BIG PICTURE in Focus

j. classify and articulate classify and articulate Virtue Ethics

◈ METALANGUAGE ◈

VIRTUE ETHICS – MORALITY IS BASED UPON THE DOER’S CHARACTER

◈ ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ◈

Virtue Ethics is a theory of morality formulated somehow as early as the Ancient Greece. But the
widely known and the most influential theory of which is that of Aristotle.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) made a lot of contributions on many areas of knowledge and
transformed most of the areas he touched. He made contributions to Ethics, Theory on Politics,
Metaphysics, Agriculture, Mathematics, Medicine, Dance, Theatre and pioneered the study of
Logic, Physics and Biology. In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote 200 treatises, of which only 31
survive. The surviving works were not in fact intended for public readings but mere lecture notes
and draft manuscripts. (IEP: Aristotle) Aristotle was a son of Nicomachus, a court physician of
the King Philip II of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the Great. Aristotle later on became a
mentor to the Great Alexander.

ARISTOTLE’S notion of VIRTUE, like his teacher Plato, is highly related to his idea of
happiness since he claims completeness in virtue is required in happiness.

(See NE: Book 1, 1100a, 4-5).

He says that “Happiness is some kind of activity of the soul in conformity with virtue”.

(NE: Book 1, 1099b, 26)

HAPPINESS

Long before Aristotle, it had been the obsessions of many thinkers to unveil the purpose or end
of human existence.

Aristotle teaches that the purpose of thing lies in its PROPER FUNCTION. The proper function
of ceiling fan is to be placed in the ceiling in order to rotate and circulate the air to give us
comfort.
 We call it proper function since a ceiling fan could still have many other functions such as, it
could be placed in the floor and still in order to circulate the air or it could be used as weapon
against an intruder or thieves. However, none of those is the proper function of a ceiling fan.

The same thing with human being, we have a lot of functions, an army, a doctor, a teacher, a
preacher, a parent and many others

but a human being has a PROPER FUNCTION and according to Aristotle, it is HAPPINESS.
(See NE: Book 1, 1097b 24)

Furthermore, Aristotle believes that “…every action and choice, seem to aim at some good.”
(NE: Book 1, 1094, 1-3)

He also identifies two types of end, namely, the END WHICH IS PURSUED FOR THE SAKE
OF SOMETHING ELSE and the END WHICH IS NOT PURSUED FOR THE SAKE OF
SOMETHING ELSE.

In the FIRST TYPE OF END, Aristotle also observes that the good which is the purpose of our
particular action could be utilized to get another end which is also perceived to be good.

Thus, some good we get from our actions may only be utilized to pursue another end, and in the
same way, the other good we get may only be used as means for another end and so on and so
forth.

For instance, your goal is to pass the subject because you perceive it to be good, but passing is
not yet your ultimate end, you will only use it to pursue another end by which you think to be
good, to graduate probably, but graduating is only for getting a good job or having a better status,
by getting a good job is to get a good salary and later your money is only to be utilized for
something else and something more and more.

In these descriptions (ABOVE), none of these ends can be the purpose of human existence.

If human life has a purpose, it has to be an end which is not pursued for the sake of something
else, AN END IN ITSELF AND FINAL IN AN UNQUALIFIED SENSE.

Aristotle names it as the END OF ALL ENDS, THE FINAL END, THE HIGHEST GOOD etc.
this end he calls as “eudaimonia” which is commonly translated into English as HAPPINESS
OR LIVING WELL OR DOING WELL.

The HIGHEST GOOD IS HAPPINESS since no one chooses it for the sake of something else.
We do not choose happiness to get another thing or end because happiness cannot be utilized and
is not to be used to get anything else. When you are happy, you need nothing else.

QUESTION: Do you agree with Aristotle that: the highest good is happiness and When you are
happy, you need nothing else? Why or why not?
The final and perfect good is nothing but happiness.

VIRTUE AS REQUIREMENT FOR HAPPINESS

Long before the teaching of Christianity about heaven and eternal happiness and that one needs
to be a good person or virtuous in order to be in heaven,

Aristotle already taught that Happiness requires virtue

(NE: 1098a, 16),

one should be virtuous in order to be happy.

Aristotle teaches that Happiness is an activity of the soul in conformity with virtue.

FIRST IT IS AN ACTIVITY

, and thus happy are only those who participate in this sort of activity. (NE: 1099a, 5)

Happiness, then, is what a human being does, it needs active participation. You cannot simply
wait for happiness without doing anything. To be happy you have to get involved, you have to be
active and not passive spectator.

