives

(electrons). The mass of an atom is related to the number of protons and neutrons it
has. And the atomic number related only to the number of protons it has. The atomic
number determines the number of electron and electron layers in each layer. Thus,
the hydrogen of atomic number: 1, must have 1 electron. Oxygen of atomic number 8
must have 8 electrons.
The polarity, in general, is related to the difference in electronegativity resulting from

these ionic or covalent bonds. The higher the polarity, the higher the reactivity and,
therefore, the greater the solubility. Apolar substances are not soluble. Solubility also
depends on concentration.
The concept of concentration is defined by the ratio of the amount of a substance to

the volume of the mixture of which it forms part. When the concentration of solute in
a solvent is sufficient for the solvent to react with the total amount of solute we call
the saturated solution mixture. When the solute concentration exceeds the maximum
amount that the solvent is capable of dissolving, we call the unsaturated solution
mixture.
Solubility may also be altered to the delivery or withdrawal of heat from a mixture.
When the solubility of a mixture increases with the heat supply we call it endothermic
dissolution. When the solubility of a mixture decreases with the heat supply we call it
exothermic dissolution.
Exothermic dissolution is the common behavior of all gases. As we provide more
heat to the gases their solubility decreases. In contrast, when we increase the
pressure the solubility of the gases increases.
When we heat the water in the liquid state a phenomenon of bubble formation
precedes the vaporization of the water, this is because as the water heats up the
gases, which were previously dissolved in them, have their solubility diminished and
begin to fall. As the gas density is lower than that of water it is possible to perceive
the natural movement of the bubbles upwards, exploding when they reach the
surface.
Steam and water have different behaviors when supplying and withdrawing heat.
2.3 DIFFUSION OF GASES AND VAPORS
Diffusion is the transport phenomenon characterized by a natural movement of the

gases through other means.
The diffusivity, diffusion capacity, can be increased or decreased with the action of
external forces.
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Whenever there is a concentration gradient between two or more substances a
particle flow will be produced, ie when there is a concentration difference between
two sections a natural movement will occur, aiming to promote balance between the
two sections due to the difference of chemical potential between substances. This
chemical potential is a form of potential energy that can be absorbed or released
during a chemical reaction.
Figure 20: Chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions can be either endothermic or exothermic. The chemical reactions

where thermal energy is released, causing rise in temperature, we call exothermic.
The chemical reactions where thermal energy is absorbed, causing a decrease in
temperature, we call endothermic.
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction, since the oxidation of a fuel releases

heat energy, raising the temperature around it.
Another way of thinking about diffusion and chemical reactions is the difference in
concentration or density between different fluids. Lower density fluids will move more
easily through lower density fluids. The same occurs in fluids of different
concentrations.
Diffusion, like the second law of thermodynamics, dictates the rules, direction, and
speed with which a chemical reaction or reaction will occur.
In a boiler the diffusion can be observed when opening the steam outlet valve. When
leaving the boiler, outdoors, the steam begins to condense. At this point you can
observe the formation of a white cloud of water condensing into very small droplets
and suspended. This cloud begins to move and spread over a large area. This
movement is the diffusion, caused by the difference of density and temperature
between the fluids.
In addition to the movement of water vapor and hot combustion gases the diffusion
also becomes important for the treatment of boiler water, which is done through
many chemical reactions between substances with the aim of making the water as
close to the ideal for use.
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2.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACID AND BASE (ALKALIS) - DEFINITION OF pH
PH is a dimensionless value (no unit of measure) that determines the acidity or

basicity of a solution.
Figure 21: pH scale with practical examples.

Gastric juice, tomato juice, human blood, commercial bleach;
Acid, neutral and basic;
Substances with pH less than 7 are considered acidic, substances with a pH greater
than 7 are considered basic and substances with pH of exactly 7 are considered
neutral. Pure water has pH closer to the neutral.
Many elements are capable of raising or lowering the pH of a substance or medium.

The presence of CO2, for example, decreases the pH, making the acid medium, as
well as the presence of nitrogen and sulfur molecules (in their oxidized form) that are
mainly responsible for the phenomenon of acid rain. That is why it is important to
control emissions of pollutants in our atmosphere. We can also mention the alkalis as
cooking salt and calcium carbonate, responsible for raising the pH, making the media
more basic.
We will see more about these substances in Chapter 6 of this booklet, and their use
in water treatment.
In boilers, in order to avoid corrosion, water with a higher, more basic pH (alkaline) is
used.
As we know the water has about 3% of its volume of dissolved gases in it, among
them the oxygen. Oxygen is an extremely reactive chemical element, since it is easy
to form compounds with the most diverse substances and materials. Oxygen has the
second highest electronegativity of all chemical elements which facilitates its
chemical reactions with other elements through firm bonds.
In addition to being the third most abundant element in nature, it is also the most
common element in substances in their natural state and reacts more easily in
environments with high temperatures and pressures and especially in acidic
environments.
In boilers, the temperature and pressure will always be high, but the acidity can be
controlled.
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2.5 BASIC FOUNDATIONS ON CORROSION
Corrosion in general terms is the oxidation of a substance. And it occurs naturally.
The steels of which the boilers, pressure vessels and other equipment of the industry
are manufactured are mainly composed of iron and carbon.
The production of steels is a metallurgical process that begins with the obtaining of
iron ore. Brazil has one of the largest iron ore deposits in the world.
Iron ore is nothing more than iron in its natural form, that is, oxidized. The most
common forms of iron ore in the world's main deposits are magnetite and hematite,
containing about 70% metallic material and 30% oxygen.
Table 02: Chemical Composition and Percentage of Iron of the main Iron Ores.
Chemical
Ore % of iron % of Oxygen
formula
Magnetita Fe3O4 69 31
Hematite Fe2O3 70 30
The metallurgical process consists of heating the iron ore, in an environment and
controlled process, for the extraction of the oxygen of the molecule and substitution
by Carbon. For this, in or- derers, the ores are heated at temperatures above 900 ° C
and during heating the carbon is supplied. Thus, at high temperatures, the Iron reacts
with Carbon, releasing from the Oxygen and forming the molecule: Fe3C, as shown
in the reaction below.
3 Fe 2 O 3 + 3 C → 2 Fe 3 C + 4.5 O 2
Unfortunately, because of the entropy generated in the process, CO and CO2 are
also generated as the main pollutants after the process, so the steel industry is
considered as one of the most polluting industries.
In addition to iron and carbon in different percentages, the addition of molybdenum,
chromium, manganese, silicon and nickel is also common, giving different
characteristics to steels.
Oxidation, also called corrosion, is the natural process, contrary to steelmaking,

where oxygen forms bonds with the iron present in the material, since it has greater
affinity with it, and causes changes in the behavior of the steels, making them more
fragile and reducing their mechanical resistance.
Corrosion can occur in various ways when exposing the material to media containing
moisture, oxygen, and hydrogen.
Corrosion can be described as to the type (mechanism) and the shape (geometry) of
the material, as it takes place over time, it may be more or less deep and may not
always be visible to the naked eye.
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Uniform Corrosion:
The uniform corrosion is one in which the attack is homogeneous throughout the
surface of the material, causing loss of uniform thickness throughout the entire area
and is superficially present.
Figure 22: Uniform Corrosion.
Alveolar Corrosion:
The alveolar corrosion has the image of small bubbles (holes) where the surface
diameter is greater than its depth, are common in cases of corrosion by aeration.
Figure 23: Alveolar Corrosion.
Corrosion by plates:
Corrosion by the formation of plaques, of corrosion products, which are released

from the material.
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Figure 24: Corrosion by plates.
Corrosion by pites:
Pitting corrosion, other than alveolar corrosion, is corrosion where the formation of
"holes" has a smaller surface diameter and greater depth.
Figure 25: Corrosion by Pites.
Intergranular Corrosion:
The intergranular corrosion is the corrosion that occurs in the crystalline structure of
the material, among the grains that compose it. This type of corrosion is observable
only through the microscope. To do so, its evaluation must be performed by
removing a section of the material (cut), or when there is no possibility of cutting,
through Metallographic Replication Test.
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Figure 26: Intergranular Corrosion.
Filiform Corrosion:
Filiform corrosion occurs through small cracks that spread through the material,
forming a tangle of pathways.
Figure 28: Filifome Corrosion.
Galvanic corrosion:
Galvanic corrosion is the result of the formation of an electric layer, promoted by the
humidity itself, on the surface of the material forming cathodic and anodic areas.
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The presence of ions, common in atmospheric and water moisture, reacts with the
material causing oxidation by exchange between the cations of the material and the
causative agent of corrosion.
Corrosion by differential concentration or corrosion by pile effect:
The corrosion by differential concentration occurs the causative schedule and the
material presents difference of concentration of ions and when there are differences
in the concentration of oxygen that cause a gradient and consequent corrosion.
Corrosion prevention is one of the biggest challenges in the industry, for which many
treatments are available.
In boilers the major hazards are located in the furnace and heat exchange tubes and
are due to the high temperature and pressure in the boiler.
In the inner part of the boiler (moist part) the prevention of corrosion by water
treatment.
In the part subject to the flame, corrosion usually comes from the very moisture
generated in the burning of the fuel.
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CHAPTER 3 - TOPICS ON INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
AND RECORDS
There are 5 pillars that guarantee the safety of an equipment: Design, installation,
maintenance, operation and inspection and are all on a basis of Legislation and
Standardization.
The most common international standards on which the five pillars are based are the
American Society of Mechanical Engineerig (ASME) and the NB (National Board).
ASME is a non-profit organization comprised of engineers with expertise in a wide

range of areas and was founded in 1880 to promote knowledge and safety in
pressurized equipment, preserving life and avoiding accidents. ASME is accepted in
over 140 countries worldwide and has more than 100,000 members.
The NB was created in 1919 focusing on the same interests as safety and life
preservation and regulates and verifies if ASME guidelines for construction,
installation, maintenance, inspection and operation of pressurized equipment are
being followed.
Both aim to research new technologies, materials and methods that ensure that an
equipment has a long life without risk.
With the industrial revolution from 1760 the use of machines revolutionized the
manufacturing processes. Prior to industrialization, the process of manufacturing
objects, utensils and obtaining the raw material itself was entirely manual and
handmade.
Figure 29: Craftsmen of Ancient Egypt producing decorative objects.
With the industrial process, the use of machinery and the implantation of lines and
manufacturing processes, the craftsmen began to give way to large industries.
Rapid industrial growth has brought about an improvement in the quality of life for the
population, with unbridled growth, the prices of objects and utensils have become
accessible, but it has also brought many safety problems. There were no labor laws
and the concept of job security was nowhere near becoming what it is today.
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"We only think when confronted with a problem" was the premise of John Dewey, a
philosopher of the early twentieth century. In general Dewey brought a concept that
problems only come into being when we think about them. The fact is that the
industrial revolution brought miracles to the modern economy and a disaster for the
quality of life of the proletariat.
The working hours were long, the pay for the worker's efforts was low, and there was
no certainty that the worker would return to his home at the end of his journey, there
were no guarantees.
Many machines exploded, workers routinely lost their lives everywhere and steam
use was fashionable. And it was only after a huge accident in the United States that
the world began to look more closely at the pressurized equipment.
The first publication containing guidelines for manufacturing boilers and pressure
vessels was in 1915 and its acceptance was fast growing. ASME currently contains
numerous sections on Design, Materials, Methods of Construction and Analysis,
Inspection and Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing and how to conduct them.
There are thousands and thousands of pages for the purpose of guaranteeing safety
in Boilers, Pressure Vessels, Nuclear Reactors, Pipes, storage tanks, etc.
Until 1921, even if it owned the material produced by ASME, each state and country
had its own rules for pressurized equipment. A boiler that was built in the State of
California rarely met the prerequisites of the State of New York, the Caldera
designed in New York did not meet the Massachusetts rules, and so on, so there was
a need to create a regulatory body, to all states and the great majority of countries
that the rules of construction of ASME were followed. Given the need to make the
equipment accepted for Installation and Operation anywhere, NB was created.
The NB is the body that ensures that a certain equipment was built following all the
rules proposed by ASME.
In order for a manufacturer to receive the NB stamping, it is necessary to send the

equipment design, containing material samples, quality certificate, calculation
memory, drawing, test records and methods used for involved in each stage of the
manufacturing process. The NB stamp is a guarantee of safety and quality.
On maritime platforms, Estampo NB is a requirement, since platforms and ships
come from different countries around the world. All equipment maintenance and
inspections follow the ASME guidelines and the NR-13 relies on it.
In numerous sections of the NR-13 you will find the expression "backed by current
codes and standards" which refer, among other standards, to ASME.
3.1 MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
The life of most pressurized equipment is estimated to be at least 25 years old at the
time of manufacture.
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What guarantees that such equipment will have durability equal to or greater than the
proposed 25 years is precisely the next 4 pillars: Installation, Maintenance, Operation
and Inspection.
Figure 30: Maintenance.
For an equipment to operate satisfactorily it must be well installed and has been
subjected to quality maintenance.
There are 3 types of Maintenance: corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance

and predictive maintenance.
Corrective Maintenance is maintenance that performs an intervention on the

equipment after a failure.
Preventive Maintenance is maintenance that performs an intervention on the

equipment before a failure occurs, based on the estimated lifetime calculations of a
component or material.
Predictive Maintenance is the maintenance that performs an intervention in the

equipment in a punctual way, based on data and inspections collected in the field.
This is the maintenance we call "just-in-time", which means "just in time" and follows
a concept of 'ZERO BREAK', created from the 70's.
Until the 1940s maintenance occurred on occasion, that is, a breakdown and a
mandatory stop for the repair of that component occurred.
With economic growth and rapid industrialization, driven by two major world wars,
there was a need to change that consciousness.
Every time a production line for all the raw material and unfinished products that line
contains are lost and this results in a major financial loss.
Faced with a time of economic crisis experienced by the world between the first world
war, the fall of the New York Stock Exchange and the Second World War, followed
by the Cold War, the need for availability of cheap and available products has
increased. And this has boosted the thinking shift in relation to maintenance.
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In the 1940s the way the world thought about maintenance suffered its first great
revolution. So that the lines did not stop more, so that products and raw materials
were not lost the companies began to carry out periodic preventive maintenance. A
general maintenance shutdown was scheduled and all life components close to that
date were replaced. There was a great sense of organization to avoid flaws. But the
economy is always growing and changing the way industries relate to each other and
to their customers. And then, a new consciousness began to gain space from the
70's, bringing the concept of Reliability and Availability.
There are a number of ways to understand and relate to maintenance, and the world
has already produced a number of articles and methods that help a factory or
process to extract the best from production through quality standards, procedures
and seals such as ISO (International Standardization Organization) ). When a
company receives the ISO seal the quality assurance of its production is attested.
The concept of zero break is an extremely interesting and widespread concept, but
not everything needs to follow a concept where failures cease to exist.
Example:
If a lamp in the boiler room burns the exchange of the same does not require the
production stop, it does not represent any cost higher than the cost of the lamp itself
and there is no need to hire a specialized team for its exchange, so there is no need
to to move an engineer to carry out an extensive and careful study about the useful
life of this lamp, testing it and carrying out periodic tests. In this case the lamp would
cost a lot more than it actually needs, so corrective maintenance fits perfectly. Each
component and each equipment can be subjected to the 3 types of maintenance.
Boilers typically undergo annual preventive maintenance, which coincides with
Inspections, some of its components can receive predictive maintenance and some
corrective maintenance.
In general, preventive maintenance is aimed at cleaning the equipment, changing

valve gaskets, sealing gaskets from pressurized and hot parts, ie any material that
can not be replaced quickly and simply.
Predictive maintenance is dedicated to power pumps (motor and rotor), electrical

panel and other electrical and electronic components.
Corrective maintenance can occur in cold parts or maintenance that does not pose a
serious and imminent risk or that can be isolated without causing inconvenience.
The care in the maintenance in boilers is directed to the choice of the materials to be
replaced. There are specific choices for each pressure range and temperature range.
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Figure 31: Steam leakage.
3.2 EQUIPMENT INSPECTION
Inspections performed by qualified professionals are comprised of Exams and Tests

that ensure that the prospect's useful life of the project date is maintained and that
Maintenance and Operation are within the guidelines proposed by the equipment
manufacturer. In addition, the professional also verifies the design conditions and
installation of the equipment and is in accordance with ASME guidelines, or any
current agency or norm on which it is based.
According to NR-13, each boiler must be inspected during its manufacturing phase
before being put into operation at its final installation site periodically to ensure that it
is in satisfactory operating condition and extraordinary when undergoing
maintenance with welding or boring or for any type of intervention that may affect its
useful life.
During the manufacturing phase, to receive NB stamping, an engineer accredited by

a competent body (PG-91) shall inspect and test each part subject to pressure and
high temperatures, verifying that construction methods are in accordance with ASME
guidelines , participate in and witness the pressure tests necessary to establish the
PMTA (Maximum Permissible Work Pressure) and verify the certificates of quality of
materials and methods as well as accreditation of the professionals involved in each
stage of the work
At the end of the first steps the Certified Professional must proceed with the
mandatory Hydrostatic Test.
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BOILERS
Figure 32: Voltage Relief Diagram during TH.
The Hydrostatic Test should follow the following recommendations:
A. Be made exclusively with water at room temperature, never lower than 20 ° C.

B. The test pressure should be raised gradually by at least 1.5 times the PMTA (PG-
99.1 ASME I - Ed. 2007).
C. The temperature of the tested material must not exceed 50 ° C.
During the first hydrostatic, manufacturing test, no visual leak testing is required
(PG-99.1), the purpose of this test is to relieve stresses on material and welds.
All tests and inspections required during the manufacturing process must be
documented and are the responsibility of the manufacturer. If passed in all tests the
boiler will continue to its final location of installation.
Curiosity:
It is not obligatory for a boiler to have ASME or NB stamping to operate in a particular

country or region, provided that the equipment complies with the rules established in
that place. Although it does not receive the stamp, boilers in Brazil undergo rigorous
tests and tests before being put into operation and this is precisely the function of the
NR-13.
Some boilers are already assembled from the manufacturer, in trucks, others whose
project has many kilometers of area, are usually assembled and welded already in
their definitive place of installation. In the second case, the manufacturer is
responsible for the assembly and may perform it or indicate a certified company that
complies with the prerequisites required to guarantee the quality of that equipment.
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BOILERS
When installed in its final installation site the boiler becomes the responsibility of the
Employer, so the Initial Inspection of the Equipment is the responsibility of the factory
where it was installed.
Curiosity:
Many manufacturers submit their equipment to a welding radiography. These

radiographs can be in 100% of welds or less, but are not mandatory. The ASME
code predicts that X-rays will not always be performed on all weld beads, so it
provides coefficients for the calculation ranging from 0.7 to 1 margin of error.
If an equipment does not have any type of welding radiography the coefficient to be
used will be 0.7. If an equipment presents 100% radiography of the weld beads, the
coefficient to be used will be 1, since any number multiplied by 1 will result in it.
The Initial Inspection of a Chaldean shall comprise Internal and External Exams and
a Sealing Test, as required by NR-13 in item: 13.4.4.2.
Normally the Enabled Professional proceeds with Internal and External Visual
Testing, making mandatory photographic record of each step of the process, The
Visual Tests have as objective the verification:
A. General conditions of the equipment;

