Caie A2 Biology 9700 Theory v1

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UPDATED TO 2019-21 SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL
BIOLOGY (9700)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL BIOLOGY (9700)
Quadrat
Mark and release
1. Biodiversity Simpson’s Index of Biodiversity
The importance of random sampling is that a habitat may be

1.1. Terms too large for
actual counting so a sample is quick and gives a
representation of the
whole habitat.
Species: a group of organisms with similar morphological
and
physiological features, which can interbreed to
produce fertile
offspring and are reproductively isolated 1.5. Random Sampling
from other species.
Ecosystem: a relatively self-contained, interacting Used when area looks uniform or there’s no clear pattern of
community of
organisms, and the environment in which the way
species are distributed
Quadrat sampling:
they live and with which
they interact. Consists of biotic
and abiotic parts
Decide size of quadrat and number of samples
Niche: is the role of an organism in an ecosystem (it is
Mark a specific area
how an
organism fits into the ecosystem).
Samples are taken randomly eg by using random number
generator to
give coordinates of sampling points in the
1.2. Biodiversity area to avoid any bias
and increase accuracy of estimate
Biodiversity: The variety of species in an area along with their

variation within species and the genetic diversity between
them.
The three levels of diversity:

Variation in ecosystems or habitats
Number of different species in the ecosystem and
their relative
abundance
Genetic variation within each species
Uses of maintaining biodiversity:
Maintains stability of ecosystem; preventing extinction
Maintains large gene pool (genetic variation)
Ecosystems provide ‘services’ for humans
Species can be source of new medicines
Resource such as food and wood
Leisure for humans to see in zoos; ecotourism
Climate stability
1.3. Genetic Diversity

Is the diversity of the alleles within the genes in the
genome of a
single species Take measurement of abundance of specific species
A species can all have the same genes, but different Note: usually used with species that are stationary
alleles for
those genes. Genetic diversity is assessed by 2 ways to use your results:
finding proportion of
genes with different alleles and how Species frequency: is the measure of the chance of a
many alleles there are per
gene. particular species being found in any one quadrant.
No. of Appearance
1.4. Species Diversity × 100
No. of Quadrats

The number of species in a community is known as Species density: is a measure of how many individuals
species
richness there are
per unit area.
Species diversity takes species richness into account, but
also
includes evenness of abundance of each species Total No. of individuals Calculated
Units: m-2
Total Area of All Quadrats
In species diversity there are two points that need to be When unable to count, use percentage cover
found:
distribution and abundance of species.
To do this we use means of Random sampling such as: 1. Divide eg 100 x 100 cm quadrat to 100 small squares
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2. Decide approx. what % area inside quadrat is

occupied by each
species
Alternatively, use the Braun-Blanquet abundance
scale.
Mark-release and recapture:
Used with mobile animals

As many individuals possible are caught
Each individual is marked in a way that would not
affect its
chance of survival or reproduction
The marked individuals are counted and returned to
their habitat
to mix randomly
After enough time elapses for mixing to take place,
capture
another sample
Number of marked and unmarked counted and used
to calculate
estimate of population
1.7. Correlation
n1 × n ∗ 2 Correlation coefficient (r): determine whether there is a linear
N=

m∗2 relationship and its strength (ie how close the points are to
the line)
N = population estimate
n1 = number of marked individuals released
n2 = total number of individuals (both marked and
unmarked)
captured
m2 = number of marked individuals recaptured
1.6. Systematic Sampling

Used to determine species distribution in areas where
conditions
such as altitude, soil moisture content, pH or
exposure to light
intensity varies
Using transacts: to detect changes in community composition

along a
line across one or more habitats.
Line transect
The number of organisms found at regular Assume the null hypothesis is true: there is no correlation
points along a line are
noted. between
the two samples
Create a scatter graph to see if there’s a correlation between
the
abundance of 2 species
Pearson’s linear correlation

Belt transect
Interval data that must be distributed normally- you can
The abundance of organisms within quadrats see this if
the graph does not appear skewed or has
placed at regular intervals obvious outliers
Must have linear correlation
The two variables can be on either axis
Quantitate data as measurements or counts
Σxy − nxy
Drawing a kite diagram r=

nsx sy

Find the highest value from the table e.g. 6 in this case
n = sample size (number of observations)
Give each species 6 spaces on y axis
Draw a straight line of 0 through the middle
x, y = number of species x, number of species y
Divide the number you are plotting by two, plot it above
x, y = mean

and below
the line (from 0)
sx , sy = standard deviation of x and y

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The value of r is always between -1 and 1, where -1 n Physics Rank Maths Rank D D2
indicates a
negative correlation, 1 indicates positive
4 17 6 23 6 0 0
correlation, and 0
indicates no correlation.
5 10 7 8 8 1 1
Example 6 43 2 49 1 1 1
Number of species Number of 7 9 8 12 7 1 1
Quadrat xy
P, species Q, 8 6 9 4 9 0 0
x y 9 28 4 31 4 0 0
1 10 21 210 2
∑ D = 12
2 9 20 180
rs = 0.9
3 11 22 242
4 7 17 119 As rs = 0.9, it is close to 1 and there is a correlation
5 8 16 128 between the 2 sets of data.
6 14 23 322
Example critical value table at 5% error
7 10 20 200
n 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
8 12 24 288
1 1.00 0.89 0.79 0.76 0.68 0.65 0.60
9 12 22 264
10 9 19 171 Critical value at n = 9 is 0.68
Σxy = Since rs > 0.68, there is a significant correlation between
mean x y
2124 the data sets.

nx, y 10 × 10.2 ×

20.4 = 2080.8 1.8. Simpson’s Index of Diversity

Standard
sx = 2.10 sy = 2.55 After abundance of species is calculated in the area you
deviation

are
studying, use this formula to calculate the diversity
r = 0.81
2
D = 1 − Σ ( Nn )
As r = 0.81 it is closer to 1 and is a positive correlation.

where n is the total number of organisms of a particular

species, and N
is the number of all species
Spearman’s rank correlation
Value of D ranges from 0 to 1(1 being highly diverse)
Used to find out if there’s a correlation when data is not Advantage: do not have to identify organisms to calculate
normally distributed diversity
6 × ΣD 2
rs = 1 − ( ) Example

n3 − n

Number of n 2
Species (N )
individuals ,n

1. Rank both species (where the highest data is ranked 1

and so on) Shore A
2. Calculate the difference in rank in each quadrat, D A 24 0.00
3. Square the difference B 367 0.110
4. Find the sum of D 2 , and proceed with formula. C 192 0.030
The closer the value rs is to 1, the more likely it is
that D 14 0.000
there is a correlation between the two sets of data E 83 0.006
The rs value you calculated is then compared with the F 112 0.010
critical value- if rs is greater than the critical
value, then G 207 0.035
null hypothesis is rejected, meaning there is a
significant H 108 0.010
correlation. 2
Total no. of individuals, Σ ( Nn ) =
1107