Doing no evil does not always make one a virtuous or good person. A virtuous person does good
and does the right thing.

SECOND, HAPPINESS IS IN CONFORMITY WITH VIRTUE.

A happy person then must be a good person and no bad person is happy.

Happiness, as I understand Aristotle, is an activity of the soul of a virtuous person.

One can never be happy unless one is good. Immoral people, regardless of wealth and fame are
unhappy in Aristotle’s understanding.

QUESTION: Do you agree with Aristotle that: One can never be happy unless one is good? And
that Immoral people, regardless of wealth and fame are unhappy? Why or Why not?

VIRTUE AS MODERATION

VIRTUE, for Aristotle, like HITTING A TARGET while EXCESS and DEFICIENCY of action
and emotion is MISSING THE PROPER MARK OR TARGET.

(See.NE: Book 2, 1106b, 25)

Virtue is the mean, as it aims at the median

(NE: Book 2, 1106b, 25)

FOR EXAMPLE

Aristotle says, “…the man who shuns and fears everything and never stands his ground becomes
a coward, whereas, a man who knows no fear at all and goes to meet every danger becomes
reckless.”

(NE: Book 2, 1104a, 20, p.36)

Being coward (deficiency) and being reckless (excess) are two extremes of the mean “Courage”.
Indeed, everything that is too much is evil.

In the given example courage is the virtue and the two others are vices or EXTREMES.

It requires reason to know which among the three is the mean or the virtuous one. A courageous
man knows when to attack and when to retreat depending on circumstances. Thus, morality is an
attribute that belongs to the rational alone.

In Book IV of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle lists down various examples of virtues in relation
to each two extremes, to name a few:

MORE EXAMPLES OF THE MEAN OR MODERATION:

Deficiency (Vice) Mean (Virtue) Excess (Vice)

PETTINESS - DEFICIENCY HIGH-MINDED -MEAN VANITY -EXCESS

(one who underestimates (When one thinks he deserves (When one thinks he deserves
himself); great things and actually great things but actually does
deserves them); not deserve them)

SHORT TEMPERED – GENTLENESS –MEAN; APATHY -EXCESS

DEFICIENCY;

Grouchiness -Deficiency (the Friendliness -Mean Obsequiousness- Excess

quality of being easily (submissiveness. servility,
annoyed and quick to subservience)
complain)

STINGINESS – GENEROSITY –MEAN; EXTRAVAGANCE -

DEFICIENCY; EXCESS
There are types or virtues in Aristotle’s notion, namely, the VIRTUE OF THE MIND OR
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUE and the MORAL VIRTUE. The two are highly interrelated; in fact,
one needs to be intelligent or prudent in order to be virtuous.

VIRTUE, HAPPINESS AND RATIONALITY

As already been stated above, Happiness requires virtue (NE: 1098a16), and rational principle
(NE: 1098a7).

To choose the mean requires REASON since it needs rational capacity to find out which is the
mean in relation to two extremes

and the mean may vary from different people and different circumstances.

This is why, Intellectual Virtue (Prudence) is highly intertwined with Moral Virtue.

(Rationality/reason is indirectly connected with Happiness).

A Human being is superior above all other on the basis of human rational capacity. This
rationality gives us the capacity to know and thus choose for we only choose what we know as
good as we always tend to choose the good; (see Book I, 1094a, 5, p.3) in fact it is the end of all
our choices. (see Book I, 1094a, 20, p.4)

Reason then is the sole ground why A human is happy, thus, without reason no one can be
happy. Therefore, happiness is an activity that is reserved for human alone since only A human is
rational.

Aristotle concludes, “We are right, then, when we call neither a horse or an ox nor any other
animals happy, for none of them is capable of participating in an activity of this kind.” (NE:
Book I, 1100, 5)

Virtue as a CHARACTER

Aristotle says, “Moral Virtue is formed by HABIT.”

(NE: Book 2, 15)

His concept of morality focuses on the character OR HABIT of the person rather than on the
action.

Virtue is a habit or excellence.

In this sense we judge people not solely by virtue of what they do at particular circumstances but
what they REGULARLY or most likely do in a given circumstance.

QUESTION: Do you agree with Aristotle that to be virtuous means that we should do good
REGULARLY and not just in once instance? Why or why not?

Aristotle’s concern is not mainly on what you do but what sort of person you are. A reckless
person will always fight in times of danger the coward will always run but the virtuous will do
the most reasonable action to be taken, i.e., courage.

◈ SELF HELP ◈

You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand the lesson.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Aristotle

https://iep.utm.edu/aristotl/