B. If the equipment is built according to the accompanying documentation (drawings
and data for monitoring the service life);
C. If there was any damage to the equipment during assembly or transportation;
D. If there are signs of corrosion or any indication of leakage and / or signal that the
equipment may present problems;
E. Verification of safety devices and other instruments necessary for the safe
operation of the equipment.
Figure 33: Corrosion detected in Visual Assay.
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BOILERS
At this stage, as well as in periodic and extraordinary inspections, it is common for
the Engineer to perform the Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement Test to verify the
nominal thickness of the equipment material and to compare with the calculations
and documents sent by the manufacturer.
Figure 34: Thickness gauge.
In the test the Engineer will use the instrument dedicated to the measurement of
thickness, as shown in figure 3.2. For the performance of the test it is necessary to
use a coupling which may be grease or aqueous gel.
During the Initial Safety Inspection, a chemical cleaning may also be necessary to
eliminate corrosive processes that may compromise the operation of the boiler and /
or grease residues and oils used during the manufacturing phase of the equipment,
or even for its protection during transport or assembly and installation at its final
location.
More details of this type of cleaning will be presented in Chapter 6.
After all the initial checks the qualified professional will proceed with the Sealing Test.
The Sealing Test is a hydraulic test whose premises are similar to the Hydrostatic
Test of Manufacturing and it follows the following routine:
A. The water used in the tightness test should be at room temperature, at least 20 °
C.
B. The pressure used for this test may be below the Hydrostatic Test pressure affixed
to the equipment nameplate by the manufacturer, usually the pressure of the pump
itself or the PMTA is used.
C. At this stage the engineer must perform a visual test for leaks (different from the
initial TH), especially in the mirrors and sections welded or bored.
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BOILERS
All such tests shall ensure that the equipment will respond satisfactorily to its normal
working conditions and without any inconvenience.
Verification of Safety Devices and instruments required for safe operation also
follows criteria established by ASME, such as:
The pressure gauge or instrument shall be graduated not less than 1.5 times the
PMTA and shall be of sufficient size to monitor the gradual rise in pressure during
testing and normal operation, usually double the PMTA. It is also necessary for the
pressure gauge to have the same unit of pressure used on the nameplate of the
equipment and in the process for which it is intended. It is common in cases where
the equipment and the process have different units of measure that the manometer
has two different scales, arranged one on the other.
The Safety Valve shall have sufficient capacity to eliminate excess steam without
allowing overpressure greater than 6% of the PMTA of the boiler where it is installed
(PG-67.2). In boilers with a thermal exchange surface greater than 47m², there must
be 2 or more safety valves (PG-67.1), which guarantee the total flow without
hammering.
Figure 36: Safety valve.
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BOILERS
Level displays shall be so designed and arranged that the operator can easily see
them.
Figure 37: Level display.
The initial inspection also includes tests and initial tests on alarms, feeding devices,
interlocking systems, water supply accessory systems for solid fuel boilers, gas leak
detection system in gaseous fuel boilers, etc.
At the end of the inspection, the Engineer must open the "Safety Record Book" of the
equipment and make its first note. And produce the Security Inspection Report within
90 days.
The boiler is now ready to operate and be operated by a qualified professional as

required by the NR-13.
Throughout the life of the boiler, it will undergo periodic inspections up to its 25 years,
when the inspection should be more rigorous.
Periodic inspections in boilers will follow the same premises of the Initial Inspection,
with Internal and External Visual Test, Sealing Test and may include more tests at
the discretion of the Responsible Engineer, according to ASME V, dedicated to non-
destructive tests.
Among the most usual non-destructive tests are the Penetrant Test.
Penetrant is an assay that aims to detect discontinuities such as cracks, porosities

and laminations in a material. It is widely used in sections subjected to atlas
temperatures and pressure.
The scope of Penetrating Liquid performance is specified in ASME V, T-600.
In general, the accomplishment of an LP follows the following summarized scope:
A. Preparation of the surface to be tested which must be clean and free of dirt and
dry. The suitable temperature for the test, proposed by ASME, is set between 10 ° C
and 52 ° C.
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BOILERS
B. Application of step # 1 consisting of a red liquid. Covering all tested surface.
C. Application of a solvent-based remover that will remove any excess red pigment
from the surface tested.
D. Application of a white developer that will reveal the flaws in the material.
Figura 38: Ensaio de Líquido Penetrante em um Flange.
The test is very common in mirrors and furnaces of boiler furnaces, weld strands of
water walls in aquatubular boilers and their joints to the lower collectors. All these
sections are subject to pressure and high temperature.
There are other essays, not less important but less commonplace. Among them we
can mention the test by Magnetic Particle and the Metallographic Replication Test.
In general, the Magnetic Particle (PM) test is an assay designed to detect

discontinuities and presence of cavitations in welds. It is usually used in water-
submerged materials that could not be tested with Penetrant, but can be used on dry
surfaces as well.
Figure 39: Schematic drawing of a Magnetic Particle Test from the National Board.
The metallographic rehearsal test is an essay that aims to define the type of material
with which the boiler was built and its general conditions. It is usually used when it is
necessary to reconstruct a medical record or when there are indications of conditions
that alter the microstructure of the material, such as carbon creep and other
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BOILERS
mechanical and thermal stresses that may cause changes not visible to the naked
eye.
Figure 40: Blade Observed in Microscope containing intergranular corrosion.
Of all the tests described above the most common non-destructive tests are the
Sealing Test, Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement and the Penetrant Test in Boilers
during their periodic inspection.
The other tests are normally dedicated to the integrity inspection when the equipment
completes 25 years of use and when it is necessary to carry out maintenance with
welding or boring and in this case, subjecting the equipment to an extraordinary
inspection.
Extraordinary Inspections will occur whenever the equipment is subjected to

maintenance with welding, boring or modifications that may alter its original design
conditions, as well as its useful life, accidents or major incidents.
3.3 RECORDS
In general, each boiler must have at least one chart with a set of constructive
drawings and other data for monitoring the useful life, inspection reports and a safety
log book. For equipment that has undergone maintenance with welding or boring, or
even the original design has been modified, a PAR (change and repair design) and
records of the extraordinary inspection to which it was subjected after maintenance
will also be required.
The medical record of the equipment is composed of:
A. A cover and / or cover sheet containing all data on the equipment nameplate and
design data.
B. Set of drawings and specifications necessary for monitoring and maintenance of

said equipment.
C. Minimum thicknesses required of the materials used by the manufacturer, for

operation at design pressure and sometimes the nominal thickness thereof.
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BOILERS
D. Set of certificates of quality of the materials, tests carried out, qualification of the
professionals involved in each phase of the design and manufacture.
E. Details of safety devices and calibration certificates for the manufacturing phase.
F. Calculation memory and descriptive of the manufacturing methods used.
G. Records and documents relating to the inspections, tests and tests carried out
during manufacture.
H. Hydrostatic Testing of Manufacturing.
Without a medical record the equipment can not be operated because there will be
no references and parameters safe for safe operation.
In addition to the medical records, the equipment must have all the inspection reports
that have been submitted throughout its useful life, from the initial inspection.
Inspection Reports provide information on the actual and actual conditions of the
boiler.
The inspection reports shall contain, as well as in the medical record, the data on the
equipment nameplate as well as the design data necessary to compare the data
obtained during the inspection with the original data.
During the periodic safety inspection, tests and tests (already described above) will
be carried out in order to determine the life of the equipment against its routine
requests. It is the responsibility of the engineer, through the data collected on his
inspection, to determine if the routine operation is within the parameters determined
by the manufacturer and if the safety rules are being followed.
If necessary, direct both the employer and the operators and indicate new
procedures.
During the validity of that inspection the engineer who executed it is responsible for
the equipment.
Contrary to what thoughts Hydrostatic Testing is not a mandatory test during periodic
safety inspections and should be replaced by other non-destructive tests.
To know:
The Hydrostatic Test, although very widespread, is intended only for the
manufacturing phase and after maintenance with welding or boring in pressurized
equipment and should NEVER be performed in pressure above the pressure
proposed on the nameplate of the equipment.
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BOILERS
The hydrostatic test, although mandatory at the manufacturing stage, is regarded as
a destructive test, since it causes mechanical stress in the equipment and should not
be performed randomly.
Periodic safety inspections in boilers follow a simple rule, proposed by NR-13, item:
13.4.4.4
1. Annually for establishments that do not have Own Equipment Inspection Service
(SPIE).
2. 15 months for alkali recovery boilers.
3. 24 months for A-type boilers whose safety valves have been tested for opening at
12 months.
Establishments that have SPIE will follow different rules as to the terms of inspection,
but are very unusual, due to the need to maintain a team totally focused and
exclusive for this purpose.
All documents cited above must be available to the team responsible for work safety,
CIPA and especially to the operators directly involved with working with boilers.
At the end of the inspection the engineer will make a note in the safety record book of
the equipment in question.
The Safety Record Book, according to NR-13 cites in item: 13.4.1.9 shall contain all
records of inspections and all occurrences that may affect the life of said equipment.
Figure 41: ATA Book, intended for "Boiler Safety Register".
The book of security records should be of numbered pages or computerized system

that does not allow, in any way, its violation. Examples of important notes that the
book should contain are:
A. Inspections (Initial, Periodic and Extraordinary)

B. Occurrence of Incidents related to or related to the Equipment in question.
C. Maintenance (whether welding or boring or not)
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BOILERS
D. Unusual occurrences (valves giving passage, safety valves opening before or
after the set-point mentioned in the calibration certificate, suspicion of leakage, bore
in pipes and lines, corrosion, chimney thermometers indicating temperature different
from the temperature of proposed by the manufacturer, etc.).
E. Faults in electrical / electronic components.
F. "Delay" or failure in automatic responses.
G. Results of water treatment.
H. Modifications, modifications, for which the boiler has been submitted over the
years, etc.
The book of safety records is a transcript of boiler behavior over the years.
All of the above documents must be available in the factory or process of which the
boiler is an integral part and must be continued with the equipment if it is sold to
another factory or kept in a safe place when the equipment is eventually disposed of.
If the boiler becomes unsuitable for use, before it is scrapped, it should receive a
formal closure, to be recorded in the Safety Record Book.
All the mentioned documentation becomes part of the boiler medical record and will
be consulted by engineers, operators, work safety and even by the Ministry of Labor
over the years and can not be destroyed. It is the duty of the employer to keep it
available and, also, safe.
If the documentation of a boiler is lost, the employer must take care to have it
reconstituted. To this end, the authorized professional responsible for this work must
reproduce a calculation and as-built design of the equipment, in this case it is
common to perform a Metallographic Replication Test to detect the material with
which it was built.
In addition to all the mentioned documents, it is necessary that the boiler has a
manual, in Portuguese, with starting and stopping procedures and procedures in
case of emergency. Most manuals come with an electrical schematic and the
indicative of what materials and elements to buy when necessary to make repairs
and replacements in equipment. Whenever operating parameters and guidelines are
modified, the manual should be updated, as should the boiler chart.
It is the duty of the operator to read the manual supplied by the manufacturer before
operating a boiler!
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BOILERS
CHAPTER 4 - BOILERS - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
NR-13 defines Boilers as: "Equipment for producing and accumulating steam under
atmospheric pressure using any source of energy, designed in accordance with
relevant codes, except for boilers and the like."
Historically the first experience with steam of which it is known in respect refers to
Heron of Alexandria its creation, to Eolípila. It can be said that the experiment, which
consisted of a sphere fixed by two axes (one on each side), mounted in a vessel
intended for burning coal, was very valuable in showing that the steam was capable
of generating movement, that is to say was able to do work, but we still did not know
how to use it.
It was only known that by adding heat (thermal energy) to water in the liquid state it
vaporized and that the vapor contained a large amount of thermal energy in it and so
was able to perform work.
Figure 42: Eolipilus of Heron.
By deepening the study of heat properties and adding pressure, Denis Papin, in
1679, created the first equipment capable of raising the saturation pressure of water
above known 100 ° C at sea level. The equipment consists of a cylinder containing a
small hand opening for feeding the fuel (essentially coal). Inside the first cylinder
there is another cylinder, which is fed with water, and this is closed by a cap with a
bolt. In this cover is located a rod and at the tip of this rod can place a counterweight.
The pressure can be increased or decreased within the cylinder with water according
to the weight of the chosen balance.
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BOILERS
Figure 43: Papin's Ketchup.
Well, knowing that the energy contained in the steam is capable of working and that
the pressure is capable of changing the saturation point of water, Thomas Savery
created the first steam-driven machine to remove water from flooded mines in 1698.
Figure 44: Steam Saver by Thomas Savery.
And how did this great invention work?
Thomas Savery's steam engine consisted of an axle connected to a cylinder at one

end of a swinging beam fastened in the middle to the masonry structure. At the other
end of the beam a duct. The operation of the machine is fascinating! The figure
shows a masonry kiln used for heating the water from the cylinder just above it.
When the water vaporizes inside it the swinging beam hangs over the water side of
the mine and the duct plunges. Far from the heat coming from the combustion of
heat in the furnace the water condenses forming a vacuum condition in the cylinder
which sucks the water from inside the mine and pulls the swinging beam back to its
initial position.
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Curiosity:
Water in liquid form occupies a space (volume) of 6 to 8 times less than steam.
Savery's invention was very grandiose and allowed many flooded coal mines to
return to activity, but the greatest invention of the era was yet to come.
The steam engine of James Watt!
The first machine capable of using steam to move wheels! In 1769, nearly 100 years
after the invention of Denis Papin, James Watt applied for the patent for his
equipment.
The Equipment consisted of a steam generator connected to a shaft system with a

piston (somewhat more rudimentary than the ones we have in our cars nowadays).
Figure 45: Piston.
The piston head is located inside a cylinder and performs a linear motion (forward
and backward). The other end of the piston is attached to an axle which is connected
to the wheel. As the piston head is fixed in its body through a small bearing the piston
is able to transform linear motion into a turning motion.
This invention of James Watt would in the following years be the greatest driver of
the Industrial Revolution. And from it the whole world would move faster and more
safely.
James's machine is the precursor to the steam locomotive.
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BOILERS
Figure 46: Steam Engine by James Watt.
After this invention steam became popular, being used in locomotives, ships and
even cars and motorbikes were built with steam engines! The invention was a
success!
Curiosity:
Amidst so many inventions using steam an American named Sylvester H. Roper

produced the first steamed motorcycle. Sure that his invention would be a total
success he challenged champions cyclists of the season in a race where he would
debut his invention. And it was a surprise! The American has managed to reach the
incredible speed of 48 km / h! After finishing the first lap of the race, excited, Rope
began to start a second lap in order to reach a new mark! And he was injured! Falling
dead on the runway. Everyone thought he had died in the crash, but Rope's autopsy
revealed later that the accident was actually caused by a heart attack suffered by the
inventor.
It is believed that Rope infatuated with so much enthusiasm and happiness to realize
that his invention was really fabulous!
Nowadays steam is widely used in all industries in its Saturated and Superheated
form.
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BOILERS
Figure 47: Uses of Steam in Industry.

Steam: Saturated and superheated; Power generation, refrigeration, transportation and compressors; Heating, cooking
and drying;
4.1 TYPES OF BOILERS AND THEIR USES
There are essentially 4 types of boilers: Fogotubular (or flamotubular), Aquatubular,

Mixed and Electric. Any manufacturer wishing to build boilers should follow national
and international design and construction codes.
The most widely accepted codes are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) and the NB (National Board).
ASME and NB are non-profit organizations, composed of various engineers from all
specialties dedicated to the development of research on materials construction and
maintenance methods, publications, regulations, conferences to promote safety and
technology applied to Boilers and Vessels of Pressure.
Both provide guidelines for Construction, Installation, Maintenance, Inspection and

Operation of these equipment and are widely accepted in many countries around the
world.
The most accepted and known is the ASME.
In this section of the course we will talk a lot about Sections I (guidelines for the
design and construction of boilers) and Section II (list of materials tested and
available for the construction of pressurized equipment).
All material destined to the construction of pressurized equipment must have its
known characteristics, both in terms of composition and resistance.
According to paragraph PG-6 of Section I of ASME, all materials used for the
construction of any part of a boiler that is subject to pressure, whether or not subject
to the flame, or products of combustion, shall have their quality certified according to
with the following specifications:
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BOILERS
Table 03: Material quality specifications according to ASME.
MATERIAL Designation
SA-202 Alloy steel, chrome, manganese and silicon
SA-204-405 Molybdenum steel alloy
SA-240-405 Alloy steel (ferritic stainless) and chrome
SA-285 Low and medium tensile strength carbon steel
SA-299 Carbon steel, manganese and silicon
SA-302 Alloy steel, molybdenum-manganese and manganese-molybdenum-nickel.
SA-387 Alloy steel, chrome-molybdenum
SA-515 Carbon steel for medium and high temperature
SA-516 Carbon steel for moderate and low temperatures
SA/AS 1548 Steel for pressurized equipment
SA/EM 10028-2 Steel for the production of flat sections subject to pressure
SA/JIS G3118 Carbon steel for medium temperature.
For a material to be part of this list it must undergo a series of examinations and
tests. Among them, the most important are Metallography, and the Tensile Strength
Test.
Metallography allows the internal structure of the steel to be known. A sample of the
material is sent to a laboratory, in the laboratory the material receives a preparation
with sanding and polishing techniques so that its surface is free of which materials
(organic and / or inorganic) which are are essentially of the material. Next, a chemical
attack is applied which will reveal the microstructure of the material and leave it ready
for viewing under the microscope.
Metallography can be quantitative or qualitative. The quantitative analysis allows the

identification of an alloy and the method of processing a material. It is also possible
to identify the percentage of each constituent phase of the steel, as well as the
percentage of carbon and the size of the grains of the sample. The qualitative
analysis allows us to know the material by its structure, mainly by its constituents. In
alloy steels for use in pressurized equipment the main constituents to be observed
are: Ferrite, Austenite, Martensite.
• Ferrite is a low carbon steel, therefore it will exhibit a brittle behavior, low tensile
strength and does not respond well to heat setting treatments.
• Austenite is a highly ductile steel, therefore it has good tensile strength and
responds well to heat treatments of hardening and good resistance to corrosion and
high temperatures, SA-302 steel, listed in the table above, is part of this group.
• Martensite is hardened steel after tempering heat treatment of austenitic steel.
Tempering gives the steel a harder surface, which depends on the carbon content of
the original steel. Tempering is a process of heating the steel followed by rapid
cooling.
Still in the field of materials science it is necessary to understand what the carbon
content is capable of influencing the behavior of a steel:
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BOILERS
• Low carbon steels (containing less than 0.2% carbon)
• Medium carbon steels (containing between 0.2 and 0.5% carbon)
• High carbon steels (containing more than 0,5% carbon)
The carbon content in a steel tells you everything you need to know about your
behavior in a stressful situation.
The higher the carbon content, the greater its tensile strength (ductility), the higher its
hardness and the lower its resistance to the Charpy impact test, which determines
the amount of energy that steel is able to absorb before it fractures .
Now that we know the steels it becomes necessary to know the Traction Resistance
Test.
For this test a specimen with cylindrical section and threaded ends is manufactured
as required by ASME.
Figure 48: Traction Test

Load cell, strain gauge, test body and movable beam..
The test body is threaded two dashes, one upper and one lower. The top is fixed and
the bottom is movable. When the test begins the lower end begins to move
downward, causing a tensile stress on the test body. A strain gauge connected to a
computer begins to describe a test diagram on the screen.
The diagram shows the behavior of the steel tested when receiving the stress of
stretching and describes the following curves:
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BOILERS
Figure 49: Behavior of steel during the Traction Test.