Example N 0.201
n Physics Rank Maths Rank 2
D D D = 1 – 0.201 = 0.799 ∴
1 35 3 30 5 2 4 high diversity
2 23 5 33 3 2 4
3 47 1 45 2 1 1 2. Classification
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2.1. Taxonomic Hierarchy Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Many forms:
Biologists created a process called classification to unicellular,
Usually single
arrange
organisms into groups; these taxa form a colonial(group
Size cell or small
hierarchy which helps group
organisms mutual
groups of cells
benefit) and
multicellular
Archaea’s
metabolism is
similar to that
of bacteria,
Notes but the way
transcription
occurs much
in common
with eukarya
2.3. Kingdoms
Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Multicellular,
differentiated to
2.2. Domain Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
form tissues
and organs
Three domains:
Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Single cell, Do not have
or exist as chlorophyll so
No nucleus, Specialized cells
group of cannot
DNA exists as
Present, with similar cells photosynthesize
circular
DNA arranged Heterotrophic
chromosomes Heterotrophic
as linear Some nutrition- feed
Nucleus without Autotrophic- nutrition- rely
chromosomes animal like as parasites and
histones, Some have on others to
with histone cells (no getting organic
along with chloroplast and make their food
proteins cell wall) compounds
small circular photosynthesize or get their
Plasmids Protozoans from other
energy
organisms
Membrane No membrane
bound bound Present Plant like
Cell vacuoles
organelle organelle (cellulose
Reproduce by Cells have large are small and
cell walls
70S ribosomes means of permanent temporary like
and
smaller than spores vacuoles lysosomes and
70S 80S ribosomes chloroplast)
eukaryote but food vacuoles.
ribosomes, in the cytosol, ie algae
have features
Ribosomes smaller than but also has Cell wall made Cell walls always
that are
eukaryotic 70S in up of chitin or present and
similar to No cell walls
ribosome mito/chloro other made up of
eukaryotic
ribosome substances cellulose
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis Cells
May
Never have cilia sometimes
Present occasionally
Always Always or flagella have cilia or
sometimes have flagella
present and present, but flagella
Cell wall (cellulose) and
contains no
has cell
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
membrane
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Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia areas (habitat

fragmentation) or destroyed, reducing
Simple body biodiversity and leading
to extinction in extreme
form, can be cases.
unicellular or Deforestation: due to farming, urbanisation etc leads
made up of long to
severe land degradation as a result of soil erosion.
threads of Climate change: plants and animals affected as they
hyphae. Large Communication may not
be able to adjust.
form such a by nervous Major cause is greenhouse gas emission from eg
system organic waste (methane) and factories (CO2). It
mushrooms
traps more heat, causing global warming and a
produced by
compacted rise in sea
levels.
masses of As the earth gets warmer, organisms at high
hyphae ie altitudes find
it difficult to adapt.
fruiting bodies Acidification/temp rise of the oceans can destroy
aquatic life such as coral reefs, algae and molluscs.
Coral reefs are an example of key stone species ie
Viruses are not classified in the 3 domain classes as they are
species
that play a central role in the ecosystem, and
considered dead (they don’t undergo MRS GREN), also they
whose existence
effects the entire community. They
do not have any
of the features that are used in the
have been destroyed due to
overfishing, mining,
classification.
fertilizer run-off, and high
temperatures (leading to
Structure only visible by electron microscope coral bleaching ie when coral
becomes white as algae
Acellular- they do not have cellular structure like bacteria leaves coral which supply O2
to coral)
and
fungi however they have particles made of proteins Pollution caused by untreated industrial and domestic
and nucleic acids
similar to cellular organisms. waste
leaking into the environment, effecting animals’
Infectious but have no metabolism when they are free metabolism or
excretion.
When they infect cells, they use the biochemical Substances such as polychlorinated biphenyl
machinery of the
host cells to copy their nucleic acids and (PCBs) enter our
food chains, effects our immune
make their proteins
destruction of host cell. systems and reduces
fertility.
Energy for these processes is obtained by host cells’ Non-biodegradables such as plastic can be eaten by
respiration turtles.
Fertilizers can drain into rivers causing eutrophication,
Taxonomic system for viruses: killing all species in that ecosystem.
Air pollution causes acid rain, affecting aquatic life
Is based on the diseases which they cause
and
vegetation.
Type of nucleic acid they contain (DNA or RNA)
Over exploitation: hunting and poaching for eg ivory,
Whether nucleic acid is double/single stranded
and
overfishing due to overpopulation
Note: in cellular organism’s DNA is double stranded and RNA Alien species: invasive species that moved from one
is
single stranded but in viruses both can be either single or ecosystem to another by trading animals and used to
double. control
pests.
Increase in disease: alien species could introduce
diseases
3. Conservation
3.2. Why does Biodiversity Matter?
3.1. Threats to Biodiversity
Moral and ethical: some people/cultures believe we have
Five major threats to biodiversity: no right
to cause extinction of other species.
Ecological: ecosystems are more stable when biodiversity
Habitat loss and degradation of environment is
high. They also add direct value to us eg medicinal
Climate change herbs must be
protected so that species beneficial to us
Excessive use of fertilizers and industrial and domestic are not lost.
forms of
pollution Nutrient cycles and food chains are disrupted when
Over exploitation and unsustainable use of resources biodiversity
is harmed.
Alien species Aesthetic: many people enjoy the variety of organisms
Habitat loss: process in which habitat is rendered and
habitats on earth, which provide inspiration for
functionally unable to support the species present. In creative people.
this
process, the organisms that previously used the Social and commercial: animals or plants that are
site are
displaced, habitats get divided into smaller important to
the economy of countries are
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interbred/genetically engineered to
produce crops that which they can be
grown.
increase yield and have useful characteristics. Preferably, seeds of the same species is collected
It’s also a source of employment and ecotourism. from
different sites to maintain gene pool.
Microorganisms are sources of useful products eg Germination tests carried out every 5 years to
mass
production of Taq polymerase for polymerase check if
stored seeds still viable.
chain reaction by
genetically modified bacteria Disadvantages:
Timbre and sandal wood obtained are a source of Possibility of altering genetic diversity
income Gene pool decreases esp for small populations as an
Other services: even smaller
sample is taken for store, which is
Forests maintain CO2 level, reduce flooding and unrepresentative of the
genetic diversity of the entire
provide a huge habitat for thousands of organisms population.
Some plant seeds are difficult to be dried and frozen.
3.3. Protecting Endangered Species Conserved areas (national parks and marine parks): set areas
where
wildlife and environment have some form of
Zoo: has a variety of functions in addition to providing protection controlled by
government, and where human
enjoyment
and interest for visitors who can study animals activity is limited.
they would not be able
to see otherwise.
Marine parks: conserve fragile ecosystems at risk of
Advantages:
overfishing, dredging and pollution
Provide protection for endangered species and have
successful
captive breeding programs with the aim of Advantages of conserved areas:
reintroducing them to
their natural habitat. Strict limits on agriculture, building, mining, fishing,
Maintain genetic diversity by breeding with different hunting
and other threatening activities
mates. Restricted access to areas that are sensitive to human
Research to better understand breeding habits, interference
habitat
requirements and ways to increase genetic Alien animal and invasive plant species are removed
diversity Captive breeding and reintroduction programs
Disadvantages: Money from tourism used to pay for park’s
Not all conservation attempts are a success maintenance, spreading
awareness about
Animals can refuse to breed in captivity conservation, improve local health/education
facilities
Sometimes not possible to create suitable habitat Local people employed and given areas of land for
Difficult for animals to adapt to wildlife as they were farming
used to
being cared for. Animals are not moved from natural environment
They do not have the skills required to survive in Closer feel to wildlife than zoos
natural
habitat as they can’t: Disadvantages:
Avoid predators Threats are still so great that some species have to be
Find food moved
from natural habitat and placed somewhere
Rear their own safer eg zoos
Animals are restricted in specific area (cannot
Frozen zoos & seed banks: storage facility in which genetic migrate)
materials taken from animals (e.g. DNA, sperm, eggs,
embryos and live
tissue) are gathered and stored at very low
temperatures for optimal
preservation over a long period. 3.4. Methods of Assisted Reproduction
Botanic gardens: similar to zoos for endangered plants.
Seeds or
cuttings are collected, cultured and cloned from Assisted reproduction is a solution to infertility and
species in the wild to
increase its population which can later inbreeding.
be introduced in natural
habitat. Zoos do not have to transport large mammals between them
for their
captive breeding programs as instead, their sperm is
Advantages: taken and stored in
a sperm bank.
Protect endangered plant species
Research methods of reproduction and growth, so Artificial insemination (AI): sperm is then inserted in the
they can be
grown in appropriate conditions vagina and into the uterus using a catheter when a
Reintroduce species to habitats where they have female is
ovulating.
Female may be given hormone to super ovulate
become
rare/extinct
Educate public in the roles of plants in our ecosystem (produce large
number of eggs into the oviduct)
and their
economic value Embryo transfer: is used when the animal is endangered
Contains seed banks: seeds are stored so that if any and
cannot be risked with pregnancy, so the embryo is
plant
becomes extinct there would be seeds from flushed out and
transferred to surrogate mothers.
In vitro fertilisation (IVF):
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Needle inserted in ovaries to extract mature follicles