Limit of creep, zone of creep, elastic zone, plastic zone and elastic-plastic zone;
There are 3 zones of deformation:
• Elastic zone: In this phase the steel lengthens, but does not damage its
microstructure. If the test is aborted at this time the steel returns to its original
condition.
• Elastic-Plastic Zone: In this phase of the test the steel begins to absorb energy for
rupture, the crystalline structure begins to change and the grains reorganize to
continue resisting the applied stress. At this stage the rate of stretching decreases
tending to zero.
• Plastic Zone: At this stage the deformation of the lens is completely irreversible it is
possible to observe a new rate of elongation. This time the material suffers a
decrease in the thickness of its cylindrical section (thinning) that allows this last
elongation rate that precedes its rupture.
Figure 50: Test Bodies before and after thinning, test body before the tensile test, test body after the tensile test;
All data on all materials known and tested are in Section II of ASME. ASME also
provides guidelines for the fabrication and forming of steel if a manufacturer wishes
to provide material for the construction of pressurized equipment
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BOILERS
4.1.1 Ogotubular (or flamotubular) boilers
The boiler is the most common design used in industry, and can be classified into:
Horizontal (the most common) and Vertical.
Usually this type of equipment consists of a cylindrical body, mirrors (front and rear or
upper and lower), furnace and bundles of thermal exchange tubes.
In this type of equipment the flame and the hot gases from the combustion run
through the inner parts of the tubes (dry parts) and the water stays inside the body
between the mirrors, covering the whole bundle of thermal exchange tubes.
Usually the tubes that make up the beam are rolled and soldered longitudinally. Each
of these tubes is fixed to the front and rear mirrors by welding or boring, forming a
spool of water sits inside the body between the mirrors, covering the entire bundle of
heat exchange tubes.
Boiler furnaces may be built in masonry (very old designs) or in the form of a pipe or
internal combustion area, at the bottom of the equipment.
In the figures below are boilers. Left the boiler closed, ready to go. On the right the
open boiler where a collaborator performs the mechanical cleaning of the exchange
tubes ends for the removal of fumes and soot from the combustion. Both boilers in
the figures burn gas and are of the Scottish type.
Figure 51: Fogotubular boilers open for maintenance.
The Scottish Sea Boilers are the most used in oil platforms because they have a
small size (which allows their installation in marine containers), are economical and
easy to install.
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BOILERS
Figure 52: Maritime boiler.
These equipments are divided in two classifications: "Wet-Back" and "Dry-Back"

(literally: dry bottom). Wet-back are designs where the bottom pipe (furnace) is
surrounded by water, other than dry-back, whose furnace bottom is open to the soot
box in the rear mirror.
Can also be divided by number of passes:
1 Pass: Hot combustion gases pass through the furnace once and exit through the
chimney on the opposite side to the burner.
2 Passes: Hot combustion gases pass through the furnace, make a reversal in the
reversing box (or soot box) and return through the tube bundle closest to the furnace.
3 Passes: Hot gases pass through the furnace, make a first reversal in the back box
by returning through the tube bundle closest to the furnace. They make another
reversal in the front box by gaining the next bundle of tubes now located just above
the furnace.
4 Passes: Hot gases go through the furnace, make the first reversion in the back box,
return through the first bundle of tubes, make a new reversal in the front box, gaining
the tube bundle above the furnace, make a new reversion in the back box, gaining
the last and more tube bundle;
Figure 53: Passes in a fogotube boiler.
In wet-back boilers the hot combustion gases make the first reversal inside the
furnace and return to the front box. In the Scottish Sea Boiler project the front and
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BOILERS
back covers are sealed with refractory suitable for high temperatures and sealing
straps to prevent heat from dissipating out of the Boiler and also for steel protection.
The steels used, despite their high resistance to heat and pressure, are designed to
withstand temperatures not exceeding 600ºC, otherwise there may be carbon creep
that will make the steel brittle and therefore inefficient.
Wet gasket seals in a boiler should receive special attention and be suitable for the
use of steam, otherwise leakage will occur and the sealing of the equipment will be
impaired.
Due to its method of construction the boilers have a maximum design limit for the
production of steam at 25 ton / h at an operating pressure of about 21 kgf / cm², it is
necessary that the materials needed for this type of project must have thickness
making its construction prohibitive, therefore for greater needs the use of
Aquatubular Boilers is indicated.
4.1.2 Aquatubber boilers
Aquatubular boilers are those where water and water vapor circulate inside the pipes.
They are usually applied to plants that generate electricity as an exclusive activity or
in some part of their process, such as Thermoelectric Plants, Alcohol and Sugar
Plants and Pulp and Paper Plants.
They consist of risers, downcomers Tubulão (or tubulões) superior (es), tubes
collectors and a furnace.
Risers are the risers where the water almost at saturation point rises to become
steam in the upper pipe. Downcomers are descending, in these tubes the condensed
water descends to the lower collectors.
The Upper Tubulão (or upper pipes) is the soul of the boiler. In it are pressurized
water at saturation point and vapor (usually 2/3 filled with 1/3 liquid water with
steam).
The furnace of this type of boiler is usually constructed of masonry and a wall of
pipes subject to hot gases from combustion.
Aquatubber boilers may be of natural convection or positive circulation. In natural

convection boilers as the collector water heats up in saturation point its density
decreases with the formation of microbubbles and this causes the fluid to move
upward naturally. In positive circulation boilers circulation pumps are installed
between the water inlet and the upper pipe. This type of application serves to control
the rate of vaporization and to protect the tube wall of the furnace.
Aquatubular boilers usually result from a special and customized design for each
plant and application, however there are currently manufacturers which make
compact and economical aquatubular boilers for medium and low pressures.
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4.1.3 Electric boilers
There are two types of electric boilers: those that heat the water by means of
resistances and those that heat the water by means of electrodes.
Curiosity:
Electrical Energy in Brazil had a slower and more tortuous path than in some
countries of the world. Until the mid-1960s the electricity produced was low. Most
homes did not have electrical / electronic appliances and the largest consumption
was made by industries. With the creation of Eletrobrás in 1961 (proposed by Getúlio
Vargas and sanctioned by Jânio Quadros), he started working on projects to create
Power Generation Plants and improvements in transmission and distribution, which
gave a great impulse to a new wave of industrialization and heated the economy.
In fact the supply of electric power was so great that the government offered
incentives to the industries to consume it. It is valid to say that the electric energy
generated can not be reserved, or stored. Either the electrical energy is used or it is
lost (there are already researchers dedicated to new possibilities of use and storage
of electricity, but there is nothing concrete yet to be used in large scale).
With the new government incentive and electricity at very low prices many investors
decided to purchase Electric Boilers in Brazil, but its use did not last long. Already in
the decade of 80 and 90 the cost of the use of the electrical energy made the use of
Electric Boilers unavailable. Add to this the growing need for steam to increase the
production of consumer goods and others and make clearer the reasons why this
type of boiler has fallen into disuse.
The Electric Resistance Boilers follow a working principle quite similar to the electric
shower of our houses. In this type of boiler the heat is generated by the passage of
an electric current in resistors in special wirings that are submerged in the water.
In the showers at home the temperature control element is the flow that we choose
when opening the register, in electric boilers the volume of water is fixed and
therefore the flow also then the temperature controlling element is the Current
Controller.
This type of boiler is usually used to produce medium pressure in small volumes of
water soon, its steam production capacity is low.
In the second type of Electric Boiler, that of electrodes, there is a current controller
connected to an electrode. In this type of equipment the current is in direct contact
with the water that converts electrical energy into thermal energy.
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BOILERS
Figure 54: Schematic drawing of an electric boiler. Electric cubicle, main valve, electrode, steam, cubicle, tank,
metering pump, circulation pumps, pump panel, sewer, water level, drain, water, water feed pumps and return to the
water tank.
These small boilers still exist in test laboratories that have little and seasonal need for
steam.
4.1.4 Boilers for solid fuels
Solid fuel boilers are usually Aquatubular or Mixed boilers (the mixed boiler is a
special design which usually consists of a body with mirrors and tube bundles, such
as the fogotubes, but are constructed with a masonry furnace and pipe wall, such as
aquatubular).
Solid-fuel boilers allow operation between 30 and 100% of their capacity and are
advantageous in processes where the supply of steam must oscillate.
Curiosity:
Usually the design of a boiler starts with the fuel to be burnt and the amount of steam
that is to be generated at a given pressure.
Solid fuels are usually the cheapest. Among the most common we can mention:
charcoal and firewood, but there are many other possibilities.
Fuels are usually selected for their cost and calorific value. Calorific power is the
amount of energy a fuel releases when it oxidizes. That is, how much heat can be
generated during the firing.
The quality of a coal is given by the carbon content and degree of moisture and ash
contained therein.
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Figure 55: Quality of the coals, as regards their carbon content. Much of electrical energy, electric power production,
manufacturing of iron and steel and domestic industrial / including fuel.
The average calorific value of a Brazilian mineral coal is 6,500 kcal / kg, the wood
3,500 kcal / kg and the eucalyptus wood is 4,300 kcal / kg.
Coal Composition: Volatile Matter + Fixed Carbon + Ash + Sulfur.

Firewood Composition: Moisture + Volatile Matter + Fixed Carbon + Ash.
After the fuel selection, the furnace design is started. Each fuel produces a different
flame geometry. Solid fuels that present Sulfur in its composition produce a longer
flame and for these it is necessary to produce a larger furnace.
There are many different furnace designs for solid fuel, the main ones are masonry,
wall-hung pipes that can be fed manually, or through conveyors and gravity feed,
dump grills and others.
The geometry of the flame receives special attention when designing a furnace,
because the fire can not touch the plating of the pipes of the water wall.
It is known that the fuel transmits heat by radiation, it is also known that the furnace
is exposed to the radiation and to the convection of the hot gases produced by the
combustion. As a solid fuel burns its flame produces heat at temperatures above
1500 ° C, but the material from which the boiler is built supports up to about 600 ° C.
Therefore, the flame when touching the plating results in thermal stress.
Knowing this information the operator must control the burning (manually or by the
panel) in order to keep the flame at a reasonable distance from the wall of water
pipes.
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BOILERS
For combustion to occur, the presence of Fuel and Oxidising is necessary. The fuel
can be selected, but the oxidizer will always be Oxygen. Combustion first and
foremost is an oxidation reaction of a fuel.
In boilers, atmospheric air is used, which contains about 21% oxygen. Air can
naturally enter the furnaces through air vents (called "dampers") and through fans.
The volume of atmospheric air to be used for combustion is calculated as a function

of these 21%. Nitrogen corresponding to the other 79% is an inert gas. Therefore if
there is a need for a volume of 2m³ of Oxygen inside the furnace it is necessary that
the total air volume is about 9.5m³. In addition to ensuring that the fuel burn is the
best possible, closer to the ideal, the boilers work with excess air ranging between 20
and 30%. The amount of excess air is calculated as a function of the oxidation
reactions of the various components of a fuel (in particular carbon) and the fumes it
produces (in particular the emission control of pollutants NO, NO2, NO3 and SO2).
As it can not be guaranteed that a fuel will always have the same characteristics it is
necessary to always be analyzing the composition of the fumes leaving the chimney.
The operator only has to control the amount of air required for firing by manually
opening the dampers and fan speed.
The advantages of using the fans are that they allow a greater control of the
combustion, in this case the panel operator controls the speed of the feed belt, if any,
and the fans following a combustion curve very close to the ideal one.
In general the starting of a boiler involves air intake + fuel inlet. At the start of the
starting cycle the first action to take is to take care of the air intake. In manual feed
boilers, which do not have fans, the operator opens the dampers about 30 seconds
before lighting the fire. A "bed" of firewood is placed by the operator and a lit torch is
thrown into the furnace.
In automated, panel-operated boilers powered by conveyor belts, the operator, by

giving the speed increase command on the panel, the boiler responds with increased
ventilation first and then increased conveyor speed.
In order to reduce the flame, the process is reversed. First the food decreases and in
sequence the ventilation. Ventilation always comes first and comes out last!
Most solid fuel boilers are ignited by gas torches or some liquid fuel as it is necessary
that the furnace is already at a suitable temperature so that the solid fuel starts to
burn and that the emissions of pollutants are minimized.
In addition most modern boilers may also have fluid bed furnaces. The fluidized bed
consists of the deposition of granules on a grid through which air circulates at a
speed sufficient to revolve the granules and create a flow of particles within the
furnace.
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BOILERS
Imagine a sandstorm in the desert, imagine that this storm is creating a small tornado
with this sand. This is the image that the fluidized bed has.
The fluid bed has 4 main advantages:
1st Highest efficiency in the burning of solid fuels

2nd Lower and more controlled combustion temperatures (excellent for preventing
overheating of the wall pipes).
3rd Decrease of pollutants. Granules may contain limestone that absorbs sulfur
dioxide.
4th The final product (fumes and pollutants) from the burning of fuels in this type of
furnace are easier to control.
Each project has its specificity, the larger the project, the greater the technology
employed.
4.1.5 Liquid fuel boilers
The most common liquid fuels for boilers are Diesel and BPF Oil. The calorific value
of Diesel is about 10,000 kcal / kg and BPF Oil 9,500 kcal / kg. Both Diesel and BPF
have elongated and short diameter flames, excellent for Fogotube Boilers.
A special burner is required to burn these fuels.
Burners are accessories developed for the burning of liquid and gaseous fuels.
Burners are responsible for preparing fuels for burning by sprinkling the fuel oil with
steam or compressed air or by atomizing it.
Imagine a spray deodorant. When we activate the valve, the contents of the bottle
leave as a small moist cloud.
When spraying a fuel the area of contact of it with the oxidizer increases,
guaranteeing the best burning possible. A fuel can be atomized by adding pressure
with steam or compressed air, or by adding pressure through a special nozzle, or by
adding a centrifugal force component that dissolves the fuel in tiny particles.
In this type of boiler the burner assembly is composed of the nozzle, an internal
mixing chamber (air or steam), when present and a fan responsible for blowing the
air into the furnace.
The fan enters first by purging the furnace. This purge floods the combustion furnace
and also aims to eliminate any excess or leftover from an earlier combustion within
that space. After the fan in a fraction of a second of difference occurs the fuel enters
(opening of the oil solenoid) and a spark creates an arc of electric current responsible
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for the ignition. Once in flame the very temperature of the furnace will take care that
the fuel burns and continues to burn.
The spark plug is attached to a ceramic shield that serves as insulation so that the
current arc is only between the two electrodes and does not dissipate.
With the technological advance the stoves of our houses happened to own sparklers
too. It is no longer necessary to light the flame with matches or lighters. The working
principle of the boiler of a boiler is the same as the stoves of our houses.
This whole process between purging and ignition occurs in about 1 minute. After this
first phase a photocell detects whether or not the flame remains through the emission
of its light. While the photocell detects light the oil solenoid remains open. If the light
fails, the photocell sends a command to the closing panel of the oil solenoid and the
fuel supply stops. In the event of a failure of the ignition the process resumes with the
purge, fuel and ignition. In general this process occurs 3 times, if none of the 3 calls
the boiler disarms automatically for safety.
The burners usually have a high and low burner (high heat and low heat). Boilers
always start over low heat and it is necessary to control them to remain on low heat
during the whole heating curve of the equipment during the start when it is cold so
that no area of the boiler will overheat.
Fuel oil boilers usually operate between 60 and 100% of their capacity.
4.1.6 Gas boilers
Gas boilers are usually equipped with burners similar to oil burners or small torches
responsible for feeding gas into the furnace of the boiler.
The gas flame geometry is short and has a larger fan diameter therefore the gas
boiler furnace should be shorter and have a larger diameter. Gas is widely used in
vertical boilers, aquatube boilers and as starting fuel for solid fuel boilers.
The main advantage in burning gas is the better control of the emission of pollutants.
The combustion of the gases is considered as a cleaner combustion because it does
not produce soot and other particulates.
The most common gases to be burned in boilers are GN (natural gas) and LPG
(liquefied petroleum gas), with LPG having the lowest application due to its cost.
The lower calorific value of NG is on average: 8,500 kcal / m³ and LPG is on average
11,000 kcal / m³.
Gases do not need to be sprinkled and are usually already pressurized in the line
and / or reservoir so the design of your burners is simpler, even with spark plugs. The
biggest concern in the design of a gas burner is the area of fuel passing through the
nozzle, always ensuring optimum flow.
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BOILERS
Gas burners are always installed with pressure reducing valves so that the fuel flow
pressure is within the parameters required for optimal flow.
Furnaces designed to burn gas should also have photocells for detecting light from
the flame, for the same purpose of communicating with the PCL ("Logically
Programmable Controllers"), opening and closing the gas solenoid.
All connections, fittings, valves and gas lines shall be signaled as golden yellow by
determination of NR-26. In addition to the signaling it is necessary to have a gas
detection system as determined by NR-13 in item: 13.4.2.4, letter d).
4.2 BOILER ACCESSORIES
The boilers may have superheaters, economizers, gas scrubbers, ramonators, traps
and their line among other accessories depending on your design.
When we determine the pressure in a boiler project we also determine the boiling
temperature of the steam inside the equipment, as seen previously in the saturated
steam tables. We also know that saturated steam is the vapor that contains up to 2%
moisture. But how to turn a saturated steam into an overheated steam?
For projects destined to the Electric Power Generation a superheater is necessary.

The superheater receives the saturated vapor and transforms it into superheated
steam returning it to its sensible heat state.
In general, superheaters are lines installed in the steam outlet of a W-shaped

equipment that pass inside the fonalha again so that they exit at a higher
temperature than the one produced by the boiler and with humidity percentage
tending to zero (super dry steam ), before passing through the turbines. Steam for
the turbine eligible should have a temperature greater than 560 ° C.
Consider a critical boiler that produces saturated steam at 200 bar at a temperature
of 365 ° C, intended for the production of electric energy. How to make who with this
steam arrives at the temperature of 560ºC? For these cases it is necessary the
design of the superheater.
By adding pressure we change the sensitive and latent heat points of a fluid. The
water, once transformed into steam, returns to its sensible heat state and may once
again change its temperature from 365 ° C to 560 ° C. To increase the temperature
of this steam is necessary to provide more thermal energy therefore, nothing more
natural than submitting it to the flame again.
Superheaters can be built in the furnace's own furnace or in accessory furnaces.

They are common in boiler projects for pulp and paper mills, pure thermal power
generation and fertilizer production.
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BOILERS
The design of an accessory of this should consider the thermal energy absorption
capacity of the mass of steam contained in that line, as well as the speed and
pressure of the fluid that runs through it and the turbine that will move.
The steam that moves the turbine must pass through it superheated and get
saturated in theory, but in practical applications the steam enters and leaves
superheated. The remainder of this steam will be used in the process of the pulp and
paper mill or even in an alcohol and sugar mill.
To save fuel, you can also install economizers. The economizers are preheating
water system prior to their entry into the boiler.
Economizers usually heat the water to about 90 ° C. In this case, installed at the
outlet of the hot combustion gases taking advantage of the heat produced in the
furnace for heating the feed water. And it may or may not be used in systems with
condensate return.
Economizers can be without Integral or Separate. Separate economizers are used in

boilers operating below 25 kfg / cm², their construction is simple in steel or cast iron
pipes, where water passes into the pipes and hot gases from combustion on the
outside. The integral economizers can be used in the most diverse types of project,
but only for projects with deaerated water. The integral economizer is a heat
exchanger, a more complex design, so its application requires that the water
circulating inside it is free of dissolved gases so that there is no corrosion in the
tubes.
Condensate return is very common in factories of all types. Once steam is produced
in a closed system it is transmitted to the equipment producing heat and / or
movement and returns to a reuse reservoir.
The advantage of using the condensate is that the water is already treated. The
water that comes in the form of condensate returns pure.
Another interesting accessory is the ramonador. Ramonators are accessories used

for cleaning the turbos of the water wall of the furnace.
The thermal exchange tubes forming the water wall in the aquatubular and mixed
boiler furnace are subject to combustion soot of the most various types of fuel.
Therefore, it may be necessary to have an accessory for cleaning the soils.
Rammers are blowers located inside the furnace for the purpose of removing dirt and
can be manually or automatically operated. All always depending on the degree of
automation of the project.
A flushing system may also be required depending on the fuel the boiler burns. In this
case, cyclonic separators may be an application necessary to separate particulate
matter from combustion fumes using liquids to separate, cool and react with the most
diverse substances, in order to purify the air to return it to the atmosphere.
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BOILERS
There are also accessories for water treatment. Of these accessories the most
common is the softener. The softener is applied whenever there is a need to
decrease the hardness of the water. We will see most of the accessories for applying
water treatment in a chapter reserved for this subject only.
The complexity of some furnace designs may require that the air for combustion
between previously heated. In this case, air heaters can be used. Combustion air
heaters are heat exchangers using steam or the very hot air coming from the
combustion to heat the combustion agent that will be used in the firing. The purpose
of this application is the fuel economy, as well as a burning closer to the ideal.
4.3 BOILER INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL DEVICES
The instruments that allow the safe operation of boilers are the power devices, Level
Display, Level Control System, Pressure Indicators and Safety Devices. Without
these instruments the operation of boilers can become dangerous and subject to the
risk of explosion.
4.3.1 Feeding Devices
Feeding devices ensure proper feeding of a boiler. In general, for a project, it is

necessary to have a feed device that will overcome the internal pressure of the
Boiler. In 90% of cases, the feed of a boiler is given through a centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pumps are widely used because they offer good flow rates at high
pressures.
Figure 55: Centrifugal pump.

Discharge nozzle, direction indicator arrow, housing, suction nozzle, discharge flange (upstream), shaft tip, volute,
rotor and suction lange (upstream);
Centrifugal pumps are turbomachines that transform kinetic energy into

hydrodynamic energy.
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BOILERS
An electric motor rotates the inner rotor of the pump that transfers energy to the
water to overcome upstream pressure.
Important:
The term "upstream" refers to the counter current flow. In the case of centrifugal
pumps, the fluid reaches the turbo-machine at a pressure lower than the pressure it
must overcome to deliver the water to the equipment. As the initial pressure of the
fluid is lower than the final pressure after the pump, we call the pressure "upstream".
The opposite flow, where the initial pressure is lower and the final pressure is higher,
is called "downstream".
The gage height of the pump (pressure that it is able to promote) is related to the flow
rate it is able to deliver. The higher the gage height the lower the flow. To do this, in
high-pressure boilers it may be necessary to install 2 or more centrifugal pumps for
the feed and water.
The pumps can be installed in series or in parallel. When installed in series, the
association of pumps, promotes a higher manometric height. When installed in
parallel, the association of pumps, promotes greater flow.
The pumps can also be of one or more stages. Single-stage pumps have only one
rotor, multistage pumps have 2 or more rotors. The rotors are arranged in series so
they are able to overcome higher pressures.
The flow in the pumps is unidirectional therefore, it is necessary the installation of

check valves in the exit of them so that the flow does not return damaging the rotor.
In addition to the care with the unidirectional flow also the care with the cavitations is
necessary. Cavitation is a phenomenon of formation of air bubbles. Pump rotors are
sensitive to cavitation and can be damaged when exposed to this phenomenon.
Usually the inlet of the pump promotes a small vacuum in the suction to ensure that
there is no cavitation in the rotors.
In solid fuel boilers the NR-13 requires that there be an independent water supply
system, according to item: 13.4.13, letter c). The most common of independent water
supply systems to prevent overheating is the water injector.
Unlike gas or oil boilers, the burners are cut off in case of power failure, solid fuel
boilers remain with the flame burning until the fuel inside your furnace burns
completely.
The auxiliary system in this case must ensure that the boiler maintains the water
level above the upper bundle of pipes.
Injectors are simple operating accessories that ensure the entry of water into a boiler
in the event of a power failure in a plant. Its operation follows the same principle of
the Steam Saver by Thomas Savery.
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BOILERS
Figure 56: Steam Injector.
Inside the device is a plunger that moves back and forth. The plunger is attached to a
tube where water turns into steam (increasing its volume 6-8 times) by pushing it
forward. When pushed forward the injector feeds the boiler. Then, upon cooling, the
vapor contained therein condenses (decreasing its volume). The condensation is
promoted by a small vacuum that pulls the plunger back, carrying its body of water
again, to restart the process.
The use of injectors dates from the first boiler built for locomotives. The "Marias-
Fumaça" were fed through injectors, since they had to travel great distances and had
no electricity for their food. The locomotives were equipped with a simpler
construction boiler, a fuel tank (firewood or charcoal) and a water tank of the
appropriate size (calculated) for the longest stretch of a journey. At each stop (at
each station) the fuel tank was refueled and the water tank as well.
4.3.2 Level display
The level displays allow the operator to visualize the water level inside the boiler.
According to PG 12.2 of the ASME, boilers operating at up to 60 bar may use
accessory systems to indicate the water level. Devices may include a float
magnetically coupled to the upper tubing (aquatubber boilers) or cylindrical body
(boiler-room or mixed boilers) to indicate the water level.
In general, most boilers use cylindrical glass tube level displays.
In boiler-room or mixed boilers the level display should be installed about 20 cm

above the last tube bundle. In aquatubular boilers the level display should be
installed on the upper 1/3 of the water / steam pipe.
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BOILERS
Figure 57: Level display;
Mixed boilers or fogotubes are subject to overheating of the tubes of the uppermost
beam. Once water, when it turns into steam, returns to its sensible heat state.
Assume that a boiler operates at 10 bar (1,000 kPa), the thermodynamic table
attached to its material shows that the saturation point of the water inside the boiler is
about 180 ° C, see the graph below the sensitive and latent heat points of this fluid .
T ºC
Saturation
Observe the water / steam
transformation temperatures in a
Heat Heat boiler operating at 10 bar
Heat Latent Sensitive
Sensitive
180ºC 180ºC
Figure 59: Diagram of sensible and latent heat of water.
Upon reaching the temperature of 180 ° C the water exits the sensible heat state and
enters the latent heat state. During processing the temperature remains, but after the
transformation the steam returns to its sensible heat state and can change
temperature again if heat is added.
While the last bundle of pipes is covered with water in the liquid state, it is
guaranteed that the temperature in them does not exceed 180 ° C, but from the
moment the water slide descends and is below the tubes, steam can absorb more
thermal energy and increase the safety of the equipment.
There is no safe boiler operation without the operator knowing exactly where the
water level in a boiler is.
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BOILERS
4.3.3 Level control system
In addition to the level display, the NR-13 states that all boilers must have an
"automatic level control system with interlocking that prevents overheating", as stated
in item 13.4.1.3 (e).
Level control systems may consist of level electrodes, buoys, thermostats, hydraulic
thermostats or differential pressure.
Float level control systems are the simplest. Consisting of a float connected to a
switch that controls the electrical circuit of the panel for the activation of the water
pump. When the float comes down with water level the switch is triggered and the
panel responds by turning on the pump. As soon as the water level is restored, the
float raise sends a water pump shutdown command.
The material from which the float is constructed should have a density less than that
of the float-shaped water thereon.
Electrode level control systems consist of 2 or 3 electrodes that communicate with

the boiler panel. And they take advantage of the conductivity of the water to send the
commands to turn on and off the feed pumps.
The electrodes are installed in a cylindrical vessel (commonly called a "bottle")

attached to the boiler at the same height as the level display and are usually part of a
set.
Each electrode installed inside the bottle has a different size and is designed to carry
information to the panel of different levels of water.
In 3-electrode systems the boiler receives information of adequate level, low level
and extra low level.
Figure 60: Electrode feed control system.

E - Electrode, VVN -1 - Top Level Display Valve, VDN - Level Drain Valve, VVN-2 - Lower Level Vapor Valve, VDRN -
Level Regulator Drain Valve, TP-1 - test 1, CN - level column and TP-2 - test cock 2.
The higher electrode upon realizing the conductivity of the water turns off the pumps,
the intermediate (low level) sends the command to turn on the pumps. If there is a
problem with the power supply either by leakage or by problems in the feed pumps or
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BOILERS
any reason that involves the level continue descending the third and lower electrode
not detecting the conductivity of the water sends a general command to turn off the
burners of boilers to the oil or gas paralyzing the boiler.
The thermostatic control system uses the principle of body dilation. At one end of the
thermostatic tube is a heating coil at the other end is free to swell and compress in
response to the degree of heating. As the temperature increases in the dilating end,
the thermostatic system notices the low level and sends the control panel to turn on
the pumps. When the temperature-sensitive end is compressed, it sends the panel
off the pump.
The thermo-hydraulic control is the simplest operation. The thermo-hydraulic pipe is

installed in the upper pipe of the boiler and accompanies the level containing water
and steam inside it, so that when the steam occupies more volume inside the pipe
the pressure inside increases. When the pressure inside the tube increases the
regulating valve attached to it expands and opens and water is admitted inside the
boiler. When water occupies most of the hydraulic pipe, pressure drops and the
throttle closes.
Differential pressure regulators sense the difference in density between fluids. The
difference in densities creates a differential pressure to which the regulator responds
with opening or closing of the water inlet valve.
In general the choice of level controller type depends on the type of boiler design in
which it will be applied. The most common are electrodes and buoys for boilers of
marine application.
4.3.4 Pressure indicators
The most representative device for pressure indication is the Bourdon Gauge. The
Bourdon Gauge is composed of a "C" tube connected to a small gear system in
which the hand is attached.
The steam, when filling the tube in "C" exerts a rectifying action of the tube. When
attempting to straighten the tubing it triggers the gear system by moving the pointer
upwards.
Manometers may have 1 or more scales of superimposed units of measure.
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BOILERS
And they can be of different accuracy classes. For most applications the accuracy
class will be B. Precision class B pressure gauges record pressures with plus or
minus 2% margin of error. Precision class A1 pressure gauges record pressures with
plus or minus 1% margin of error. Those of accuracy class A2 with plus or minus
0.5% of margin of error. In general, precision class A manometers are used for
calibration and in the petrochemical industry.
The pressure gauges operate according to the Bernoulli principle. This principle
defends the "Energy Conservation Law" by admitting that the energy entering a
device or line should be the same energy coming out of a device or line, or the mass
entering it should be the same mass as it leaves, obeying following equation:
At where:
= Fluid velocity squared

= Pressure
= Fluid Density
= Force of gravity
= Manometric height of the study fluid.
In addition to pressure gauges, differential pressure gauges follow the same line of
reasoning as differential pressure level gauges through the difference in density of a
fluid. All using Bernoulli's principle.
Safe operation of a boiler is only possible when the operator is aware of the water
level and internal pressure of the equipment. In oil and gas boilers other safety and
regulatory devices may be used for burner inlet and outlet. However, in boilers with
solid fuel of hand feeding, mainly, the control of the combustion and the pressure of
operation of the boiler is at the discretion and under responsibility of the operator who
needs to be aware to the variations of pressure of the equipment.
4.3.5 Safety Devices
The most important safety device of a boiler is the Safety Valve. The Safety Valve is
the equipment's ultimate resource for explosion prevention when overpressure.
ASME determines that for use in Boiler Safety Valves sized according to ASME I
allow up to 6% overpressure when fully opened. For other equipment containing
fluids ASME VIII Safety Valves can be applied, allowing overpressure of up to 10%
when fully opened. And for incompressible fluids the application of Relief Valves.
Safety valves shall be manufactured in accordance with criteria proposed by the

boiler manufacturer in order to allow for the discharge of any excess steam required
to restore the operating pressure of the equipment.
According to ASME I, PG-67 on Safety Valves, each boiler shall have one or more
safety valves installed depending on its capacity. A valve for boilers of up to 47m² of
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BOILERS
thermal exchange area and 2 or more for boilers with larger areas of thermal
exchange.
The capacity of the safety valve must be such that it can eliminate all the steam
generated by the boiler and must be manufactured by means of spring loaded.
Figure 62: Safety Valve and its internal.

Cap, rod, adjusting screw, locking nut, castle, spring, case, nut, body, guide, support shaft, disc holder, disc, inerior
ring, nozzle;
When two or more valves are installed in the same boiler, they should, when fully
opened, discharge 100% of the steam causing overpressure without "hammering".
Therefore, they should not exceed the mark of 30% more of this 100% of vapor
discharge.
In order for a valve to be eligible for manufacture and application under the ASME I
method, it must pass the discharge test during its manufacture.
The valves are constituted of spring, seat, body and hood, and may or may not have
a test lever.
They must be installed directly in the body of fire-tube or mixed boilers, or in the
upper tub of aquatubular boilers. It is expressly forbidden to install valves or any
devices that may cause inadvertent blockage between these devices and the
equipment they protect.
Boilers that have superheaters should have a safety valve installed exclusively for
this accessory, usually without a test lever.
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Materials for the construction of safety valves are listed in ASME II Part A and B, the
construction of cast iron seats is not permitted and the materials selected for this part
must be resistant to corrosion and erosion.
In general, valves may be threaded when the diameter of the inlet connection is up to
3 "(3 inches), more than 3" should be flanged.
In more complex design equipment, the safety valves may have a stepped opening.
Where each of them will open at a pressure above the previous one.
In order for a valve to work properly, it is necessary to follow the following rules:
• The valve opening should only occur at the pressure for which it was set and never
before.
• Open fully when the pressure reaches the preset value.
• Stay open until pressure is restored.
• Close immediately as soon as the normal operating pressure of the boiler is
restored.
• Remain closed and sealed during normal operation of the equipment.
The construction of this type of device is quite complex and provides pressure
differences during the valve opening itself. The headquarters has two different areas.
A smaller area responsible for the "pop" opening and a larger area responsible for
the full opening of the valve.
The outlet of the safety valves shall remain free from any occlusion or impedance of
the free steam outlet. For the case where a line or pipe is connected to the outlet of
the valve it is necessary to calculate the loss of charge that can produce. Always
remembering that this is the last resort against explosions by overpressure.
4.3.6 Auxiliary devices
The auxiliary devices will be installed whenever there is need or application for this.
The most common auxiliary device is the pressure switch. The pressure switch
controls the oil inlet and outlet of the burner in the oil and gas boiler. E is controlled
by the set operating pressure in the boiler.
The pressure switches are set according to the operating parameters of the boiler
and / or the process to which the boiler is connected.
In some boilers the pressure switch acts directly on the opening and closing of the
fuel solenoid, in others it is connected to a main control that initiates the process of
entering the combustion secondary to the first signal.
In solid fuel boilers the pressure switch will control the speed of the fan (if equipped)
and the feed conveyor (if present), always remembering that combustion continues
as long as there is fuel in the furnace.
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BOILERS
The Pressure Switch can be understood as an auxiliary safety device of an
equipment.
In addition to the pressure switch there are also devices for the purge of the furnace
(discussed previously) and the control panel that selects the order, according to its
programming of the input and output of each device installed in a boiler.
4.3.7 Valves and piping
By way of rules the most used valves in boilers are the spherical, globe valves, drain
valve, solenoids, pressure regulators and retention. But the application of valves is
not limited only to these.
The valves can be categorized according to the pressure drop they promote or
according to their application.
The greater the loss of charge, the more turbulent the flow will be after them.
Spherical valves are valves that have the principle of flow control and are named
because of their shutter.
Figure 63: Ball valve.
This valve has an interesting particularity, when its gauntlet is aligned with the pipe it
means that it is open. When your gauntlet is perpendicular to the pipe it means it is
closed. Spherical valves are normally applied to the bottom discharges of a boiler. Its
function is to cause a whirlwind in the outflow, revolving the mud.
The spherical valves can be monobloc, split or tripartite. The monobloc valves are
built with one-piece body and are usually more robust. The bipartisans are
constructed of two parts, being body and cover and the tripartidas in 3 parts being a
body and two covers.
Globe valves are intended to regulate flow in a pipe or line. The construction of the
globe valves consists of a trapezoidal seat in a monoblock body driven by circular
flywheels.
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BOILERS
Figure 64: Globe valve.
The size of the handwheels and handles of any valve corresponds exactly to the
force or torque that should be applied to them. If a valve is not sealing completely it is
time to do maintenance. No more force should be applied to it. Globe valves are
normally applied to the steam outlet of a boiler.
Drawer valves follow the same line of reasoning, but are typically used in lines and
pipes whose internal diameter exceeds 4 "(4 inches).
The solenoid valves already mentioned so many times previously, are self-acting
valves and can be permanently opened or permanently closed.
The permanently open valves remain open until the control panel sends a closing
command, that is, until there is an electric closing control they will remain open.
Permanently closed valves work just the opposite. As long as the panel does not
send the electric opening control they will remain closed. The latter are normally
applied at the opening of the fuel for the burner.
There are also the reduction valves, responsible for reducing the pressure of a fluid.
Retention valves that are responsible for single-handed flows and are usually
installed at the outlet of the feed pumps.
The steam and fuel supply lines must follow an installation and selection rule
according to the rule proposed by the boiler manufacturer. In general both lines will
consist of sch 40 # tubes and will have their diameters equal to the burner inlet
diameter, or outlet of the steam globe valve.
In general lines should contain as many straight sections as possible to avoid loss of
load and when curves or extensions need to be applied must be calculated for the
loss they will cause.
Steam lines typically receive thermal insulation to minimize the heat exchange of the
fluid with the vicinity.
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BOILERS
4.3.8 Smoke drawing
The smoke can be drawn naturally or through fans. In general, fire-tube boiler
burners are supplied in sets with the fans for forced drawing. And solid fuel boilers
may or may not have this device.
The forced exhaust fans shall be applied whenever the natural convection run is not
sufficient to eliminate the fumes from the combustion.
The fans, in addition to eliminating the fumes from the combustion also carry out the
purge of the furnace. During the purge the fan removes leftover fuel from a past
burning and floods the furnace with fresh air. Fan application also reduces the
amount of soot in the soot boxes and reduces the probability of thermal stress due to
the accumulation of particulates.
The draft, whether forced or not, must be calculated according to the height of the
chimney of the boiler and how many boilers are served by the same chimney.
In general, the chimneys should consist of straight lines and at the exact time of use
of each boiler, when this is not possible, it is necessary to add positive pressure to
the gas escape guarantee.
4.3.9 Instrumented security system
Instrumented security systems may be of greater or lesser complexity. In high

pressure boilers the instrumentation is more complex and the operator can modulate
most of the responses through the panel.
Some medium and low pressure boilers instrumentation is simpler and is related to
the responses obtained through the pressure switches and level controllers. The
greater the complexity of automation, the greater will be the controls under the
operator's responsibility.
Boilers can be manual, semi-automated or fully automated.
In manual boilers all operations shall be carried out by one or more operators
responsible for the boilers. From the supply and control of the operating pressure to
the water supply.
In semi-automatic boilers the burner inlet and outlet controls as well as inlet and
outlet of the water supply pumps are usually operated by the boiler panel. The
bottom flush controls and some of the water treatment parameters are the
responsibility of the operator.
The degree of automation depends greatly on the design, but does not dispense with
the need for the qualified operator. For boilers with low or no degree of automation,
as for fully automated boilers, an operator is required to make decisions.
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NR-13 makes no distinction as to the degree of automation of boilers to make the
requirement of qualified operators according to item: 13.4.3.4.
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CHAPTER 5 - OPERATION OF BOILERS
The boiler operation must be under the responsibility of qualified operator according
to item: 13.4.3.4. NR-13 understands as qualified operator the one that has the
theoretical course of "Safety in Boiler Operation" of at least 40 hours according to
ANNEX I of the current norm and / or the operator that has a theoretical certificate
according to the edition of NR-13 of 1984 or 1994. And also participate in supervised
training in the Caldera in which it operates, with 80 hours for Class A boilers and 60
hours for Class B boilers.
Before operating a boiler it is necessary to know some safety rules and to remember
everything that has been learned until this moment.
The following rules are based on accidents that have occurred in the past and some
of them will be discussed later in this chapter.
Figure 65: Watch out.
The 15 Golden Rules of a Safe Operation:
1st Always be attentive! Most accidents can ALWAYS be avoided as we take action
at the first sign that something is not going well. NEVER allow yourself to think after
an accident or incident has occurred.
2nd Do not run! You will probably think better of what action or action to take if you
remain calm and walk quietly. Running can further increase the risk of accidents!
3rd Create the habit of carrying out boiler safety tests! Do not neglect a security test.
Mainly from Safety Valves!
4th Always remember to note any interventions (Inspections, Maintenance, Safety
Tests) or anomalies that you witness or observe in the boiler.
5th Always remember to check that ALL valves are in the operating position (if the
valves that must remain closed are effectively closed and those that must remain
open are effectively opened).
6 Be aware of the instruments all the time. There is no safe operation without level
gauges and gauges!
7 Always refer to the Equipment Manual, the Workbook, and the documents
generated by the Inspections, they contain valuable information about the actual
condition of the boilers and important instructions for safe operation.
8 NEVER allow curious and unauthorized persons to circulate freely and unattended
in the boiler room or area.
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BOILERS
9 NEVER allow the safety valve calibration set point to increase at pressures greater
than 10% of the original pressure printed by the manufacturer!
10. NEVER allow any type of maintenance or intervention by unauthorized persons
and without the consent and responsibility of an Enabled Professional. Consult the
Responsible Engineer before proceeding with any work in a boiler.
11. NEVER leave a boiler before making sure the equipment is in full operating
condition.
Always make sure the actual conditions under which the equipment was delivered to
your care. Read the Operator March Report before you.
13. NEVER fail to report any abnormal or abnormal behavior of the boiler you are
operating. Sometimes a small signal can lead to great consequences!
14th NEVER receive or give verbal orders for change in procedures to other
employees involved with the equipment. All significant changes must be in writing by
qualified professionals and responsible for the equipment.
15th If in doubt, talk to the engineer responsible for the equipment. Two heads think
better than one!
Safe operation of equipment requires knowledge, responsibility and attention!
If you think:
In 1986, in a world in the midst of the Cold War, news has changed the course of
history.
At dawn on April 26, the reactor number 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear plant exploded.
The Chenobyl nuclear power plant, built in Ukraine (former Soviet Union), a few
kilometers from Kiev, was the newest bet on electricity production. The plant had up
to that point 3 fully operative reactors and a new reactor, the number 4 reactor that
had just been put into operation.
Reactor number 4 should produce 3.2 MWatts of electricity (nowadays this number
would be considered small considering that Itaipu has 20 turbines generating 700
MWatts each).
A city had been built around that plant, Pripyat. All the workers of the plant lived in
the city with their relatives.
A security test had been scheduled for that early morning, but all safety procedures
in the operation of nuclear facilities were neglected by the chief engineer, which led
to the equipment explosion at 1: 23h in the morning.
Many theories explain the failures and consequent explosion of reactor number 4,
including: Failures in Design, Installation, Maintenance and Operation.
The Chernobyl disaster cost many lives, directly and indirectly. Those who did not die
as a result of the explosion left a life of suffering from exposure to radiation and a
ghost town that tells a story of destruction.
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BOILERS
Figure 66: Aerial view of reactor # 4 after the explosion.
Accidents with pressurized equipment happen all the time. Do not be a number in
one of these statistics! Make today, at this very moment, a pact with yourself to
preserve your life!
5.1 STARTING AND STOPPING
Before starting a boiler it is necessary to check all the instruments.
A. Check the level displays. Fill the Boiler with treated water, when necessary, or
eliminate any excess water that may be contained in it. NEVER, under any
circumstances, leave a boiler without knowing where the water level is.
B. Check that the level control system (if present) is in good operating condition. If
the feed pumps enter when low level in the equipment and if the pumps stop feeding
the boiler when the level is suitable.
C. Test the alarms! All of them! And especially the low-level and extra-low.
D. Check for visible leaks!
E. Check the water tank and fuel tank.
F. Ensure that the atmosphere surrounding the equipment is not polluted with
explosive fluids. We do not need an explosive atmosphere inside the boiler furnace.
G. Check that the boiler room or area is well-lighted, ventilated, and that there is
enough space for the operator to perform all maneuvers and interventions necessary
for safe operation.
H. Check if you are using all the necessary PPE.
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BOILERS
I. Check the Boiler documentation (manuals, chart, inspection reports, and safety log
book).
J. Check Valves:
a) Verify that the bottom discharge valves are closed when operated manually;
b) Water inlet valves must be open;
c) Level Display sockets must be open;
d) Gauge Engineer Valve must be open, if any.
e) Furnace air intakes must be unobstructed;
K. Lubricate compressor bearings, if present.
Figure 67: Check list.
5.1.1 Solid fuel boilers
Figure 68: Furnace for the burning of solid fuel.
Solid-fuel boilers have many peculiarities. Most of the time the starting fuel will not be
the same fuel used in normal operation. Be aware that the pilot flame lighting
conditions are adequate.
Each boiler has a heating curve that must be respected when starting cold. And the
first step starts in the pilot flame, usually gas.
The heating curve can last for many hours and this is valuable information that is
contained in the Boiler manual and should be followed.
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BOILERS
In solid fuel boilers, the heating curve should be performed in most cases with
combustion modulated at 30% of its total capacity.
In addition to the tasks already mentioned, the operator must:
A. Open the air intakes when manually opening or blow the fans to purge the furnace
and allow the oxidizer to fill the space where the combustion will start.
B. Feeding:
C. In manually operated boilers the operator should make the fuel "bed". When the
boiler is powered, the pilot flame can be inserted through a torch.
WARNING: When inserting the torch into the furnace do not attempt to recover it!
D. In the automated boilers the operator will carry out the pilot flame by means of the
control on the panel.
E. Drive the treadmills by 30%.
F. Begin to reduce the fuel intake in the pilot flame nozzles as the furnace heats up
and the solid fuel begins to burn until it is completely withdrawn.
G. Keep the flame on at 30% of its capacity until the heating curve is complete.
In positive circulation boilers the circulation pump should follow the standard imposed
by combustion, if 30% should circulate in the same load, if at full load, the circulation
pump will follow in the same way.
ATTENTION: Do not skip steps in this process, the biggest cause of

overheating in the water wall pipes is just starting the boiler when cold!
Stopping the solid fuel boiler does not occur instantaneously. For the boiler to stop it
is necessary that all the fuel inside it is consumed. In this case the actions will be:
A. Decrease the air intake and stop the power supply.