which is
cultured for some time and then mixed with 4. Energy and Respiration
semen in vitro.
Resulting zygote divides to form an embryo which is
4.1. Energy
cultured for
days and then placed into the mother or
surrogate mother. Energy is needed for work in living organisms e.g:
3.5. Culling and Contraceptives Anabolic reactions: synthesizing complex substances

from its
monomers eg protein synthesis and DNA
Culling: is the process of killing/moving animals from a replication.
breeding stock to control population growth Active transport of substances eg the sodium-potassium
Birth control: pump.
Vasectomy (cutting sperm duct) Mechanical work eg muscle contraction and cellular
Steroid hormones movement such as
flagella or cilia.
Vaccine which targets layer of glycoprotein around the Maintaining body temperature (homeostasis).
egg (zona
pellucida). When injected, antibodies attach Bioluminescence and nerve impulse transmission
to glycoproteins,
blocking sperm from fertilizing the DNA replication
egg - 90% success.
4.2. ATP Adaptation for Universal
3.6. Non-Governmental Organizations Energy Currency
International conservational organization signed agreements
like:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild
Flora and Fauna (CITES)
Agreement signed by 145 countries
Controls trade in endangered species and products
from them e.g.
fur, skin and ivory
It has appendices which list endangered species
according to set
criteria
Species don’t always benefit from this organization as when a

product
becomes illegal, then practice to obtain this product
rises.
WWF - World Wide Fund of Nature

Campaigning group for wildlife conservation
Note: Energy does not come from breaking these bonds, but
Funds conservation projects
from
changes in chemical potential energy.
Publicizes environmental issues
Campaigns to save ecosystems from degradation and ATP is readily hydrolysed to release energy
species from
extinction Immediate source of energy
Small and water soluble; easily transported around cell
3.7. Restoring degraded habitats Pi is a good leaving group, as ATP synthase can efficiently
reattach
the Pi to ADP to form ATP (reversible).
Conservation involves restoring areas that have been Has a high turnover rate
degraded by
human activity or by natural catastrophes Links anabolic (energy requiring) and catabolic (energy
Small scale e.g. when a farmer decides to plant trees on yielding)
reactions
land that
is no longer needed or has become degraded by ATP is produced from a variety of reactions
overuse
e.g. after centuries of deforestation, soil erosion and ATP synthesis
severe land
degradation in Haiti, efforts are made to ATP can be synthesized by two
restore forests. About 70%
of the countries land is routes
unsuitable for agriculture. There are
numerous tree Substrate linked Chemiosmosis
planting projects to rescue the agriculture. Oxidative phosphorylation
In Cornwall, UK, the Eden project is dedicated to Glycolysis
& ETC
education people
in plant diversity and the need for Krebs cycle
conservation.
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ATP can be synthesized by two

routes
Only oxidative phosphorylation
requires oxygen as the it is
needed to combine with
electron/proton in the final
acceptor. No ETC would mean no
proton gradient produced ∴
Chemiosmosis (synthesis of ATP)
does not occur.
4.3. Respiration
Respiration is the process in which organic molecules act as a
fuel
1. Glycolysis
2. Link reaction (oxygen present)
3. Krebs cycle (oxygen present)
4. Oxidative phosphorylation (oxygen present)
Glycolysis
Is the lysis of glucose to form 2 molecules of pyruvate (3C)

which
occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
First stage is phosphorylating glucose using 2 ATP, this is

done to
provide activation energy for the reaction.
Note: during phosphorylation, glucose is
first converted
to glucose phosphate
using ATP, then to its isomer
fructose phosphate without the use of
ATP, and finally to Net Gain 2 ATP and 2 Reduced NAD
fructose bisphosphate using another ATP.
Pyruvate, still contains large amount of chemical potential
energy
therefore if oxygen is available,
then Krebs cycle
and oxidative phosphorylation is continued to make
use
of this energy.
Link Reaction
Occurs in the matrix of mitochondrion therefore must

require
pyruvate to actively be transported into matrix
Decarboxylation occurs; which is the removal of CO2
Dehydrogenation also occurs: removal of H2
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Coenzyme A is a complex molecule composed of

nucleoside (adenine
plus ribose) with Vitamin, it acts as a
carrier for acetyl groups
(CH3-CO) to the Krebs cycle.
Net Gain CO2