B. Decrease the speed of the circulation pump, if any.
C. Close the superheater valve, if present.
D. Continue the water supply until the boiler stops completely.
E. With flame extinction, completely close the dampers and the steam outlet.
ATTENTION: Do not close the air intakes completely while there is a flame, if
the fuel inlet door is closed as well. When consuming all the oxidizer the
furnace can enter in vacuum.
F. Wait for cooling while the water supply continues as needed.
G. When the boiler is completely cold close the water inlet valve after flooding it with
treated water.
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BOILERS
5.1.2 Oil boilers
Figure 69: Oil boiler.
The vast majority of oil boilers have a burner that communicates directly with the
Logically Programmable Controller (PLC). Following are the steps that the controller
performs when we turn on the boiler.
A. Furnace purge by automatic fan input, lasting from 30 seconds to 1 minute (this
purge may vary, but generally follows this rule).
B. Opening the oil solenoid, atomizing the fuel inside the furnace and igniting through
the spark plug. These processes occur almost concomitantly, with a split-second
difference between one stage and another.
C. CALLS!
D. Reading of the Photocell for perception of the permanence of this flame. If there is
light the process of burning continues, if there is no light the process resumes from
the purge (letter A.).
WARNING: In general, when carrying out the processes for 3 times the boilers
will disarm on the panel. Before resetting, it is necessary to open the furnace
and clean any excess fuel from the previous three attempts.
Probable causes for failure:
A. Closed Air Intake Valve, if present.

B. Fuel Intake Valve (between reservoir and solenoid) closed, if present.
C. Lack of fuel in the tank.
D. Presence of air in the fuel line.
E. Fault in the spark plug, sometimes the nozzles are changed, sometimes there are
cracks, or cracks in the porcelain, sometimes during maintenance the electrodes
have been mounted misaligned, etc.
F. Soils on the photocell, which prevent its reading of the presence of flame.
WARNING: Only perform boiler reset when all problems have been remedied. In
the event of an electrical shock, call a certified electrician in accordance with
NR-10.
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BOILERS
Oil boilers typically operate only between 60% and 100% of their total capacity and
can not be modulated by 30% as in solid fuel boilers, so the process of the heating
ramp must be done by the operator by turning the equipment on and off , for the
period of time indicated by the manufacturer.
Example:
Turn it on low for 15 minutes, off and wait 30 minutes. Repeat the process 15
times, or for 3 hours.
Stops on liquid fuel boilers are simpler, and follow the steps below:
A. Turn off the burner on the panel.

B. Maintain the water supply while the boiler continues to vaporize.
C. Close the steam outlet.
D. Close the fuel supply valve (if present).
E. Flood the treated water boiler when the pressure indicated on the pressure gauge
is zero.
F. Switch off the electrical panel.
G. Close the water inlet valve when the boiler is cold.
5.1.3 Gas boilers
Figure 70: Gas boiler.
In gas boilers the firing process follows the same rule as oil boilers.
A. Furnace purge by automatic fan input, lasting from 30 seconds to 1 minute (this
purge may vary, but generally follows this rule).
B. Opening of the gas solenoid and ignition through the spark plug
C. CALLS!
D. Reading of the Photocell for perception of the permanence of this flame. If there is
light the process of burning continues, if there is no light the process resumes from
the purge (letter A.).
Just like in the oil boiler, the gas boiler will also repeat the process a few times before
disarming.
Likely causes for failure:
A. Closed Air Intake Valve, if present.

B. Fuel Intake Valve between the intake trestle and the boiler, or between the fuel
tank and the boiler.
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BOILERS
C. Presence of air in the fuel line.
D. Catcher failure.
E. Soils on the photocell, which prevent its reading of the presence of flame.
F. Gas detector detecting leakage. If the detector detects a leak, it sends a cut
command to the panel that prevents the process from starting, in this case seek the
help of a work safety professional to measure the gases in the atmosphere. If
leakage is found, contact the engineer responsible for the equipment and the
installation.
Only after resetting all faults, reset the panel. The gas boiler stop will follow exactly
the same steps as the oil boilers.
5.2 REGULATION AND CONTROL
After starting the operator takes on new tasks to keep the boiler running safely. All
instruments must be kept calibrated and in good operating condition, according to
item: 13.4.3.2
5.2.1 Temperature
Temperature control can be performed by thermometers, thermocouples and various

sensors. Of these the most common is the chimney thermometer.
The chimney thermometer indicates the outlet temperature of the combustion gases
and must be maintained at the temperature indicated by the manufacturer. In sea
boilers operating at about 10 bar the thermometer will generally indicate a
temperature about 50 ° C above the saturation point of the water inside the boiler.
The chimney thermometer indicates if the temperature in the furnace is adequate.

When monitoring the thermometer the operator will know if the heat produced by the
flame is being used by the boiler, or if it is below or above what it should.
When the energy generated by the flame is below expected, there may be soot
accumulation in the boiler reversion boxes.
When the energy generated by the flame is higher than expected, there may be
overheating of pressurized parts inside the boiler, especially in the furnace.
There are designs in which temperature control is done in furnace, plating and
chimney. In this case the operator should be aware of the temperature information
during the heating curve of the equipment by keeping the steam outlet valve to the
superheater closed.
When all instruments indicate equal temperature in all parts of the plating the
operator can leave the 30% load and start to climb slowly, accompanying all the time
the heat transfers. At the moment the boiler reaches normal operating temperature
and operating pressure the steam outlet valve for the superheater will open.
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BOILERS
5.2.2 Pressure
The pressure control will be carried out through the pressure indicator and the
pressure switch. In oil or gas boilers, the pressure switches control the ignition and
extinguishing of the flame (burner inlet and outlet).
The pressure switch must be adjusted according to the operating pressure of the
equipment, always below the PMTA. Upon reaching the set pressure of the
instrument, the boiler cuts the flame by itself. When the pressure drops to a minimum
the boiler starts the furnace firing process and maintains the flame until it reaches the
set pressure of the pressure switch.
The pressure switch can be adjusted by the operator when necessary.

In fully manual boilers the operator is solely responsible for controlling the pressure in
the boiler through combustion. In this case the fuel supply and air intake must follow
a routine.
In the event of overpressure in oil or gas boilers the operator shall:
A. Stop the boiler on the panel;

B. Close the fuel supply valve;
C. Keep the water intake valve and the steam outlet valve open;
D. Wait for the pressure to settle below the PMTA.
In case of overpressure in boilers to solid fuel the actions will be:
A. Dampen the boiler furnace and stop the fuel feed belt or stop the manual fuel
supply.
B. Keep the water inlet valve and steam outlet open;
C. Wait for the pressure to reestablish.
In any case it is necessary to make a verification of the reasons that led the boiler to
overpressure, if it becomes a recurring problem and without apparent cause it is
necessary to trigger the engineer responsible for the equipment and / or installation.
5.2.3 Power supply
The electricity supply is usually guaranteed by the concessionaire, however

numerous factors such as rainfall, overloading of energy use or accident in general
can cause the supply to fall. In the event of power failure the electrical panel will stop
working. All actions commanded by the panel will be stopped, leaving the operator
with only manual actions.
In case of power failure, the boilers in the oil boilers the only action will be to close
the steam outlet, the fuel inlet valve and wait.
In solid fuel boilers the procedure is slightly more complex, as the remaining fuel in
the furnace will continue to burn. In this case, proceed as follows:
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BOILERS
A. Close the Steam Outlet Valve;
B. Blow the boiler furnace by hand;
C. Operate injector valve or accessory water intake system.
D. Wait for the electrical power to reset or the flame in the furnace extinguishes
completely.
Some Boilers have their own generator in case of power failure. In this case before
starting your daily tasks the operator should make sure that the generator is in good
working order and is stocked.
Actions me boilers to solid fuel that have generators:
A. Close the steam outlet valve;

B. Blow the boiler furnace and stop the fuel feed belt or stop the manual fuel supply.
C. Wait for electrical power to reestablish or the flame is completely extinguished.
Power drops are not usual, but when they occur normally it is not possible to predict
their return.
The generators are normally sized for adequate power supply for the complete
shutdown of the boiler in safety and a few hours longer.
Do not despair of a power outage, but do not rely too much on the generator.
5.2.4 From the water level
The main instrument for controlling the water level is the Level Display. The level
display is responsible for indicating to the operator the position (height) of the liquid
surface inside the boiler. The display dial is designed so that the level can be read
from the outside of the machine.
Glass tube level displays are normally used in boilers operating at temperatures
below 230 ° C, above which a reflective tube is used.
The first action that the operator must perform is the opening of the input and output
(communication) outlets (valves) of the display with the boiler. The second action is
cleaning the tube.
To clean the tube the operator must:
A. Close the inlet and outlet outlet of the pipe;

B. Open the tube discharge valve;
C. Open the steam outlet and wait a few seconds (between 10 and 20 seconds is
usually enough);
D. Close the steam outlet
E. Visually check that the sight tube is clean, if it is not repeat the previous actions C
and D;
F. Close the discharge valve on the sight glass;
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BOILERS
G. Open the water and steam receptacles.
With the level display clean, proceed with the other actions related to water supply.
Water level control inside a boiler ensures that the material from which it was built is
protected against overheating. This control will typically be performed automatically.
In this case the operator's attention should be directed to the inlet and outlet of the
water pump when the level display shows low water level.
The function of the operator follows the degree of automation of the boilers and will
never become obsolete. In case of water shortage in oil or gas boilers, the operator
must carry out the following actions:
A. Close the steam outlet;

B. Stop the boiler on the panel;
C. Close the fuel inlet valve;
D. Check that the water inlet valve is open;
E. Check the power supply system.
In the case of solid fuel boilers, the actions will be:

A. Close the steam outlet;
B. Engage the steam injection valve or secondary level control system;
C. Blow the boiler furnace and stop the feed conveyor, or stop feeding manually.
D. Wait for the remaining fuel to burn completely in the furnace.
E. Check the water supply system.
Boilers whose automatic system is via float connected to the panel may present
problems:
1. Mobile arm remain in a fixed position due to deposits in its moving parts, this
happens mainly in boilers whose external water treatment is inefficient and is
common in marine boilers.
2. Electrical panel switch.
Since the boilers whose control is performed by electrodes the problems are usually
related to:
1. Soils on the electrodes. In this case the operator must proceed with cleaning the
car.
2. Electrical panel switch.
Boilers may also have excess water, in which case the operator should:
1. Open the bottom discharge;

2. Close the water inlet valve by following the level through the sight glass until it is
re-established;
3. Close the bottom discharge.
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BOILERS
If it is not possible to stop the process the operator must operate the water intake
manually until the total stop is possible, otherwise the boiler must be stopped.
5.2.5 Of pollutants
Pollutant control is usually accomplished through a flushing system in large capacity

boilers that burn fuel emitters of particulate matter.
For these boilers a washing accessory will be installed according to the

manufacturer's own guidelines.
Another way to control the emissions of pollutants is to carry out the measurement of
the concentration of pollutants present in the combustion fumes through their exit in
the chimney.
It is known that combustion is the oxidation process by which the molecules present
in the fuel chemically react with oxygen producing energy in the form of heat, water
and waste.
There are 3 conditions that must be met in order for a burn to be as close as possible
to the ideal:
1. The ratio of fuel to oxidizer shall be calculated and appropriate

2. The mixture between fuel and oxygen should be balanced so that the oxygen has
contact with the maximum possible fuel area.
3. The temperature of the furnace should be close to the auto-ignition temperature of
the fuel.
The key elements for producing thermal energy are carbon, hydrogen and its
compounds. The sulfur, when oxidized quickly also provides large amount of thermal
energy. Since the oxidizer is present in atmospheric air this mass of air should be
calculated according to the fuel to be burned. The 21% of oxygen contained in the air
represents a mass of 23.15% and the rest is Nitrogen. The mixtures between fuel
and oxidizer can be denominated: Poor or Rich (there is no ideal mixture due to
losses).
Rich blends are those where the supply of oxygen is insufficient. Poor mixtures occur
when the supply of oxygen is above the amount sufficient for complete oxidation of
the fuel. In the case of a rich, therefore incomplete mixture, combustion will result in
the emission of dark (black) smoke indicating that there is plenty of fuel. In the case
of a poor mixture the smoke will leave the chimney like a white cloud. To determine
the exact amount of air and fuel a mixture should contain a flue gas meter should be
used. The most well-known measuring instrument is the ORSAT.
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BOILERS
Figure 71: ORSAT.
The ORSAT is an equipment composed of 3 absorption pipettes containing chemical

solutions connected to a buret through a glass capillary. As the appliance is made of
glass it is usually mounted in a wooden box.
The absorbent chemical solutions used are: Potassium Hydroxide, Alkaline

Pyrogallol and Ammonia Cuprous Chloride.
The purpose of the equipment is the measurement of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon

Monoxide and Oxygen.
The amount of each of these elements exiting the chimney will show if the calculated
excess air is sufficient.
Since combustion is a chemical reaction, it is expected that all supplied oxygen will
react with the carbon contained in the fuel resulting in fumes containing exactly 21%
of Carbon Dioxide + 79% Hydrogen, a complete and ideal burning. We know that in
the absence of an ideal combustion it is necessary to work with excess air, to avoid
that incomplete burning results in traces of fuel in the furnace.
In general, the excess air varies from 20 to 30% depending on the fuel and the use of
the meter will show the amount of air in volume that should enter the furnace to
ensure the complete combustion of the fuel and ensure the safety of the equipment ,
avoiding losses as much as possible.
In addition to the ORSAT there are also infrared meters that allow this to be read in
real time during boiler operation, in which case the operator can adjust the position of
the air intakes based on this data, to ensure maximum utilization.
The most interesting in the real time reading system is that the operator can adjust
the excess air according to each fuel. Even if a boiler burns only coal, it can not be
guaranteed that coal shipments will always have the same quality and quantity of
Carbon, as we saw in the previous chapter. In this way the emission of pollutants will
always be adjusted and customized.
5.2.6 Combustion
Combustion control will take place through readings of the Equipment Internal
Pressure, flame geometry and height.
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As previously stated, it is necessary to control the height of the flame so that it does
not touch the plating of the furnace. The control of combustion during starting and
stopping of the boilers is mentioned in subheading 5.1 of this chapter.
During normal operation is maintaining the pressure of the boiler and the flame that
receive attention.
In manual boilers to solid fuel the main action of the operators is the fuel supply. In
this case the operator should always be aware of the Internal Pressure Indicator to
know when to feed. At the time of feeding the operator must:
A. Increase the opening of the air intakes;

B. Open the fuel inlet door;
C. Gently deposit the fuel inside the boiler.
ATTENTION: Never feed the boiler before opening or increasing the opening of
the air intakes. The fuel, when oxidized, consumes the air inside the furnace
which can cause decrease of the furnace pressure and vacuum effect.
Each boiler is designed for a determined and fixed capacity and pressure. It is not
possible to increase the capacity of a boiler by increasing the flame. By increasing
the flame the boiler will consume more fuel, and the temperature of the hot gases
from the combustion will increase in the chimney. Keep an eye on the chimney
thermometer. Upon reaching the required working pressure for the process in which
the boiler is interconnected the increased combustion will only cause thermal stress
without bringing any benefit.
In automatic or semi-automatic boilers the combustion control may be modulated or
regulated for burner inlet and outlet as the pressure switch is set.
In marine boilers normally fueled by diesel oil, the control of combustion will be
carried out essentially by the pressure switch. In this case the boiler will switch on
and off the burner whenever there is a pressure oscillation. When the pressure drops
the burner is switched on, when the boiler reaches operating pressure the burner is
turned off.
Gas boilers and other fuel oils will work in the same way. In automated boilers, flame
maintenance can be modulated, in which case the operator can select an operating
range and maintain it, taking into account real-time pollutant measurement
information, if any.
By activating the speed control of the conveyor belt, the PLC will respond with
increased ventilation and after that will increase the speed of the conveyor.
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5.3 OPERATIONAL FAULTS, CAUSES AND PROVIDENCE
Boiler failures can occur for many reasons and therefore the presence of an operator
is imperative.
Operating failures usually occur when the operator is already comfortable with the
equipment, when their attention is reduced, and when most tasks become automatic.
5.3.1 Faults in water supply
Power failures may be caused by malfunctioning of the supply pump, failure of the
power supply system to communicate with the panel or the electrical panel.
At the pumps the most common causes are:
A. Cavitation: Cavitation may occur whenever there is air in the water inlet line and
may result from holes in the line or even undue increase in water temperature (close
to 100 ° C).
B. Rotor Wear: All components have an estimated life and therefore preventive
maintenance is required to avoid their failure.
C. Electrical Installation Problems: Panel not properly energized or wire reversed, in
this case call for an electrician.
D. Dirty water filters: When the water filters are dirty the pump is not able to suction
the water effectively, in this case it is necessary to carry out its cleaning.
In the electrode or buoy feeding system:
A. Dirt: The electrodes do not read the water level correctly. The buoyancy of the
moving arm may occur on the buoys. In this case it is necessary to clean it.
B. The system does not communicate with the panel: Electrical damage or corrosion
of the wires is not uncommon, in this case call an electrician.
Lack of water in the water supply tank:
A. Be sure to open the valves on the pre and post pump supply line.
B. Make sure there is water available for boiler feed.
C. Make sure there are no leaks and water leaks out of the line.
5.3.2 Failures in fuel supply
Fuel supply failures are generally less worrying as they do not pose a risk of
overheating or explosions.
Fuel supply failures are usually due to:
A. Closed Fuel Feed Valves

B. Lack of fuel in the tank
C. Burner or treadmill failure.
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Make sure the track motors are in good operating condition. It may happen that the
fuel itself enters moving parts causing the belt to lock, in this case disconnect the belt
from the panel and lock the mechanical locks before unlocking the locked moving
part.
5.3.3 Instrument failures
Without the level and pressure indicators the operator can not perform his work.
Faults in level displays are usually due to closed or open level discharge. Make sure
that the outlets are open and the drain valve is closed. Another fault that may occur is
due to the alkalinity of the water. The glass of the display tube may become blurred,
in this case maintain and replace the tube with a corresponding one.
Faults in pressure gauges may occur by inadvertent closing of the engine valve, if
present. Or even the break of the pressure gauge. In this case replace it.
Be aware of whether the boiler's automatic actions are in accordance with what is
indicated on the instruments to detect faults in instruments or systems. WARNING:
Never ignore alarms!
5.3.4 Burner failure
If a burner does not come in when it should, or not when it should, check that the
pressure switch is set to the correct pressure. If it is there may be a problem in the
panel, or the need for calibration of this instrument.
There may be failures in the ignition cycle, as seen in subheading 5.1.2 and 5.1.3 of
this chapter. Check the photocell. Most burner failure occurrences are from dirt on
the photocell or inadvertent closing of the fuel feed valves. Electric blasters and oil
solenoid problems are rare, but if they do, call an electrician and maintain them.
5.3.5 Safety valve failure.
The safety valve is your last safety feature. If the safety valve did not open when you
should stop the equipment. Stop the fuel supply by keeping the steam outlet valve
open and the water supply.
The most common causes of safety valve failure are:
A. Presence of sediment in the valve seat