Reduced NAD Net Gain 2CO2
Note: Remember there is 2 pyruvate 1 Reduced FA
molecules formed in glycolysis so net
3 Reduced NAD
gain is 2 times
1 ATP
Krebs Cycle Note: Remember there is 2 acetyl CoA
Closed pathway of enzyme-controlled reactions which also molecules so net gain is 2 times
occurs in the
matrix.
Oxidative Phosphorylation and the Electron transport chain
Although reaction is part of aerobic respiration, the (ETC)
reactions make
use of no oxygen as it is only necessary This stage involves chemiosmosis which takes place in the
for oxidative
phosphorylation. inner
mitochondrial membrane (Cristae)
Acetyl (2C) CoA combines with Oxaloacetate (4C) to
produce Citrate
(6C). Reduced NAD and FAD are passed to the electron
Citrate is decarboxylated to produce CO2, and transport chain.
dehydrogenated to reduce NAD and FAD. Reduced NADs and FADs release hydrogen atoms which
Oxaloacetate is regenerated to continue the cycle. then split up
into H+ and 1e‑.
Electrons move down an energy gradient across the ETC
to release
energy.
This energy is utilised to pump H+ ions from the matrix
to
the intermembrane space producing a proton gradient.
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H+ then move down conc. gradient through ATP synthase Balance Sheet
back into the matrix via facilitated diffusion. ATP ATP Net NAD
ADP + Pi ATP, also occurs while the protons pass through used made ATP reduced
ATP synthase. This happens by utilising the protons’ Glycolysis -2 4 +2 2
electrical
potential energy for chemiosmosis. Link reaction 0 0 0 2
Krebs Cycle 0 2 +2 6
Oxygen acts as the final e- acceptor to form water.1/2O2
Oxidative
+ 2H+ + 2e- H2O 0 28 +28 0
phosphorylation
Total -2 34 +32 10
2 FAD is reduced only in the Krebs cycle

Reduced FAD and NAD are oxidised in oxidative
phosphorylation.
ATP yield per stage of respiration:
Theoretically
Reduced NAD produces 3 molecules of ATP

Reduced FAD produces 2 molecules of ATP
However, some energy is used to transport ADP into the

mitochondrion and
ATP into the cytoplasm ∴ Realistically
Respiration without Oxygen
Reduced NAD produces 2.5 molecules of ATP
Reduced FAD produces 1.5 molecules of ATP In the absence of oxygen, the final e- is not accepted and
hydrogen
can’t be disposed of in the ETC. Thus, reduced
Net Gain Most ATP produced is 28 molecules NAD is not oxidised
and the chain stops.
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This produces a small yield of ATP as only glycolysis

occurs
Alcohol fermentation in plants
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate

dehydrogenase
Reaction is reversible by transporting lactate to the liver,
converting it back to pyruvate
Glycolysis takes place normally Oxygen debt: the post exercise uptake of extra oxygen to
Pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal pay off
oxygen deficiency which is needed for:
Ethanal is reduced to ethanol by accepting hydrogen Conversion of lactate to glycogen in the liver
from reduced
NAD, with the help of enzyme alcohol Oxidation of lactate to Co2 and H20
dehydrogenase (this enzyme
helps with removal of H Reoxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood
from NADH) A high metabolic rate, as many organs are operating
Reaction cannot be reversed, and remaining chemical above
resting level.
potential energy
in ethanol is wasted.
Lactate fermentation in animals
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volume of CO2 given our per unit time
RQ =

volume of O2 taken in per unit time

Respiratory substrate Respiratory quotient (RQ)

Carbohydrate 1.0
Lipid 0.7
Protein 0.9
When values are closer to infinity or higher than 1.0,

anaerobic
respiration is occurring, values below 1 shows
aerobic respiration
No RQ value for muscle cells in anaerobic respiration as
only
lactate is produced with no CO2 being produced
4.4. Respiratory substrate
The more hydrogens per molecule a substance has, the 4.5. Adaptations of rice for wet fields
more energy
value per unit mass, thus greater energy
density Can respond to flooding by growing taller, ensuring top
part of
leaves and flower are held above water, allowing
oxygen and carbon
dioxide to be exchanged via stomata
Contains loosely packed aerenchyma cells in the cortex of
stems
allowing oxygen to diffuse into deprived areas
Air is trapped in between ridges of underwater leaves
that have
hydrophobic corrugated surfaces to keep air
within the leaves’
contact
Can tolerate high levels of ethanol (toxic) by the
production of
alcohol dehydrogenase which breaks it
down
Ethanol stimulates gibberellin, which in turn stimulates
cell
division, hence increasing internodal length
This is because most of the energy liberated in 4.6. Respirometer

respiration comes
from oxidation of hydrogen to water
To calculate the energy value of a substance, burn a Measures oxygen uptake in a sealed container for
known mass with
oxygen in a calorimeter respiring organisms
eg germinating seeds or invertebrate
The energy is determined by the rise in temp of the water organism
CO2 produced is absorbed by soda lime/concentrated
KOH or
NaOH.
The decrease in the volume of air results from their
oxygen
consumption and rises the manometer fluid in
the tube.
Oxygen consumption per unit time can be measured by
reading the
level of the manometer fluid against a scale.
Temperature must be kept constant via thermostatically
controlled
water bath.
A control tube helps maintain pressure – it contains equal
volume of
inert material as the volume used in the
experimental tube so that
any changes in atmospheric
pressure can be compensated for
Finally, a graph of oxygen consumption against
temperature can be
plotted.
Respiratory quotient (RQ): the ratio of oxygen taken

in to
carbon dioxide given out.
It is used to show what substrate is being used in respiration,
and
whether or not anaerobic respiration is occurring.
l f CO
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Adaptation of palisade tissue:
Contain large numbers of chloroplasts

Large vacuole helps in pushing chloroplast to edge of cell
for max
light absorption and short diffusion pathway
Chloroplasts can move towards light and away from
intense light to
avoid damage
Elongated & arranged to intercept maximum light
Closely packed to absorb maximum light
Large surface area for diffusion of gases
Moist cell surfaces for diffusion of gases
Thin cell walls for maximum light penetration and
diffusion of gases
Note: this apparatus can also be used to measure RQ

where x
is the oxygen consumption, y is the increase of
5.2. Light Dependent Stage
volume of air
due to CO2 production (fluid falls), and z is
the
decrease in volume of air when more O2 is consumed
than
CO2 produced (fluid rises)
Manometer fluid stays constant when O2 consumption
and
CO2 production are equal (RQ=1)
5. Photosynthesis
Takes place in the thylakoid membranes