B. Decalibrated valve
C. Valve giving passage
In all cases do not do it alone, proceed with stopping the equipment and call the
engineer responsible for the boiler and / or installation, to see the need for exchange
or maintenance of the same.
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5.4 DAILY VARIOUS SCRIPT
The Daily Survey Roadmap should contain information on how the equipment was
located before its operation began and how it is being delivered to the next operator.
This road map should contain:
A. Instrument information: Check the Level Display, gauge check and thermometers.
B. Performing scheduled daytime safety tests. Usually the valves are tested once a
week by actuating the test lever. Water supply systems and alarms are tested every
time a new turn begins.
C. Make the bottom discharges as per manufacturer's guidelines.
D. Check the water quality, or the results of the team verification assigned to this
task.
E. Periodically move all boiler valves.
F. Clean the level display.
G. Test the photocell, when available.
H. Keep the boiler room clean and organize and its accesses clear.
Always check all documentation produced by your colleague from the previous shift
and the recommendations of the engineer who performed the last safety inspection
of the equipment.
Be aware of equipment Inspection deadlines and instrument calibration. Check the

Safety Log Book every time you start your shift.
5.5 OPERATION OF A VARIOUS BOILER SYSTEM
Systems containing 2 or more boilers are not common, but some processes can
benefit from this type of application.
Systems of two or more boilers are common to pulp and papermaking processes and
in places where waste produced by a city or country is burned inside the boiler for
generating electricity (as is done in Sweden).
In this type of system the boilers can operate independently and concomitantly, each
destined for a phase process. Or the boilers can work in concomitance by feeding the
same phase of the process.
In the first case each boiler will be sized for the phase of the process in which it will
act. In the second case the boilers will be sized to work together feeding the same
line, in this type of application normally large amounts of steam are required at low
pressures. By combining two or more boilers in the same system, feeding the same
line, the expected capacity of each equipment can drop by up to 50%. Another
important factor is that the PMTAs of the boilers must be the same.
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In systems where there are 3 boilers feeding the same line it is usual for two to
operate between 70 and 80% of their maximum capacity while the third stays in
Stand-by, cycling weekly the stand-by. This type of application requires some care:
A. Installing a check valve on the steam outlet of each boiler that prevents the steam
from returning to the lower pressure boiler when the pressure is higher in one of the
boilers.
B. Installation of a steam collector common to both boilers, with separate steam-
operated valve each boiler.
C. Separate water and fuel supply for each boiler.
In this type of installation the maintenance of the operating pressure should be more
rigorous, since it is not of great value a variation delta between the two boilers in
operation, so that the steam supply is not harmed during the whole process. The
same type of installation can be done with boilers of different PMTAs, but the
capacity of steam supply may fall very much with the variation of pressures.
In plants with independent boilers for each phase of the process each operator will
take care of his boiler in response to the previous one.
In paper and cellulose plants, each boiler is part of a phase. There is a primary phase
that burns chips as main fuel and in this first stage of the process there is usually
cogeneration of electric power that can be used on the plant itself and / or sold to the
local utility (with a steam turbine).
In the second boiler will be burned the liquor resulting from the first pulp production
process. When burning the black liquor the boiler also performs the recovery of the
element that will be used for the bleaching phase of the paper. Black liquor is
produced by steam cooking the chip in the digester combined with sodium sulfate
and sodium hydroxide. The result of this chemical reaction, coming from the
combustion of the CSF, is soda, which can be extracted from the ash resulting from
burning.
In this type of system each boiler in the process depends on the previous one. If the
boiler responsible for baking in the digester does not produce steam, it will lack fuel
for the second, if the first boiler bakes at too high a speed, the risk of overheating by
excess than fuel and combustion can be catastrophic. For this reason the recovery
boilers come equipped with an emergency drainage system.
The Emergency Drain System removes all black liquor from inside the firebox in an
emergency.
5.6 PROCEDURES IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
If you are thinking that "Close the steam outlet is the first step" you got the answer
right in the great majority of cases!
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This answer is true for the cases of:
A. Lack of water;
B. Problems in the electric panel of boilers;
C. Lack of electricity;
D. Problems in food in general.
Most of the actions have already been explained in the previous subtitles within this
same chapter. And most of the answers to the problems are actually closing the
steam outlet and cutting off the combustion as fast as possible.
In situations where there is a flame in the boiler room, out of the furnace, perform the
boiler stop steps and call the firefighting team.
Figure 72: Fire extinguisher.
WARNING: Never attempt to fight fire if you are not trained to do so!
In chapter 7 we will talk about emergency situations, real cases and how accidents
could have been avoided.
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CHAPTER 6 - WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment systems are essential for maintaining the life of a boiler. In addition
to the need to control corrosion there is a need for scale control.
Inlays are the result of deposits adhering to the surface of the material that are
detrimental to the thermal exchange of the equipment, which can cause accidents
due to overheating in a particular section.
Figure 73: Difference between the new metal and the metal that was incrustation and the whole metal.
Corrosion, however, is essentially due to the presence of oxygen and resulting from
the use of water with low pH values.
To make the correct choice of the type of water treatment to be used in a boiler it is
necessary to divide them into pressure classes, as shown in the table below.
(Dantas, E. V, 1988)
Table 04: Pressure classes.
VERY LOW PRESSURE Up to 7 kgf / cm²

LOW PRESSURE Between 7 and 14 kgf / cm²
MEDIUM PRESSURE Between 14 and 49 kgf / cm²
HIGH PRESSURE Between 49 and 105 kgf / cm²
VERY HIGH PRESSURE Between 105 and 225.6 kgf / cm²
SUPERCRYTIC Above 225.6 kgf / cm²
Efficient water treatment is one that prevents both corrosion and fouling and is a
requirement of NR-13 as per item: 13.4.3.3 "Water quality must be controlled and
treatments should be implemented, when necessary, to physico-chemical properties
with boiler operating parameters defined by the manufacturer."
6.1 WATER IMPURITIES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES
Feed water is obtained from natural sources and contains a number of solids and
dissolved gases that are harmful to the Boiler, so all feed water must be known and
controlled. (Pera, H. 1966).
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Steel is a metallic alloy whose composition is made primarily of iron and carbon. Iron
is naturally found on the planet in its oxidized form - FeO or Fe2O3, is the
metallurgical process that promotes the withdrawal of oxygen from its structure and
adds Carbon (C) and, when required, other elements.
Important:
The ASME code provides a list of steels and their characteristics for the manufacture
of Boilers in SECTION II and only the construction of equipment with the materials
contained therein is allowed.
The amount of iron and carbon as well as other elements contained in a metallic alloy
directly influences its characteristics and its resistance, so it is necessary to make
sure that the internal structure of the steels always remain close to its original
structure when the date manufacturing. Knowing that iron is found in its oxidized form
in nature it is easy to predict that corrosion is a natural chemical reaction and that the
affinity between Fe and O2 is very great.
2 Fe + O2 → 2 FeO
4 Fe + 3 O 2 → 2 Fe 2 O 3
Therefore, the exposure of the material to oxygen should be closely monitored. The
highest incidence of corrosion in boilers occurs during the stops for inspection and
maintenance. During this period the material is exposed to atmospheric air which
contains a lot of oxygen and it diffuses into the water of the Boiler forming areas of
differential oxygen concentration. The same phenomenon can occur in the feed line
when the water used is not deaerated.
In these cases the most common type of corrosion is punctiform corrosion.

Punctiform corrosion is especially dangerous because it is a site of concentration of
corrosive agents.
Figure 74: Punctiform Corrosion in a metal section.
Corrosion can also result from incorrect chemical cleaning in a boiler. Chemical
Cleaners are used to reduce the amount of deposits in the heat exchange tubes or in
new boilers for the removal of oils and greases used to protect the material during its
manufacturing phase.
The most common chemicals for cleaning boilers are: Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) and
Sulfamic Acid (H3NSO3). During cleaning it is necessary to respect the application
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time of the products, correct temperature of the water containing the treatment
solution, circulation and neutralization at the end of the process.
In addition to corrosion there is also the problem of fouling, as said before. The main
elements related to inlay are: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and Magnesium
(MgCO3), Bicarbonates (HCO3), Hydroxides (OH) and Sulphates (SO42-) from the
same metals and Chlorides of Sodium (NaCl), and Calcium ( CaCl2) and Silica
(SiO2). (Pera, H. 1966)
It is estimated that inlay can decrease between 10 and 12% the heat exchange
efficiency in a boiler and in more serious cases promote material rupture. (Pera, H.
1966)
Below is a table with the main elements cited, its solubility and the type of
incrustation that can cause:
Table 05: Embedding Types and their Solubility.
Element Solubility Type of Element Solubility Type of Element Solubility Type of

Embedding Embedding Embedding
Calcium Bicarbonate Moderate Seeding and mud
Calcium carbonate Slightly soluble Seeding and mud
Calcium hydroxide Slightly soluble Seeding and mud
Calcium sulphate Moderate Tough
Silica Slightly soluble Very hard
Oils and Greases Slightly soluble Foaming
Organic matter Highly soluble Foaming
To think:
Note in the table how much the presence of Silica can be worrisome, because of all
the mentioned elements this is the most critical element! The type of inlay promoted
by Silica is the most laborious to remove and can cause, when very extensive, the
condemnation of the equipment.
The harder the inlay caused by an element, the harder it will be to remove it!
The fouling deposits form a thermal insulation, in the isolated region the material
undergoes a phenomenon that we call overheating, because it can not transfer heat
and so it retains it. In response to overheating, the material undergoes a puff (it forms
an orange sock) and then breaks.
In fogotube boilers this phenomenon occurs more frequently in the bundles of tubes
that are located closer to the furnace and is usually visible forming a half moon sign
in the tube light (when looking inside the tube against the light you notice a curve,
bulging). In aquatubular boilers this phenomenon will occur more frequently in the
Risers when the vaporization is very intense.
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Figure 75: This figure shows the difference between the light of an intact tube and the light of a tube with stuffing.
This is because the region of the furnace is more exposed to the heat of the flame
radiation and the rate of evaporation in this region is greater. To this phenomenon of
puffing we call fluency.
Curiosity:
A similar phenomenon may occur in the last tube bundle of a fire-tube boiler when
there is a lack of water level.
The creep is a plastic deformation, so once the material has deformed it will no
longer return to its original shape, even if the stressor is removed.
To think:
In the vast majority of projects the temperature of the hot gases at the chimney
output is about 50 ° C above the saturation point of the water inside the boiler. The
increase in the outlet temperature of the hot gases from the combustion may indicate
the presence of scale in a boiler. Another factor to be observed is fuel consumption.
Consumption can increase significantly in the presence of scale
In sea boilers (for use on oil rigs) the problem with inlay may be even greater,
because the water used to feed the boilers does not always receive an appropriate
and personalized water treatment for each equipment. However, because they are
Low Pressure Boilers (usually working under 10.5 kgf / cm²) they suffer less risk of
corrosion by galvanic batteries, because the protective magnetite inside the Boiler
will only be broken, exposing the material to corrosion, at pressures greater than 12
kgf / cm².
Figure 76: Oil Platform.
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6.2 WATER TREATMENT
The water treatment of a boiler can be: Internal (inside the Boiler), External (pre-
pump, before entering the Boiler) or Combined. The choice of treatment method will
depend on the pressure class and the impurities contained in the water.
For external treatments, pre-pump, the first action will be the removal of suspended
solids and clarification of water with a coagulating agent composed of aluminum. The
coagulating agent adheres to the suspended solids forming flakes and then
decanted. The chemical reaction shows the coagulation (flocculation) that results in
the formation of Aluminum Hydroxide.
Na 2 Al 2 O 4 + Ca (HCO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O → 2 Al (OH) 3 + CaCO 3 + Na 2 CO 3
After this process it is necessary to filter the water to remove the flocculated matter.
Sand filters are the most usual application in this step. Filtered water becomes
necessary to soften it. The softener is responsible for removing the hardness of the
water and adjusting the pH value. Hardness is a characteristic that indicates the
concentration of the calcium salts present in the water and is closely related to the
incrustation. The higher the hardness of the water, the more fouling there will be.
Figure 76: Water treatment system in a boiler room.
In medium and high pressure boilers and in critical boilers, it is also necessary to
implement other water treatment processes, in addition to the booster, as this is not
able to decrease the total solids quantity.
In this case a Demineralizer (also called Deionizer), or a Distiller, should be used. In

the process of demineralization (Deionization) a synthetic resin, suitable for high
temperatures, is used that has a cation and ionic sequestering effect. The distillation
process almost completely eliminates the salts contained in the water, at the end of
this process pure water is obtained (only H2O with the presence of salts tending to
zero).
There is also the degassing process carried out by Desaeradores, which aims to
eliminate gases dissolved in water, mainly O2 (oxygen), CO2 (carbon dioxide) and
N2 (nitrogen).
As previously stated, water treatment can also be carried out inside the boiler, with
the addition of chemicals. The most common of these products is Sodium Trifostat.
The purpose of this type of treatment is to remove the hardness of the water making
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the calcium salts soluble (mud formation at the bottom of the Boiler) which will be
removed through the Bottom Discharges.
The following tables show mean values for monitoring some of the parameters to be
checked and controlled in External and Internal treatments according to their
pressure classes.
Table 6: Water hardness control for external treatment.
EXTERNAL TREATMENT
Pressure class pH Toughness
Very Low Pressure Between 8 and 9 0,5
Low pressure Between 8 and 9 0,5
Average Pressure Between 8 and 9 0,2
Atla Pressure Between 7.5 and 8 0,02
Very High Pressure Between 7.5 and 8 0,02
Supercritical Between 7.5 and 8 < 0,02
The figures presented here are just a base. These values can be changed according
to the manufacturer's prescription and are customized for each equipment.
Table 07: Water hardness control for internal treatment.
TRATAMENTO INTERNO
Pressure Class pH Pressure Class pH Pressure Class pH Concentration
Concentration of Concentration of of Suspended Solids (ppm)
Suspended Solids Suspended Solids
(ppm) (ppm)
Very Low Pressure Between 10 and 11 300
Low pressure Between 10 and 11 300
Average Pressure Between 8.5 and 10 Ente 100 and 150
Atla Pressure Between 8.5 and 10 Between 20 and 60
Very High Pressure Between 8 and 9 Between 5 and 10
Supercritical Between 8 and 9 <5
Obs.:
ppm = Values in Parts per Million.
The higher the Boiler pressure the lower the values in ppm with which we should
work.
No matter how effective a water treatment or a combination of treatments is, it will

never be perfect, so it is necessary to perform bottom discharges to eliminate the
salts in solution (mud).
The periodicity of the bottom discharges depends on the water quality and the
manufacturer's prescription or according to the laboratory results obtained through
the collection and analysis of this water.
The bottom discharges are no longer effective when the hardness of precipitated
water inside the boiler reaches values greater than 300 ppm. In a simplified way it
can be said that the percentage of bottom discharges is a ratio between the feed
hardness and the hardness inside the Boiler and is given by the following equation:
% of Downloads = Feeding Hardness / Hardness inside Boiler x 100
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The time of each bottom discharge is calculated as a function of the Operating

Pressure of a Boiler and the internal diameter of the discharge valve.
The better the water treatment the lower the need for bottom discharge, however this
number will never be zero.
All such information is found in the Boiler Operation Manual, which must be available
in Portuguese, as required by NR-13 in item: 13.4.3.1
Important:
Read the Boiler manual carefully before operating it. Ever!
In addition to the problems with overheating (due to the presence of mud and
incrustations) and corrosion (oxidation) there is also the problem of trailing, resulting
from the formation of foam.
The foam usually results from the presence of oils and greases inside the boiler and
is formed by a large number of bubbles on the water surface (water / steam interface)
inside the boiler.
Figure 77: Water / steam interface.
Bubble formation is a natural process of water vaporization. In a boiler with treated

water these bubbles tend to explode when they reach the surface of the water slide,
however in the presence of contaminating agents there is a permanence of these
bubbles forming this layer of foam. When opening the steam outlet this foam is
dragged to the line, and that is where the name Drag comes from.
If the presence of foam or of severe scale through the analysis of the quality of the
steam or the water of the bottom discharge is verified, it is necessary to perform a
Chemical Cleaning or addition of antifoams (in the case of soft foam) in the treatment
of water.
Chemical Cleanings are made through carefully selected chemical solutions

according to the evaluation of deposits, crusts or even the presence of oils and
greases.
There are 3 types of Chemical Cleaning that we should know: Cleaning a new chair,
cleaning an inlaid boiler and acid cleaning and passivation, of this 3 the most
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common are the cleaning directed to the Inlayed Boiler and Cleaning of new boilers
for entry into Operation.
The procedures adopted to select the appropriate solution start with the collection
and analysis of water from different parts of the Boiler; it may be necessary to
perform a cut in a section of the tubes for internal and external observation (when
incrustation); one should measure the thickness of the scale and make chemical
analyzes of the nature of these deposits (when necessary) and at the end of the
cleaning it is necessary to perform a metallographic test on the material of the boiler,
to verify that it still has the characteristics necessary for the maintenance of life the
PMTA established by the manufacturer and check for cracks, intergranular corrosion,
etc.
6.3 BOILER WATER CONTROL
The water control of Boilers and the Steam generated by them must be carried out by
suitable professionals or specialized laboratories.
Figure 78: Control is essential in the process.
We can divide the natural water supply into two different categories:
Surface and Subsoil (underground). Surface reserves are rivers, lakes, dams, etc.
Underground reserves are wells and groundwater. These reserves in contact with the
soil absorb impurities and minerals. In general, water from a surface reservoir
contains a greater amount of organic matter and suspended solids, while
underground reservoirs are richer in minerals.
Curiosity:
For humans, good water for consumption is water rich in minerals (maximum limit of
total solids tolerance of 500 ppm, according to the American Public Health Standards
- 1962), deionized water does not hydrate and does not kill our thirst!
New methods of analysis and the technology used in the instrumentation have made
water treatments increasingly accurate, in general the laboratory analyzes are
conducted by colorimetry, conductivity and atomic adsorption. Organic matter is
usually determined by oxidation methods.
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Colorimetry is performed by spectrophotometer. Through the energy of the light
emitted by the equipment it is possible to observe how different elements absorb and
reflect the light and through the behavior of the passage of this light by the elements
it is possible to verify the presence / absence of impurities and their concentration in
the sample. Each element produces a different color and intensity.
Figure 79: Colorimetric process by conductivity.
The conductivity of the water is measured by an equipment called Conductivity

Meter. The conductivity measurement is analogous to the water hardness.
Do you remember performing an experiment at school where the teacher placed a

light bulb to be lit on one side of the table and a battery (or cell) on the other side and
the ends of both wires inside the water? Yeah! This is an experiment to show the
presence of negative ions.
Figure 80: Schematic drawing of the operation of a Conductivity Meter.
Negative ions flow from one pole to the other (see the poles inside the vessel
containing water) by transmitting the electric energy to the lamp on the other side of
the circuit. In the deionized water the concentration of ions tends to zero and if the
water inside the container were deionized the lamp would not light because there
would be no ion flow.
Atomic adsorption is used to measure the adhesion of elements to a given material.
And oxidation methods are generally used to measure the amount of organic matter
by measuring the rates of oxygen reactions in a given sample.
All this technology and instrumentation serves to give the parameters that will be
used in the treatment of water.
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Ideally, the collection of samples of pre-pump, bottom (deep and deep) water and
steam should be carried out at specific time intervals: Before starting a boiler, during
the heating curve, during and during normal operation for treatment adjustment.
When adjusted correctly, you can increase the interval of the sample collections and
then carry out them only for the control of the samples.
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CHAPTER 7 - PREVENTION AGAINST EXPLOSION AND OTHER RISKS
Every day, somewhere on the planet, an incident, or accident, of greater or lesser

magnitude happens involving boilers and / or pressurized equipment.
A 2016 study, published at an ASME conference, dedicated to Safety and "Human

Factor" shows that about 95% of accidents in the maritime industry are caused by
human error.
One of the greatest success stories in industry history began with a safety-focused
plan proposed by Paul O'Neill in 1987 to ALCOA workers. The plan was simple,
focused on job security, betting that workers would take new measures and creating
new habits, the great executive was able to rebuild an industry that was on the verge
of a collapse. Due to the security focus the ALCOA was headed toward bankruptcy, it
once again became an aluminum powerhouse.
Safe habits have been studied over the years in order to preserve worker health, but
it is no easy task to create safe habits and disconnect from habits that put safety at
risk.
David Hume, an eighteenth-century philosopher, proposed that "habit is the great

guide of life," even if we do not have a logical or rational explanation for a particular
procedure, we are conditioned to repeat the same behaviors, whether secure or
unsafe, when we perform the same tasks daily.
You can now imagine how many times you have heard the phrase, "I have learned
this way," "This has been done this way since I remembered," "Everybody does it,"
and other very common ones that indicate that the habit has taken over a particular
group or company. Habits can be both good and harmful to an organization.
But how do you know which habits are good and which ones are bad for safety?
It is indeed difficult, when we are involved in a group with ingrained habits, to develop
critical thinking and question the reasons for the actions we do every day, but it is
necessary to "think outside the box", question and seek new information from reliable
sources in books, manuals, standards, etc.).
All types of negligence, whether inadvertent or even ignorance of safety rules and
regulations, may cause an accident or an accident at work.
The work accident by definition is one that occurs at the place and in the working
period leading to bodily injury, work disturbance or illness capable of decreasing the
ability to work, gain or even death.
To understand the logic of Work Safety it is necessary to define "Unsafe Work