Photosystems are required to trap wavelengths of light
(photons) to
energize the electron found in the primary
pigment (chlorophyll α)
Photoactivation: the excitation of an e- to a higher energy
level, causing it to escape a chlorophyll molecule
Accessory pigments are arranged in light harvesting
clusters that
pass on absorbed energy to the primary
pigment at reaction centre
Photosystem I absorbs wavelengths of 700nm
Photosystem II absorbs wavelengths of 680nm
Chloroplast appear as biconvex discs about 3-10 µm Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation

Thylakoid membrane: where light-dependent reactions
occur
Its membrane contains photosystems, inside which
chlorophyll
molecules are located.
It also has accessory pigments, ETC and ATP synthase
Grana: stacks of thylakoid membranes, increasing surface
area
for light dependent reactions. Its membrane:
Holds ATP synthase for chemiosmosis
Allows pigments to be arranged in light harvesting 1. Accessory pigments in PSII absorb photons of light. The
clusters (in
funnel like structures) for efficient light energy is
passed onto primary pigment,
absorption. exciting primary pigments e- to a higher energy level and
Stroma: contains enzymes for Calvin cycle (light causing them
to escape the photosystem.
independent
reactions), 70S ribosomes, circular DNA,
lipid droplets, starch
grains Photolysis: photosystem II contains a water splitting
Starch granule → insoluble storage carbohydrate product enzyme
that catalyses the lysis of water in the presence
of
photosynthesis of light:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
2H2 O → O2 + 4H + + 4e−

Occurs in the stroma of chloroplast and is called the
Calvin
Cycle
Oxygen diffuses out of the chloroplast and into the air
The protons build up in the thylakoid lumen causing a 6C → 2 X G3P (3C)
gradient to be
formed
The electrons in water replace the electrons that have left G3P is reduced and activated to form triose phosphate
the
primary pigment (TP or PGA).
The ATP and NADPH from the light-
dependent reactions is used in this
step. The ADP and
2. The energized electrons are taken up by electron NADP return to the thylakoid membrane for
recycling
acceptors, and are passed down the ETC, which generates Most of the triose phosphate regenerates the RuBP using
energy to pump
protons from stroma to lumen. e- then ATP
travel to PS I, where more light
is absorbed by the Some of the triose phosphate molecules condense to
chlorophyll molecules and the e- are reenergised. hexose
phosphates, to in turn form glucose, cellulose,
sucrose and
starch.
H + N ADP → N ADP H Others converted to amino acids, lipids, or acetyl
coenzyme A
(CoA).
4. The combination of the water splitting and the proton
pumping caused protons to build up inside the thylakoid
lumen, generating a proton gradient across the thylakoid
membrane. ATP is therefore photophosphorylated using
the ATP synthase enzyme in exactly the same way as
respiration.
Cyclic photophosphorylation
Only involves Photosystem I

E- is photoactivated and is accepted by e- acceptor rather
than
falling back into the photosystem and giving out
thermal energy
It is then passed on via a chain of electron carriers, during
which,
enough energy is released to synthesize ATP by
chemiosmosis
ATP is then passed on to light independent reactions
Electron then returns to Photosystem I
5.4. Limiting Factors
Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic
Cyclic Non-cyclic
Only photosystem I involved Both photosystems involved
e- emitted returns to same e- emitted from PSII is
photosystem absorbed by PSI
Reduced NADP produced Limiting factors: if a process is affected by more than one
Photolysis of H2O, O2 by factor, the rate will be limited by the factor which is
product nearest its
lowest value
Limiting factors of photosynthesis: light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and temperature.
5.3. Light Independent Stage
Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise
very quickly,
even if there is plenty of water and carbon
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
dioxide. It is then passed onto the bundle sheath cells and CO-
At low light intensities, the limiting factor for rate of 2 is
removed forming pyruvate (3C)
photosynthesis is the light intensity; as the intensities The CO2 continues normally ie the Calvin cycle
increase
so does the rate. But at high light intensity, one
or more other
factors must be limiting, such as
temperature or carbon dioxide
supply.
The effects of limiting factors can be investigated using
aquatic
plants such as Elodea or Cabomba.
Adaptation
The number of bubbles produced in unit time can be
counted in
different conditions
Higher optimum temperature than C3 plants (45 oC)
A better method would be to calculate the volume of gas Mesophyll cells tightly packed so not allowing O2 to
reach
produced
over time
bundle sheath cells
Avoids photorespiration
5.5. Glasshouses Dimorphic nature of chloroplasts
A better understanding of the environmental factors on

rate of
photosynthesis allows us to manage the growth of
plants in protected
fields increasing yield of crop.
Sensors monitor light intensity, humidity and
concentration of
CO2 and control optimum conditions
Plants are grown hydroponically- in nutrient soil solution
where its
contents vary depending on the plants stage of
growth
Pests and fungal diseases are fewer, further improving
yield
5.6. C4 Plants
C3 plants: forms a 3C molecule after splitting the 6C
compound
during the light independent stage of
photosynthesis
C4 plants such as maize, sorghum and other tropical
grasses however,
produce a 4C compound first in the
light independent reaction
Photorespiration: is the reaction when RuBP combines
with oxygen
instead of CO2 so Calvin cycle cannot occur
This usually happens in high temperatures (as stomata
close to
prevent water loss, causing O2 build up) and high
light
intensity.
In C4 plants the Calvin cycle occurs in the bundle sheath
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by mesophyll cells that
5.7. Pigments and the Absorption of
contain the
enzyme PEP carboxylase which catalyses
the combination of
CO2 with PEP (3C) Light
Oxaloacetate (4C) is formed and is converted into
malate (4C) There are two groups of pigments
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Chlorophylls (Primary Pigments) Allow the sample to evaporate to concentrate the

Carotenoids (Accessory Pigments) pigment
Draw a pencil line and place extract on it using a capillary
tube
Place paper vertically in jar of different solvent
Solvent rises up paper with each pigment traveling at
different
speeds hence pigments separated
Distance moved by each pigment is unique
Use Rf value to identify each pigment
distance travelled by pigment
Rf =
distance travelled by solvent

Absorption spectrum: is the graph above and shows the

absorbance
at different wavelengths of light
A low absorption means that those wavelengths are
not absorbed,
but instead are reflected or transmitted
∴ plants
seem to be green as it is absorbed least
Carotenoids mainly absorb in the blue-violet region.
Action spectrum: graph that shows rate of photosynthesis
at
different wavelengths of light
Repeat with a different solvent, placing the

chromatogram 90° to the
original alignment
6. Inherited Change
Lowest absorbance corresponds to lowest rate of

photosynthesis as
slower light dependent reactions.
Note that rate is higher at lower wavelengths, this is not

only due
to greater absorption but also as lower
wavelengths contains more
energy
Chromatography
Grind leaf using a mortar and pestle with solvent such as A karyogram shows chromosomes that are rearranged
propanone into homologous
pairs
Leaf extract contains mixture of pigments
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
There are 22 pairs of autosomal homologous

chromosomes, wherein one
chromosome of each pair is
maternal, and the other is paternal
The 23rd pair is a non-matching sex chromosome
Chromosomes can be distinguished by staining it; each
pair has
distinctive banding patterns
Homologous chromosomes: pair of chromosomes in
diploid cell that
have same structure as each other, with
the same genes (may not be
same allele) at the same loci,
which pair up to form a bivalent
Locus: position at which a particular gene is found on a
particular chromosome
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a particular protein
6.2. Meiosis
Described as reduction division because chromosomes
are halved from
diploid (2n) cells to haploid (n)
Thus, chromosome number is kept constant instead of During metaphase I , independent assortment of genes
doubling every
generation occurs:
pairs of homologous chromosomes lie
Also causes genetic variation for gametes which leads to independently of each other and
randomly at the equator
natural
selection When genetically different gametes fuse at random
In prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up to form
bivalent in a
process called synapsis. 6.3. Gametogenesis in Humans
At the end of Telophase II, 4 haploid daughter cells are
produced In males:
Takes place in the tubules of the testes