Condition" of "Unsafe Act". The unsafe condition is one in which risks are part of the
job and inherent to the job. Already the unsafe act is that in there is neglect of a norm
or rule putting the worker at risk.
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Curiosity:
On April 20, 2010, DeepWater Horizon, an oil well drilling rig installed in the Gulf of
Mexico, operated through the assignment of Transocean to BP (British Petroleum).
The explosion, which has caused the largest oil spill in United States history, is
believed to have been caused by Halliburton's negligence in choosing nitrogenous
paste to cement the last coating of the well, which ensures that the pressure is
contained, allowing greater control and promoting safe working conditions. The
unsafe act of choosing the nitrogenous paste caused the explosion of catastrophic
proportions. The fire on the platform lasted 87 days, an estimated 955 million liters of
oil were spilled in that region and 11 workers were killed in the crash.
Figure 81: Fire Fighting on the DeepWater Horizon Platform.
Not always the unsafe condition can be avoided at work, but unsafe acts always!
7.1 GENERAL RISK OF ACCIDENTS AND RISK TO HEALTH
When a child runs with a knife, fork, or any sharp object in their hands, they usually
take a grudge from their caretaker or caretaker. This is because racing with such
objects increases the risk of an accident and constitutes an unsafe act. When a child
begins to walk home, parents usually lock the closets where the cleaning products
are located, the drawers containing the cutlery, and take care that the inherent
unsafe conditions of a house are controlled.
Parents' goal is to maintain safety, thereby minimizing unsafe conditions in the

environment, since it is very difficult to live in a house without cutlery, cleaning
products, dishes and other objects that may be dangerous when operated by
unprepared hands.
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In industry as well as in our homes, some jobs and situations are unsafe conditions
and receive special attention from Occupational Safety.
Following the Legislation and Normalizations of the Ministry of Labor, Occupational

Safety provides training and personal and collective protection equipment that ensure
the health of the worker. There are many NRs to be attended by the Employer and
the Worker.
Companies must comply with MTB rules according to the degree of risk they present
in their main activity, in the oil extraction sector and its derivatives and minerals. The
degree of risk to be classified is of magnitude 4, the highest degree of risk, as well as
the metallurgical industries, so the attention given to these companies is one of the
largest.
Risks can involve work accidents from a variety of sources, from small accidents
such as slips and bumps to explosions, so a safety plan must be proposed, through
mitigation of all risk factors, and fulfilled.
As a rule, through an LTCAT (Technical Report on Working Environment Conditions),

which analyzes the working conditions of each area of an industry (from the offices to
the manufacturing, maintenance and general service processes), a PPRA (Program
for the Prevention of Risks and Accidents) and a PCMSO (Medical Control and
Occupational Health Program).
It is the duty of the employer to provide the above-mentioned documents and

programs, which may be imposed depending on the number of workers in a
particular facility and the degree of risk in which the enterprise was framed. These
are reports and programs that collect data for the provision of Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) such as helmets, safety shoes, glasses, ear protectors, etc. EPCs
(Collective Protection Equipment) as interlock systems in machinery and equipment,
etc. And also if there is need of the company to have doctors and nurses of the work
in the site, CIPA, etc.
Figure 82: Occupational Safety Professional.
The insecure condition may exist in any job, the function of the MTB is to ensure that
this condition is improved and / or remedied.
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If a worker performs his daily tasks in an environment with excessive noise an ear
protector should be provided. If even with the ear protector the condition that can
cause injury to your ears is not remedied, an atrial rest strategy with pauses during
the journey will be proposed. If the risk is still not resolved, then the company will pay
an additional salary for the worker because it is detrimental to the health of this
worker and the additional may be higher or lower depending on the risk to which he
is exposed.
It can be understood, therefore, that when we receive an additional wage in order to

perform some task, we are getting paid for health during the working period.
There are ways to avoid accidents:
1. Use the PPE needed to perform your professional activity;

2. Obey the safety and signaling rules of the company where you work;
3. Do not operate equipment for which you have not been trained and are not
qualified to do so;
4. Create habits to test safety devices of the equipment that operates;
5. Participate in lectures and retraining training in occupational safety;
6. Exercise the right to refuse to work in situations that present a serious and
imminent risk;
7. Read the instruction manual of the equipment that operates;
8. Do not use tools and equipment damaged in situations other than the situations for
which they were intended;
9. Know the correct procedures in case of accidents, special gas leaks and fire-
fighting;
10. IN CASE OF DOUBT DO NOT!
When in doubt, consult the manual and those responsible for the equipment or the
installation. Study the subjects that involve your tasks and the equipment you
operate.
"Study is power," said Francis Bacon! Never neglect a chance to learn something
new.
7.2 EXPLOSION HAZARDS
In a process involving the application of Boilers and other pressurized equipment

there will always be the risk of explosion.
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Figure 83: Symbol indicating the risk of explosion.
In all cases mentioned above, the material of the furnace overheats and the
dynamics of the failure always follows the same pattern, where a phenomenon called
"Carbon Fluency" results in the detachment of the element Carbon (C) from the Iron
(Fe), making the material fragile and subject to cracks that may break suddenly. Or a
situation where the material becomes malleable, deforming as in an elastic effect,
occurring thinning and consequent decrease of thickness in the affected area making
the material less resistant and subject to rupture in the affected area.
Corrosion may occur in the dry area (part fire) of the boiler, but is less common, but
not less dangerous, resulting in decreased thickness of the affected area and
consequent fragility in the affected area.
The procedures and approaches for prevention are:
Do not change the boiler feed fuel.
Normally the boiler that was built for the burning of the diesel has a longer and
smaller diameter furnace, whereas the furnace of the boiler which was built to burn
the gas will have a larger and shorter diameter furnace. Each furnace is sized for the
fuel that will burn and are rare cases of construction of bi-fuel boilers.
If it is still necessary to change the fuel, be aware that the capacity of the boiler can
be reduced by keeping the flame at a reasonable distance from the wall of the
furnace.
Do not change the burner, even if it is kept the same fuel, by a burner that does not
exactly meet the parameters stipulated by the manufacturer, ensuring that the flame
is kept at a reasonable distance from the walls of the furnace.
Never increase fuel / oxidizer flow in the furnace inadvertently, the same problems
mentioned above may result from increased flame.
Never modify the original design of the Boiler, without a technician (PH or even the
Manufacturer) having studied the case.
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Maintain the water treatment of the boiler with the parameters proposed by the
responsible manufacturer or professional, carry out the bottom and surface
discharges, if any, with the periodicity proposed in the manual or according to the
need reported by the responsible professional.
If during burner startup the flame does not enter and there is a need for panel
resetting, be sure there is excess fuel from previous attempts inside the furnace. In
this case it is necessary to stop the equipment and open the front doors for the
removal of this excess inside the furnace.
BE CAREFUL THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COAT OF A BOILER IN

OPERATION WILL BE VERY HIGH AND THAT THERMAL ENERGY WILL NOT
BE DISAPPEARED QUICKLY, IT MAY NEED TO WAIVE SOME HOURS FOR THE
WITHDRAWAL OF COGNISHED BPF OR SOME MINUTES FOR THE COMPLETE
STEAMING OF THE EXCESS OF FUEL.
In both cases, keep in mind that the atmosphere in the boiler room or area may
become explosive by opening the doors that give access to the furnace.
Check the valves, photocell, etc., before breaking it again.
Spend as little time as possible in front of mirrors and burners, move forward of
straight sections only when necessary outside accomplishment of some task. Try to
always be at the side of the cylindrical body, most of the explosions occur with
displacement of the front mirror, second the rear, rarely in the cylindrical body making
this place the safest inside the area or boiler room.
Figure 84: Result of overheating in a pipe wall of a mixed boiler. Figure taken from NB.
Failure of aquatubular and mixed boiler furnaces
The failures in aquatubular and mixed boiler furnaces almost always result from
overheating of the pipe wall.
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Recall that aquatubular boiler furnaces are usually constructed of pipe wall within a
masonry structure, the refractory concrete masonry wall is intended to maintain the
heat inside the furnace, preventing it from dissipating into the vicinity.
Failures may occur in the following ways:
1. Excess of flame, which touches the walls of the furnace weakening the tubes of
the water wall;
2. Inefficient water treatment that causes mud and scale build-up in the water wall
pipes and bottom collectors;
3. Too much soot in the water wall pipes resulting from previous burns.
Figure 85: Soot adhered to the tube wall of the furnace of an aquatubular boiler.
In all these cases, the dynamics of failures will follow the same rules of the dynamics
of failures in fire-tube boilers. Overheating may weaken or tubes, making them
susceptible to rupture or thinning. In either case there may be a sudden failure
causing explosions.
The procedures and approaches for prevention in this case are:
1. Never increase the fuel / oxidiser flow rate in the furnace inadvertently, the
increase in the flame may cause overheating of the pipes in the water wall of the
furnace.
2. Never modify the original design of the Boiler, without a technician (PH or even the
Manufacturer) having studied the case.
3. Maintain the water treatment of the boiler with the parameters proposed by the
manufacturer or professional responsible, carry out the bottom and surface
discharges, if any, with the periodicity proposed in the manual or according to the
need reported by the responsible professional.
4. Test the operation of the rammers, if any, to ensure that there is no soot in the
tubes in the water wall of the furnace.
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Figure 86: Chimney in high temperature in a factory.
A good way to keep up with the furnace temperature is through the chimney
thermometer, most economical boilers operate at a temperature delta of 50 ° C
between the point of saturation of the water and the outlet of the hot gases in the
chimney. A boiler that operates at 10 bar has the water saturation point at about 180
° C, in which case the chimney thermometer should show a temperature of about 230
° C.
Failures due to overheating resulting from poor power supply.
The water level in a boiler is one of the operator's biggest concerns. The NR-13
understands the serious and imminent risk of boiler operation in the absence of an
operational device to control the boiler water level, according to item: 13.3.1 (d). The
water level protects the material.
The level display in a boiler is always installed in ¾ of the upper diameter of the body
of the boilers (15 to 20 cm above the last bundle of heat exchange tubes) or of the
upper pipe in aquatube boilers.
Remember that while the material of the chair is covered with water in the liquid state
it is guaranteed that the temperature will be below the point of saturation of the water
at the pressure in which the boiler is operating, following the thermodynamic tables in
the annex of this booklet. At the moment the mass of water begins to vaporize will
give rise to the vapor and this, when returning to the point of sensible heat can raise
of temperature, superheating and exposing all the material with which it has contact
to higher temperatures causing thermal stress .
Water level is a particularly important concern in solid fuel boilers because once the
flame starts it will only end when all the fuel inside the furnace has finished rusting,
so the NR-13 determines that in fuel boilers solid, it is mandatory that there is an
injector or independent water supply system that prevents overheating due to poor
feeding, according to item: 13.4.1.3, c).
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In this case the preventive measures to be taken are:
1. Testing the water supply system at the beginning of the operator's turn, including
level electrode testing, or buoy, etc. It is important to check that the system obeys the
input commands when the level is low and stops when the level is reached;
2. Cleaning the level display so that the operator has full knowledge of the level
inside the boiler during its entire operation;
3. Injector test, or independent water supply system, in the event of a power failure,
to ensure that it is operating satisfactorily if required;
4. Check the water tank before, during and after your shift;
5. Check that the pumps are working satisfactorily and perform the weekly rotation of
the feed pumps when the boiler has more than two or more.
6. Perform and / or monitor the maintenance of the post-pump check valves to
ensure that there is no water retraction in the rotor counter-hand damaging it.
7. Check the inlet temperature of the water in the boiler, when there is condensate
return system or any heating system of the feed water.
ATTENTION: The solubility of the gases in liquid media decreases with the
increase of temperature leading to the formation of air bubbles. The formation
of these air bubbles can lead to cavitation in centrifugal pumps, damaging the
rotors.
8. Test low and extra low control alarms.
Figure 87: Boiler Vapor Injection Valve to Solid Fuel.
In the case of fire-tube boilers, the PLC normally sends a flame cut command to the
burner when detected low and extra low.
The lack of water can result from a lack of energy, or lack of supply from the utility, or
a leak that results from the depletion of the water reservoir in a plant.
In case of lack of water resulting from lack of supply, the measures against the
explosion will be:
1. CLOSE THE STEAM OUTLET! In case of lack of water due to lack of supply, the
injectors will have no effect. The correct thing to do is to close the steam outlet valve
and monitor the pressure through the indicator to prevent the safety valve from
opening. When noticing that the pressure continues to rise, it is necessary for the
operator to control the steam slowly.
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2. Lower the boiler to solid fuel so as to extinguish the fuel flame completely, proceed
with complete stopping of the fuel supply, either by crawler or by hand.
CAUTION: Do not close the air intakes completely, as the oxidation of the fuel will
consume the full volume of oxygen contained in the furnace, which may cause a
vacuum effect in the furnace, decrease the air intake by controlling the flame
extinguishing gradually.
3. Block background discharges. In case of lack of water per supply it is necessary to
keep as much water as possible inside the boiler.
Often solid fuel boilers have a separate feed tank in case of lack of water due to lack
of supply, in which case the tank must have a volume that ensures the boiler is
completely shut down safely. Check the water level of the tank before, during and
after your shift, it is the guarantee of the success of your operation in cases of water
shortage!
In liquid and gaseous fuel boilers, due to lack of water due to lack of supply,
the operator must proceed as follows:
1. CLOSE THE STEAM OUTLET! In case of lack of water due to lack of supply, the
injectors will have no effect. The correct thing to do is to close the steam outlet valve
and monitor the pressure through the indicator to prevent the safety valve from
opening. When noticing that the pressure continues to rise, it is necessary for the
operator to control the steam slowly.
2. Block background discharges. In case of lack of water per supply it is necessary to
keep as much water as possible inside the boiler.
Liquid or gaseous fuel boilers will not always have emergency food tanks, so keep
your focus on the pressure gauge to prevent the safety valve from opening.
Overpressure failures
The main cases of overpressure failure may occur due to some factors:
1. Failure of the electrical panel causing flame to remain in liquid or gaseous fuel
boilers.
2. Overfilling of boiler feed to solid fuel, either by conveyor or by hand.
3. Vapor retraction in the outlet line which may result from inadvertent blocking of the
pipeline or even from the termination of a process whose demand for steam is high.
In this case the preventive measures to be adopted will be:
1. Regular test of the safety valve. Lever valves can be tested periodically that varies
from weekly to monthly. In the combined test run the operator must perform a small
test lever raise allowing the steam to be released through the valve.
ASME proposes that the valve test be performed when the boiler pressure is at about
75% of the pressure for which the valve has been calibrated, so if a safety valve has
been calibrated for opening at 10 bar, the test through the lever should be carried out
when the boiler is at 7.5 bar. The test can be performed during the start of the Boiler
without major problems when the match is weekly.
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2. The operator must always be aware of the pressure indicator. When you realize
that the pressure is rising above the operating pressure, you should proceed with
manual stopping of the burner on the panel or the solid fuel boiler.
3. The operator may open the bottom discharge manually while feeding the boiler
with water at room temperature to consume the excess heat energy supplied to the
boiler if possible and necessary.
Attention:
The opening of the safety valve is the last resort of the equipment against
explosions due to excess pressure, so it is necessary to mitigate the causes of
the opening of the safety valves whenever they occur!
Figure 88: Opening of a safety valve.
Keep the valves calibrated and ready for commissioning, check the calibration times
of the instruments and make sure they are in good operating condition, without these
devices there is no guarantee of safety in the operation of boilers.
7.3 CASE STUDIES
Accidents and explosions involving boilers occur with great frequency, a quick search
on any search engine will return with numerous cases and reports every day. And the
numbers and statistics are becoming increasingly alarming.
On January 28, 2016 was published in the G1, a news site, the explosion of a boiler
at the Heineken Brewery in Jacareí, leaving 2 workers dead and 1 seriously injured.
According to the investigations conducted by the Ministry of Labor, the cause of the
explosion was due to lack of water in the boiler, listing 3 probable causes:
1. Inhibition of PLC control for burner stop command (contact jumper for safety valve
accumulation test during equipment inspection);
2. Boiler operation with water supply line valve closed;
3. Excessive increase of the boiler internal pressure during the tests conducted by
engineers and operators in the inspection of the equipment.
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All the hypotheses can be true and have been added so that the tragedy of the
explosion happened.
The boiler in question was out of operation and the inspection team was conducting a
series of tests and trials to return the equipment to steam.
The history of the boiler says a lot about the conditions it could be in. The boiler had
been initially designed for the burning of liquid fuel and had been serviced for fuel
exchange, now burning gaseous fuel.
1st Alert:
The exchange of fuel in a boiler may be indicative of embrittlement of the furnace
material. Each fuel produces a different flame geometry. Liquid fuels usually have an
elongated flame of short diameter. Gaseous fuels usually have a short flame and a
larger diameter. Assuming that the flame promoted by the burner exchange could
have touched the furnace of the boiler could cause the material to become brittle by
carbon creep. In this case, it would be necessary to perform the metallographic
replicate test to ensure that the material was still in satisfactory conditions for return
to operation.
During the tests and tests performed by the engineering team, a hydrostatic test was
performed. The hydrostatic test is a destructive test and may have aided in criticizing
a defect that has so far been in a subcritical state, allowing for a possible cracking or
crack not visible to the naked eye.
At the end of the first test phase the engineering team, accompanied by the operator,
started the final stage with heating and preparation for the accumulation test.
2nd Alert:
Given that the boiler has been standing for a long period, it is necessary that the
heating curve be made with the greatest possible criterion, following the geometry of
the flame through the viewfinder, ensuring that the flame does not touch the walls of
the furnace.
In case of combination of factors including: "jumper" + poor power + excessive

pressure the result was explosion.
Overheating of the boiler material due to lack of water together with the inhibition of
burner safety controls culminated in overpressure in the boiler.
It is also possible that due to the long period in which it was standing the boiler was
exposed to corrosion causing a decrease in the wall thickness of the furnace. It is
also possible that the burner setting was not correct, causing excessive heat supply.
The succession of combinatorial factors is not only due to human failures by the
inspection team and all these factors mentioned above are indicative of human
failures at all levels.
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The explosion occurred through the displacement of the front mirror of the furnace,
where the accumulation of forces per unit area is greater, given the fact that all
vectors point in the same direction in a straight section. The accident could be of a
smaller magnitude if the team were positioned next to the cylindrical body of the
boiler and had followed all the necessary safety rules for the safe operation of the
equipment.
In 2004 the explosion of a boiler in Bahia took the life of an operator. The expertise
determined that the failure occurred due to cracks in a "part" subject to heat and
pressure.
The accident at Dow Brazil SA was caused by the negligence of the employer.
We know that the appearance of cracks and cracks can be due to corrosion, water
hammer in piping lines, overheating by poor water supply, lack of control of the flame
that touches the walls of the furnace, among other factors. To ensure that equipment
is in safe condition, maintenance should be performed based on the design
characteristics of the equipment manufacturer.
Whenever welding maintenance is required, an extraordinary inspection shall be

carried out to ensure that the welding procedure is in satisfactory condition. The
welder must be qualified to perform the work on pressurized equipment, the materials
used must have a certificate of guarantee, and non-destructive tests in the region
where the welding was made should be conducted.
In general, the verification of welded parts is to ensure that there are no cracks or
cavitations in the weld beads, so that it is effective, and that the material is
preserved.
Dow Brazil's neglect of the tests and tests required to ensure the safety of the welded
part failed, leading to its collapse during the heating curve of the boiler.
All procedures involving welding must undergo tests and exams with technical
responsibility of PH, according to item: 13.3.3.5. Item that was deliberately neglected
by Dow Brasil, by opting not to realize the X-ray in the weld bead of the part under
pressure.
In the absence of documentation proving that the operation of a boiler is safe the
worker based on his experience and qualification could have exercised the right to
refuse to work, according to item: 13.3.6.3. In this case the right of refusal could have
preserved his life.
It is important to know the equipment with which we are working and its operation, as
well as to create safe and preventive habits, as indicated at the beginning of this
chapter 95% of pressurized equipment failures are due to human failure, so be aware
of it all the time! The goal of work safety, regulatory laws and regulations is to ensure
that the worker leaves his or her workplace healthfully and returns safely to his or her
home for his or her well-deserved rest.
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CHAPTER 8 - LEGISLATION AND STANDARDIZATION
The first relation between Employer and Worker of which we have news comes from
antiquity. The Egyptian civilization. Much research is being done in relation to this
organized civilization and that has built great monuments that exist until today.
Recent studies show that, contrary to what we thought, there were free laborers in
Egypt and that these, in turn, were well paid for their time.
Labor relations dictated the rules of development and gave rise to the world as we
know it.
Bertrand Russell, a great English philosopher and mathematician, argued that many
of our ideas about work are "little less than superstitions that should be eliminated by
rigorous thinking," and that the worker should devote himself to the hours of leisure
necessary for a meaningful life . As important as work is rest. As necessary as many
hours of work are the hours of leisure.
Adam Smith, the "father of modern economics," said production lines are an
"incredible money-making machine," but warned that unregulated could harm the
workers involved.
But what regulation? How to ensure that the worker can enjoy their leisure time? How
many hours? And who guarantees that he will enjoy them healthily? Who guarantees
that he does his job safely? Who guarantees that there is a balance between the
Employer vs. the Worker relationship? And in what way?
Secretariat of Labor of the Ministry of Economy
The SIT-Secretariat of Labor Inspection, an agency of the Ministry of Labor's Ministry

of Labor, is responsible for overseeing labor relations in Brazil, as well as elaborating
the guidelines for generating employment and income for the population. It is the SIT
that regulates the period and conditions of work, which ensures that workers carry
out their activities in safety.
There are several rules governing work. Currently we are governed by 37 Norms,
whose first publication was approved by Ordinance No. 3,217 of June 8, 1978 and
has been updated over the years.
Are they:
NR-01 - General Provisions