Germinal epithelial cells divide by mitosis to produce
diploid
spermatogonia which grow to form primary
spermatocytes
These divide by meiosis I to form 2 haploid secondary
spermatocytes which continue with meiosis II forming 4
spermatids that mature into spermatozoa
Variation caused:
During late prophase I , crossing over takes place:
homologous chromosomes (bivalents) attach to each
other forming
chiasma and switch genetic information
Chiasma: point of contact between two non-sister
chromatids belonging to homologous
chromosomes
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
In females:
Male Female
Takes place in the ovaries Produces sperm Produces oocyte
Germinal epithelial cells divide by mitosis to produce
Division of cytoplasm is
diploid
oogonia Division of cytoplasm is unequal
equal
Oogonia start meiosis and become primary oocytes (still
diploid),
but meiosis stops at prophase I Four gametes produced One gamete produced
All this occurs before a baby girl is born and at birth has No polar bodies Polar bodies
around
400 000 primary oocytes Complete meiosis Incomplete meiosis
At puberty, primary oocyte continues to finish meiosis I to
produce
secondary oocyte and first polar body (small
haploid cell with less
cytoplasm; degenerates; gets rid of
6.4. Gametogenesis in Plants
half of the chromosomes)
In males
Each month one secondary oocyte is released into the
oviduct to get
fertilised Takes place in the anther
If fertilisation occurs, secondary oocyte undergoes Diploid pollen mother cells divide by meiosis forming 4
meiosis
II to form an ovum and second polar body haploid
cells.
If ovum is fertilised, then a diploid cell is formed called a The nuclei of these cells divide by mitosis (cytokinesis
zygote
embryo fetus does not
take place) resulting in cells with two haploid
Unequal distribution of cytoplasm: the resulting nuclei
zygote
receives all of its cytoplasm from the egg, so These cells mature into pollen grains
the egg needs to
have as much cytoplasm as possible. One of the nuclei is the tube nucleus and the other is
generative nucleus. The generative nucleus divides by
mitosis to give 2 nuclei, which are the male gametes.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Codominant alleles have both the phenotypes of each

allele in a
heterozygous organism
A test cross is a genetic cross in which a dominant allele is
crossed with a homozygous recessive organism; the
offspring
phenotypes can determine whether the parent
is homo/hetro dominant
F1 generation is crossing homozygous dominant with
homozygous
recessive
F2 generation is crossing two F1 (heterozygous)
organisms
6.6. Monohybrid Crosses

In females A monohybrid cross is a mating between two individuals
with
different alleles at one genetic locus of interest
Takes place in the ovules
Diploid spore mother cell divides by meiosis to produce
6.7. Multiple Alleles
four
haploid cells
All but one degenerates; this cell develops into an embryo
More than 2 alleles of a gene, only two of which can exist
sac
in any
normal, diploid individual.
Embryo sac divides by mitosis 3 times forming 8 haploid
nuclei, of
which one becomes the female gamete
6.8. Sex Inheritance

Y chromosome is much shorter than X and contains
fewer genes
A person with XX chromosomes is female and XY is male
Your gender is determined by the father’s sperm as
mother always
gives the X chromosome (1:1 chance)
Note: In plants, gametes are not formed directly from 6.9. Sex Linkage
meiosis,
instead meiosis is used in producing the pollen
grains and embryo
sac which then form gametes by Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele that
mitosis is
dependent on the gender of the individual and is
directly tied to
the sex chromosomes
6.5. Genetics X chromosomes contain a gene that codes for blood
clotting: the
factor VIII.
Alleles are different varieties of the same gene The recessive allele (h) causes the disease
Genotype: the genetic composition of an organism haemophilia (blood
fails to clot)
This is considered to be a sex-linked gene as it is found on
formed by
alleles eg the alleles HbA HbS form the
the
X chromosome but not found on the Y (thus it is
genotype: HbAHbS,
HbSHbS, HbAHbA
expressed in males
despite being a recessive allele)
A dominant allele is one whose effect on the phenotype When inherited, females will have 2 copies of this gene
of a
heterozygous is identical to one of a homozygote and males
would have 1
A recessive allele is one who does not express itself when Males always express it in their phenotype if it is present
a
dominant gene is present
in their
genotype (XhY) whereas women require 2
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
recessive alleles
to show expression (homozygous XhXh).
Therefore women can only be effected if both her mother
and father
contain the allele.
Genotypes of sex-linked genes are always represented by
symbols that
are on the X chromosome e.g. XHXh
(carrier)
6.10. Dihybrid Crosses

Deals with the inheritance of two separate genes on
different
chromosomes at once (e.g. eye colour and skin)
When cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes, the
homologous pairs
line up independently of each other
A/a: alleles of the gene for stem colour.
D/d: alleles of the gene for leaf shape.
6.11. Interactions Between Loci

The effect on phenotypic character by interaction
Hence, we can predict 4 gamete produced in equal between different
gene loci; one gene locus could mask
numbers the phenotypic expression of
another.
A dihybrid cross between a heterozygous and
homozygous species
would give a 1:1:1:1 simple ratio
A dihybrid cross between two heterozygous species is a

more
complicated, as each species will produce 4
gametes, giving a ratio
of 9:3:3:1
6.12. Autosomal Linkage
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Linkage: the presence of two genes on the same Ratios such as the 9:3:3:1 are only probabilities of
chromosome, so
that they are inherited together and do inheriting the
phenotypes
not assort independently What we observe may not always be exactly the same as
Linked gene written in brackets to indicate that they are the expected
probabilities.
on the
same chromosome e.g. (EA)(EA) instead of EEAA Use Chi-squared test: to test whether the difference
between
observed and expected results has arisen due to
chance (used for
categorical variables eg colour and
shape of leaf)
Null hypothesis: there is no significant difference
between
observed and expected results
Σ (O − E )2
x2 =
E
Blue colour indicates that this formula will be provided in the
exam
1. First work out expected (E) results by using ratio given
phenotype
× number of off spring
total phenotypes
2
2. Then find (O − E)
Note: it is squared to get rid of the negative sign as it is
irrelevant
Total linkage is very rare, almost always links are broken
due to
crossing over during meiosis 3. We then divide each squared number by E and add
them up to give us
x2
6.13. Crossing Over 4. Now you look up the value in a probability table (ie
probability of
any difference between observed and
Occurs during prophase I where chiasmata formed expected results is due to
chance) to see if null
between bivalents hypothesis will be accepted or rejected
Chiasmata connects with a non-sister chromatid so 5. You must find the degrees of freedom which is =
maternal and
paternal genes are exchanged number of different
categories – 1
When these exchanged genes form offspring they are
If calculated x2 is lower than the expected x2 in the
table,
said to be
recombinant offspring
we accept the null hypothesis, meaning the results are
due to
chance and so no significant difference
And if calculated x2 greater or equal to expected x2 ,
we
reject null hypothesis as difference must be significant
and is
not due to chance
Note: take the probability value of 0.05 as it is the critical
value
Example:
Observed results
Linkage groups are broken

Cross over value is calculated by adding the percentage
of
offspring that belong to recombinant classes
This value can be used to measure the distance apart of
the two gene
loci
Chance of cross over ∝ distance apart
6.14. Chi-squared (x²) Test Expected results
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
They also get stuck in small capillaries, restricting blood

flow
4 categories, so degree of freedom 4-1 = 3

2
Using critical value of 0.05, the expected x we should get
is 7.82
Our calculated x2 0.79, which is a probability much
greater
than 0.1
As the probability of the difference between expected
and observed
results is greatly due to chance, we say that
the difference between
them is not significant and we
accept the null hypothesis
6.15. Mutation 6.17. Albinism

Mutation: unpredictable change of the nucleotide Albinism is when melanin is deficient or completely
sequence in DNA missing from
irises, skin and hair
Mutagen: substance that increases chances of mutation The condition also can be accompanied by poor vision
eg.
ionising radiation causing jerky
movements of the eye to avoid light
Two types of mutation: In classic form: it is an autosomal recessive mutation
Gene mutation: change in the structure of DNA wherein
individuals must be homozygous for the
molecule
producing different allele of a gene recessive allele to show
albinism
Chromosome mutation: changes in structure or Sex linked form: affects the eyes
number of whole
chromosomes in cell The enzyme tyrosinase is responsible for melanin
Gene mutation can occur in 3 different ways production
as it is needed in the first two steps.
Base substitution where simply one base takes
another base’s
place
Base addition where on/more extra bases are added
Base deletion where bases are lost from sequence
Base addition and deletion have significant effects on the
The mutation in the gene coding for tyrosinase results in
structure
and function of the polypeptide as it alters the
its
absence or the presence of inactive tyrosinase in
following codons
(frame shift).
melanocytes (cells
responsible for melanin production)
Base substitution may not even have an effect at all
Thus, tyrosine can’t be converted to DOPA and so on.
(silent
mutation), as there is more than one codon that
codes for the same
amino acid
However, all mutations can cause a STOP codon to form, 6.18. Huntington’s Disease
causing the
polypeptide production to be halted.
A mutation inherited as a dominant allele
HD has a variable onset but occurs most commonly in the
6.16. Sickle Cell Anaemia
middle age
(30-45)
It is a neurological disorder that causes involuntary
Example of base substitution
movements and
progressive mental deterioration
Where the β -globin polypeptide mutates
Mutation occurs on chromosome 4 on a gene that codes
The base sequence CTT is replaced by new triplet CAT
for the protein
huntingtin
Which changes the 6th amino acid from Glu to Val Normally, people have small number of triplet CAG
This small difference does not affect the haemoglobin repeats
molecule when
combined with oxygen With the diseased, the number of CAG repeats is large
But when not combined, the β -globin molecule becomes
(stutter)
much
less soluble and starts to stick to each other There is an inverse correlation between number of times
forming long fibres
inside red blood cells, pulling the cells triplet
repeats and onset age of condition; eg the more
out of shape to become
sickle shaped the repeats, the
earlier the onset of the disease.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
This mechanism helps avoid waste of energy and

6.19. Gene Control in Prokaryotes
materials by only
creating enzymes when required
Structural genes are genes that code for proteins or
enzymes
required by a cell 6.20. Gene Control in Eukaryotes
Regulatory genes are genes that code for proteins that
regulate
the expression of other genes Transcription factors: regulate transcription
Repressible enzymes are produced continuously unless Proteins that bind to a specific DNA sequence and
production
is repressed by binding a repressor protein to control the
flow of information from DNA to RNA by
the operator controlling mRNA
formation
Inducible enzymes are only produced when its substrate Functions of transcription factors:
is
present. Transcription of the structural gene occurs as Form part of protein complex that binds with
a result of
the inducer (the enzyme’s substrate) promoter region
interacting with the protein
produced by the regulatory Activate appropriate genes in sequence allowing
gene correct pattern
for body development
Responsible for the determination of sex in mammals
The Lac Operon Allows responses to environmental stimuli, such as
switching on
correct genes in high temp
An Operon is a length of DNA containing a cluster of
Regulate cell cycle, growth and apoptosis (cell death)
genes
including structural genes and regulatory gene
The plant hormone, gibberellin controls seed germination
controlled by a
single promoter
by
stimulating the increase in transcription of mRNA
coding for amylase
Gibberellin does this by breaking down DELLA proteins
which inhibit
the binding of transcription factor, PIF to a
promoter
Transcription can then take place resulting in increase of
amylase
production
The enzyme β -galactosidase (inducible enzyme)

hydrolyses
lactose to glucose and galactose
The lac operon consists of promoter, operator and 3
structural genes
which are:
lacZ which codes for β -galactosidase.
lacY which allows lactose to enter cell
lacA which codes for transacetylase
When no lactose present
Regulatory gene codes for repressor
Repressor binds to operator
RNA polymerase cannot bind to DNA
∴ No transcription occurs
The repressor protein is allosteric, meaning it has two
binding
sites, one for DNA and another for lactose.
When lactose is present
7. Selection and Evolution
Lactose is taken up by bacterium
And binds to repressor protein, distorting its shape Genetic variation is caused by:
and
preventing it from binding to DNA at operator
Independent assortment of chromosomes and therefore
Transcription is no longer inhibited and RNA is
alleles
produced
Crossing over between chromatids of homologous
chromosomes
Random mating between organisms
Random fertilisation
Mutation
7.2. Continuous and Discontinuous