NR-02 - Preview Inspection
NR-03 - Embargo or Interdiction
NR-04 - Specialized Services in Safety Engineering and Occupational Medicine
NR-05 - Internal Commission for the Prevention of Accidents - CIPA
NR-06 - Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
NR-07 - Medical Occupational Health Control Programs (PCMSO)
NR-08 - Buildings
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NR-09 - Environmental Risk Prevention Program (PPRA)
NR-10 - Safety in Facilities and Services in Electricity
NR-11 - Transport, Handling, Storage and Material Handling
NR-12 - Safety at Work in Machinery and Equipment
NR-13 - Boilers, Pressure Vessels, Pipes and Metal Storage Tanks
NR-14 - Ovens
NR-15 - Unhealthy Activities and Operations
NR-16 - Dangerous Operations and Activities
NR-17 - Ergonomics
NR-18 - Working Conditions and Environment in the Construction Industry
NR-19 - Explosives
NR-20 - Safety and Health at Work with Flammable and Combustible
NR-21 - Open Skies Work
NR-22 - Occupational Safety and Health in Mining
NR-23 - Fire Protection
NR-24 - Sanitary and Comfort Conditions in Workplaces
NR-25 - Industrial Waste
NR-26 - Safety Signage
NR-27 - Professional Registry of Occupational Safety Technician
NR-28 - Inspection and Penalties
NR-29 - Safety and Health in Port Work
NR-30 - Water Safety and Health at Work
NR-31 - Occupational Safety and Health in Agriculture, Livestock Forestry, Forestry
and Aquaculture
NR-32 - Safety and Health at Work in Health Services
NR-33 - Safety and Health in Confined Spaces
NR-34 - Working Conditions and Environment in the Construction, Repair and
Shipbuilding Industry
NR-35 - Working at Height
NR-36 - Safety and Health at Work in Companies of Slaughter and Processing of
Meat and Derivatives
NR-37 - Safety and Health in Oil Platforms
Each of these standards is addressed to a different subject. In this course we study
the NR-13, which deals with Boilers, Pressure Vessels, Pipes and Metallic Tanks.
8.1 REGULATORY STANDARD 13 - NR-13
This NR establishes minimum requirements for the structural integrity management

of steam boilers, pressure vessels, their interconnection pipes and metal storage
tanks in aspects related to installation, inspection, operation and maintenance,
aiming at the safety and health of workers. (NR-13 - Item: 13.1.1)
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Figure 89: Rule Set.
The adoption of the measures determined by this standard is the responsibility of the
Employer with Technical Responsibility of a Qualified Professional - PH, who must be
a Mechanical or Naval Engineer, or who has studies in accordance with the minimum
prerequisites proposed by the Federal Engineering Council.
The equipment referred to below is considered to be covered by the standard,

according to item: 13.2.2:
a) all equipment classified as boilers according to subitems 13.4.1.1 and 13.4.1.2;

b) pressure vessels whose product P.V is greater than 8 (eight), where P is the
maximum operating pressure in kPa, in module, and V its internal volume in m³;
(c) pressure vessels containing Class A fluid specified in sub-item 13.5.1.2 (a),
independent of the dimensions and the product P.V;
(d) movable containers with a PV greater than 8 (eight) or with fluid of class A, as
specified in sub-item "a" of sub-item 13.5.1.2.
(e) pipes or piping systems connected to boilers or pressure vessels, categorized
according to subitems 13.4.1.2 and 13.5.1.2, containing class A or B fluids, according
to sub-item 13.5.1.2 of this NR;
(f) surface metal tanks for storing and storing final products or raw materials, buried
and grounded, with an external diameter greater than 3 m (3 m), a nominal capacity
greater than 20 000 L (twenty thousand liters), and which contain class A or B fluids,
according to sub-item "a" of sub-item 13.5.1.2 of this NR.
Such equipment must follow a series of safety rules imposed by NR-13. Among
them, the most common are the sizing and calibration of safety devices, general
rules for maintenance and intercurrences that can influence the life of the equipment,
rules and periodicity of inspections performed by PHs, equipment installation rules,
documents that the employer must have, rules for the training of Boiler Operators, for
maintenance with welding or boring and provides for fines and legal sanctions when
not complying with any of these rules.
Curiosity:
Each numbered item of each of the NRs corresponds to a legal or fine penalty
(whose value is calculated in UFIR). The fines are calculated in relation to the
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number of employees that the company has, if it is qualified as S (Occupational
Safety) or M (Occupational Medicine) and according to the infraction (number
ranging from 1 to 4, or I1 to I4).
In order to become a Boiler Operator, the worker must have completed High School
and participate in the Theoretical Course of "Safety in Boiler Operation" with a
duration of at least 40 hours, which should be in person.
Figure 90: Annotations.
After completing the course, the Operator must pass through practical internship
supervised by PH in the equipment that will operate. The stage may have a minimum
duration of 80 or 60 hours, depending on the category of the Boiler.
Every Operator must recycle their knowledge every time there is modification in the
Boiler or there are accidents / incidents or even recurring incidents with the
equipment that is operating.
8.2 CATEGORIES OF BOILERS
According to NR-13, item: 13.4.1.1: "Steam boilers are equipment designed to

produce and accumulate steam under atmospheric pressure using any source of
energy, designed according to relevant codes, except for boilers and the like" . And
they are categorized according to the item: 14.4.1.2
(a) Category A boilers are those whose operating pressure is equal to or greater than
1,960 kPa (19,98 kgf / cm²), with a volume exceeding 100 L (one hundred liters);
(b) Boilers of category B are those whose operating pressure is greater than 60 kPa
(0.61 kgf / cm²) and less than 1 960 kPa (19.98 kgf / cm2), internal volume greater
than 100 L (one hundred liters ) and the product between the operating pressure in
kPa and the internal volume in m³ is greater than 6 (six).
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This categorization is a novelty of NR-13 and was first published in 2017, but was
categorized in A, B and C. From this publication it is understood that category C was
merged with B.
It is known that to produce steam at a temperature above 100 ° C (at sea level) it is
necessary to add pressure, as seen earlier in this course, so it is considered an
equipment that offers increased risk. Therefore, it is necessary to follow a number of
rules regarding Design, Installation, Maintenance, Inspection and Operation. The 5
pillars of success! These 5 pillars are based on National and International standards
among which the most widely accepted are the American Society of Mechanical
Engineering (ASME) and the NB (National Boarding) Code.
Both organizations are composed of Engineers dedicated to the study of pressurized

equipment with the purpose of promoting safety in the construction, installation,
maintenance, inspection and operation of these equipments.
By relying on current norms and codes, NR-13 understands that both ASME and NB,
as guidelines, are accepted in Brazil and are the most commonly followed codes are
only on-shore but also off-shore.
Curiosity:
Rampant industrialization was responsible for the design of numerous Boilers

worldwide. With the advent of the use of steam the whole world began to use it to
produce the most diverse products, in the most diverse segments, causing many
accidents by explosions.
The most famous boiler accident was in Massachusetts in 1905, where a boiler
exploded across three floors of a shoe factory building, killing 58 people and injuring
117 more. The accident opened the eyes of engineers around the world. And in 1908
the State of Massachusetts published the first Law regarding Boilers in the country.
In Brazil, attention to regulatory standards has increased with a complaint made by a
television channel, coincidentally, to a shoe factory where most workers had already
suffered numerous work-related accidents and many of them amputations while
working with the factory machinery at a few years ago.
No equipment can be shipped on a platform without complying with the safety rules,
documentation and in the absence of a boiler Operator.
All boilers must be equipped with safety valves, pressure indicator instruments,
automatic level control system with interlocking in case of overheating, independent
water supply system in boilers that burn solid fuel and rapid drainage system in
recovery boilers of alkali. In addition, fire prevention and firefighting systems are
128
BOILERS
required for embarkation of offshore boilers. Usual redundancies in safety systems /
devices, correct signaling and in accordance with the guidelines of other NRs.
For platform shipments, it will still be required that the equipment be installed in
interconnectable modules (marine containers properly constructed and documented
following National and International rules), be tested for their tightness after lifting
and when properly interconnected to the process of which it will be part. Platform
shipment requirements are listed in the NR-37 and are in addition to the
requirements of the NR-13. In addition to security systems, the NR-13 provides that
the following documentation is updated, according to item: 13.4.1.6.
a) Boiler record, supplied by its manufacturer, containing the following information:

project code and year of issue;
specification of materials;
procedures used in manufacturing, assembly and final inspection;
methodology for establishing PMTA;
test execution records hydrostatic manufacturing;
set of drawings and other data necessary to monitor the boiler life;
functional characteristics;
safety device data;
year of manufacture;
boiler category;
b) Safety Record in accordance with sub-item 13.4.1.9;
c) Design of installation, in accordance with sub-item 13.4.2.1;
d) Draft alteration or repair, in accordance with subitems 13.3.3.3 and 13.3.3.4;
e) Safety inspection reports, in accordance with sub-item 13.4.4.16;
(e) Certificates of calibration of safety devices.
All of these documents must be kept up to date and available for consultation by all
employees involved in this work, either physically or digitally.
Figure 91: Archived documents.
The Certificate carries all the necessary information about the equipment, it is the
birth certificate of the Boiler. New technologies allow new materials to become
available for use as well as new treatments and new methods for forming, so each
edition of codes and standards bring new materials to be used and with them new
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BOILERS
design possibilities with new tolerance limits for failure of pressurized parts. All
materials and construction methods selected must have a Certificate of Quality.
For proper maintenance or inspection, the engineers and employees involved must
be aware of the boiler's construction methods.
A Safety Record must contain all reports that may influence the life of the equipment.
Examples are: Maintenance, Inspections, Anomalies and Intercurrences during the
operation and in case the Boiler is considered inadequate, receiving a formal closure.
The Change and Repair project refers to all types of maintenance with welding or
boring, or any modification of the original design that may influence the life of the
equipment.
All current codes and standards (National or International) make demands on the
professionals involved with this type of work. In Brazil, ABEND (Brazilian Association
of Non-Destructive Testing) is the organization certifying the quality of services
provided in a maintenance, alteration and / or repair that can bring significant
transformations in the equipment.
The Equipment Safety Inspection is like a routine inspection. It is during the

Inspection that the Engineer evaluates the actual conditions of the equipment and
declares if it is in satisfactory conditions of Operation and Maintenance. At the end of
the Inspection the engineer will issue a Report that contains all the information
collected.
Inspections must occur annually in Boilers, both Internal and External inspections,
and it is common for all instruments to be calibrated during this period, since the
periodicity of the Instrument Calibration can not exceed the periodicity of the Internal
Inspection of Equipment that protects.
The Inspection Reports prepared by the engineers must contain at least the items
quoted in: 13.4.4.16
a) data on the nameplate of the boiler; (The nameplate of the Boiler should contain
the manufacturer, serial number, year of manufacture, PMTA, PTH, Capacity,
Thermal Exchange Area and design code with year of issue)
b) category of the boiler; (A or B)
c) type of boiler; (Flamotubular, Acquatubular or Mixed)
d) type of inspection performed; (Initial, Periodic or Extraordinary)
e) date of beginning and end of the inspection;
f) description of the inspections, examinations and tests carried out; (It will always be
Internal and External)
g) photographic records of the internal examination of the boiler;
h) result of inspections and measures;
i) list of the items of this NR, related to boilers, that are not being met; (If you have all
the safety instruments, if they are calibrated and in good condition, if they are well
sized.) If the Boiler Area or House contains all the requirements required by the
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BOILERS
standard, it is under the care of Boiler Operators as required by ANNEX I of this NR,
etc.)
j) recommendations and necessary measures; (this is a very important item for the
Operator because there are recommendations that can promote changes in the
Operating Routine.You must always make sure that the recommendations of the PH
are followed)
k) conclusive opinion on the integrity of the boiler until the next inspection; (if the
boiler can continue to operate at the PMTA calculated by the manufacturer or the
engineer who inspected it previously, whether there is a need to promote any
significant maintenance, etc.)
l) expected date of the new boiler safety inspection;
m) legible name, signature and registration number on the professional council of the
PH and legible name and signature of technicians who participated in the inspection.
The periods of Periodic Inspection for establishments that do not have SPIE
Inspection Service, according to ANNEX II of this NR are in the item: 13.4.4.4
12 (12) months for boilers of categories A and B;

15 (fifteen) months for alkali recovery boilers of any category;
24 (twenty-four) months for Category A boilers provided that the opening pressure of
the safety valves is tested at 12 (twelve) months.
And for services that have SPIE in the item: 13.4.4.5
24 (twenty-four) months for alkali recovery boilers;

24 (twenty-four) months for Category B boilers;
30 (thirty) months for Category A boilers.
In addition to the Periodic Inspection there are also the Initial Inspection and the
Extraordinary Inspection. Every time new fabricated equipment is put into operation it
must undergo an Initial Inspection in this inspection will be serviced the same items
as a periodic inspection and a TH may also be executed if the equipment does not
have a document certifying that the TH has been made in its manufacturing phase.
The Extraordinary Inspection, in turn, will occur whenever the equipment undergoes
significant maintenance or alteration of its original design conditions, when the boiler
remains inactive for 6 months or when there is significant damage.
Usually an Extraordinary Inspection is accompanied by a PAR (Change and Repair

Project).
The Boiler Installation, as previously mentioned, may occur in the Boiler Room or
Area. For each installation there will be rules to be followed, as it exposes the items:
13.4.2.3 and 14.4.2.4 and are the responsibility of the PH.
Installation in open environment (13.4.2.3):
a) be at least 3 m away from:
- other premises of the establishment;

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BOILERS
- fuel tanks, except for tanks with a capacity of up to 2000 L (two thousand liters);
- the limit of ownership of third parties;
- the limit with public roads;
b) have at least 2 (two) wide exits, permanently unobstructed, marked and arranged
in different directions;
c) have easy and safe access, necessary for the operation and maintenance of the
boiler, and, for leakage guards, the gaps must have dimensions that prevent the fall
of people;
d) have a system for collecting and launching the gases and particulate matter, from
combustion, outside the operating area in compliance with current environmental
standards;
e) have lighting according to current official standards;
f) have an emergency lighting system if it operates at night.
Installation in the Boiler Room (13.4.2.3):
a) constitute a separate building, constructed of fire-resistant material, and may have

only one wall adjacent to other premises of the establishment, but with other walls at
least 3.0 m (three meters) away from other installations, of third-party ownership, the
limit with public roads and fuel depots, except for reservoirs for starting up to 2,000 L
(two thousand liters) of capacity;
b) have at least 2 (two) wide exits, permanently unobstructed, marked and arranged
in different directions;
c) have permanent ventilation with air intakes that can not be blocked;
d) to have a sensor for detection of gas leakage in the case of gaseous fuel boilers;
e) not be used for any other purpose;
f) have easy and safe access, necessary for the operation and maintenance of the
boiler, and for empty guards, the gaps must be of dimensions that prevent the fall of
people;
g) have a system for collecting and launching gases and particulates from
combustion, outside the operating area, in compliance with current environmental
standards;
h) have lighting according to official standards in force and have an emergency

lighting system.
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BOILERS
In both facilities there are the same or similar rules, as example a) and b). The
purpose of this rule is to prevent an increased risk hazard from endangering the
health of persons not directly involved in the equipment, as well as to reduce the
risks to other company facilities and to allow a rapid evacuation from the place where
the accident or incident to occur.
Points c) and d) are also similar in the matter of air circulation. They are rules for the
prevention of explosions in case of gas leakage and prevent workers from being
exposed to gases harmful to their health.
In the case of the Boiler Room there are additional rules, such as points e), f) and g),
because it is a closed environment.
To think:
Imagine that the Boiler Room is also a warehouse or warehouse, and that a small fire
occurs. The magnitude of the fire may increase in the presence of other objects,
parts and machinery and their combat will become quite difficult.
As previously seen, NR-13 brings special conditions to Companies that have a SPIE
(Self Inspection Service) according to ANNEX II. In general, SPIE is composed of
professionals dedicated exclusively to Inspection services. It is not usual, but it is a
possibility.
The professionals hired to join this team must be certified for Non-Destructive
Testing, must have at least one PH and count on equipment compatible with carrying
out the proposed activities.
SPIE must also be certified by a competent body (OCP, Cgcre / INMETRO) and have
written procedures (manual) for the main activities performed.
From 2018 a third attachment will be part of NR-13 that talks about Volunteer
Certification of Competencies of the Enabled Professional. This novelty allows the
engineer to be certified through the SBAC (Brazilian System of Evaluation of
Conform.
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136

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SAFETY IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS

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West Group Training Industrial Ltda

CHAPTER 1 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED PHYSICS ..................................................... 6

1.1 PRESSURE ............................................................................................... 6

1.2 HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................... 12

1.3 THERMODYNAMICS .............................................................................. 15

1.4 FLUID MECHANICS ................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER 2 - NOTIONS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY ............................................. 23

2.2 SOLUBILITY ............................................................................................ 26

2.3 DIFFUSION OF GASES AND VAPORS.................................................. 27

2.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACID AND BASE (ALKALIS) - DEFINITION

2.5 BASIC FOUNDATIONS ON CORROSION ............................................. 30

CHAPTER 3 - TOPICS ON INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT

3.1 MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT .......................................................... 36

3.2 EQUIPMENT INSPECTION ..................................................................... 39

3.3 RECORDS ............................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER 4 - BOILERS - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................... 50

4.1 TYPES OF BOILERS AND THEIR USES ............................................... 54

4.2 BOILER ACCESSORIES......................................................................... 67

4.3 BOILER INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL DEVICES ............................. 69

CHAPTER 5 - OPERATION OF BOILERS .............................................................. 82

5.1 STARTING AND STOPPING ................................................................... 84

5.2 REGULATION AND CONTROL .............................................................. 89

5.3 OPERATIONAL FAULTS, CAUSES AND PROVIDENCE ...................... 96

5.5 OPERATION OF A VARIOUS BOILER SYSTEM ................................... 98

5.6 PROCEDURES IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS..................................... 99

CHAPTER 6 - WATER TREATMENT .................................................................... 101

6.1 WATER IMPURITIES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ......................... 101

6.2 WATER TREATMENT ........................................................................... 105

6.3 BOILER WATER CONTROL ................................................................. 108

CHAPTER 7 - PREVENTION AGAINST EXPLOSION AND OTHER RISKS ........ 111

7.1 GENERAL RISK OF ACCIDENTS AND RISK TO HEALTH................. 112

7.2 EXPLOSION HAZARDS ........................................................................ 114

7.3 CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................... 121

CHAPTER 8 - LEGISLATION AND STANDARDIZATION .................................... 124

8.1 REGULATORY STANDARD 13 - NR-13............................................... 125

8.2 CATEGORIES OF BOILERS ................................................................. 127

2. The very slow reading favors that at the end of a

4. Study without distraction. Look for a way to

5. Emphasize with intelligence. Underpinning is an

7. Do not interrupt reading; the sequence of the text

9. Do not complain about not having studied

14. Food is the energy of life, look for foods that

1.1.1 Atmospheric pressure

The concept of pressure can be described by the following mathematical equation:

Figure 1: Torricelli's experience

That is, the pressure is lower at higher altitudes.

Figure 2: Normal Force always perpendicular to the surface where it is applied.

That is, a perpendicular force (angled at 90 °) to a surface therefore could be applied

1.1.2 Manometric pressure and absolute pressure

Figure 3: Pressure gauge.

Figure 04: Bourdon tube inside a manometer.

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure

Figure 05: Distribution of forces in a circular section.

Now let's look at the drawing below:

Figure 06: Distribution of forces in a flat section.

And how important is this knowledge to the boiler operator?

Any pressurized equipment having flat sections is subject to an accumulation of

Historically the units of measurement were anthropometric measurements, that is,

Here's the subway! The metro is a unit of measurement created by astronomers