Variation
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Continuous variation: Natural selection: the effects of selection pressures on

the
frequency of alleles in a population.
A quantitative difference that has a wide range of Natural selection raises advantageous allele frequencies
phenotypes and reduces
the disadvantages allele frequencies within
Intermediate phenotypes are usually what is observed the population
Plotting a frequency graph usually gives a bell-shaped Natural selection occurs to limit exponential growth of
distribution
curve populations
and ensure survival of the fittest.
E.g. Height and weight as these do not have Environmental factors that affect population growth:
distinguishable classes
but are in a range Biotic – caused by living organisms e.g. predation,
Different alleles at a single gene locus have small effects competition for food, infection etc.
on the
phenotype Abiotic – caused by non-living organisms e.g. water
Polygenes genes have an additive effect on a particular supply,
nutrient levels in soil etc.
trait However, due to genetic variation, individuals that are
best adapted
are likely to breed and pass on
Discontinuous variation:
advantageous alleles to next
generations
A qualitative difference that has clear distinguishable Thus, selection pressure causes changes in allele
categories
with no intermediates frequency and gene
pool which overtime leads to
It is usually a one to one relation between genotype and evolution.
phenotype
Types of Selection Pressures
E.g. Blood groups, there is only 4 possible groups
Different genes have different effect on phenotype Natural selection can act on traits determined by
One or few genes control the characteristic, so alleles on different alleles
of a single gene, or on polygenic traits
single
gene locus have large effects Natural selection on polygenic traits can take the form of:
Stabilising selection: when natural selection keeps the
Environmental effects on phenotype:
variety
of the population the same.
Height for example can be influenced by environmental
If wide variation shown, selection pressure acts
factors such as
nutrition
against the two
extremes.
Cats can change their fur colour in extremities according to
Results in a population with a narrower range of the
external
temperature eg: dark pigment at low temp
characteristic
Tends to keep the variation in a characteristic centred
7.3. The t-test around
the same mean value
The t-test is used to assess whether the means of two

normally
distributed sets of data are significantly
different from one
another
Similar to the chi-squared test, you always start with a
null
hypothesis stating that there is no significant
difference between
the two samples
∣ X 1 + X 2 ∣
t= ∣ 2 ∣

s 1 s2 2
n1 + n2

X 1/2 is the mean of samples 1 and 2

s2 1/2 is the standard deviation of samples 1 and 2

Directional selection: when a new environmental factor or
n1 /2 is the no. of individual measurements in 1 and 2 a new
allele appears, causing different allele frequencies
to be produced

Degrees of freedom: total number of samples − 2 Selection acts against one extreme, results in change
From the probability table we take 0.05 (5% confidence in a
characteristic in a particular direction
level) as our
critical value
If probability lower than critical value, null hypothesis
accepted, so difference is due to chance
If greater or equal, difference is significant and not
due to
chance, so reject null hypothesis
7.4. Natural Selection
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Disruptive selection: when conditions favour both Artificial selection Natural selection
extremes of a
population (this selection maintains No isolation mechanisms Isolation mechanisms do
different phenotypes) operating operate
Usually faster Usually slower
Selected feature is for human Selected feature is for
benefit organism’s benefit
Not for survival/evolution Promotes survival/evolution
Example of Selective breeding in
Improving milk yield:

Individuals showing desired features are chosen to
breed
Some of the alleles conferring these features are
passed on to
the offspring
Again, most desired features are chosen for breeding
This process is continued for many generations
7.5. Genetic Drift causing the
frequency of the desired alleles to
increase
Genetic drift is a change in allele frequency due to chance Improving crop:
and is
most noticeable in small populations. Introduction of disease resistance as there is a great
The small sample is unrepresentative of the allele loss
of yield resulting from infections
frequency of the
larger population and leads to loss of Incorporation of mutant alleles: These genes code for
genetic variation. DELLA
proteins that reduce the effect of gibberellin
Further genetic drift of the small population leads to and produce
shorter stems. This allows more energy
further
alteration of the allele frequency, leading to to be used for producing
more seeds/grains instead
evolution and a new
species – Founder’s effect of growing tall.
Inbreeding and hybridization:
7.6. Hardy-Weinberg Principle Inbreeding: mating between two genetically
closely
related species, sharing common ancestry
Used to calculate allele, genotype and phenotype In breeding depression: Inbreeding plants causes
frequencies within
a large randomly mating population. gene
pool to become progressively smaller and
weaker over
generations
p+q =1 Out breeding produces heterozygous plants that
are
healthier and grow taller
p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1 The aim is to get heterozygous and uniformity in
genes thus
out breeding cannot be used
p represents dominant allele frequency
Therefore, hybrid plants are used instead.
q represents recessive allele frequency
Seeds are taken from companies which inbreed to
Hardy-Weinberg’s principle does not apply when there is produce
homozygous plants. These are crossed
Significant selective pressure against a genotype with different
homozygous varieties to produce
Migration into or out of population different hybrid offspring.
Non-random mating
Limited population 7.8. Theory of Evolution
7.7. Artificial Selection Charles Darwin forwarded the original theory that natural
selection
might be a mechanism by which evolution is
Artificial selection Natural selection formed by his observation and
deductions:
Observation
Selection pressure applied is Environmental selection
by humans pressure Organisms produce more offspring than what is needed
Genetic diversity remains to replace the
parents (reproductive potential)
Genetic diversity is lowered
high Natural populations tend to remain stable in size
Inbreeding is common Outbreeding is common
Deduction
Inbreeding depression Less inbreeding depression
Increased homozygosity Decreased homozygosity There is a competition for survival
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Observation Prezygotic
Variation amongst individuals of a given species Individuals don’t recognise each other as mates or don’t
respond to
mating behaviour
Deduction Physically being unable to mate
Inability to fuse male and female gametes
The best adapted variants will be selected by natural
Incompatibility of pollen and stigma in plants
conditions,
these are the variants that have a selective
advantage and so
‘survival of the fittest’ occurs Postzygotic
This theory was put forward in the past, where they knew Failure of cell division in the zygote
nothing about
genes and alleles so now we can improve it by Non-viable offspring (dies soon)
saying that, natural
selection picks particular alleles or Viable but sterile offspring
groups of alleles
Allopatric speciation: when speciation occurs where two
7.9. Molecular Comparisons populations are separated from each other
geographically
Mixing of the two is prevented, and each have different

Molecular comparisons allows us to see how similar and
selection
pressures acting on the populations
related species
are to each other
This results in different alleles being selected for, and
Comparing amino acid sequence of proteins:
soon the
morphological, physiological and behavioural
When amino acid sequence is compared the number of features become so
different that the two populations
differences gives
a measure of how closely related the can no longer interbreed even if
the barrier is removed
species are
Sympatric speciation: is when a new species is evolved
Differences in primary structure can cause dramatic
from a species that inhabits the same geographic region
change in
structure and function however small changes
can leave the overall
structure and function same The most common way in which sympatric speciation
occurs is by
polyploidy
Example:
A polyploidy is an organism with more than two
Cytochrome C for example was compared between human,
complete sets of
chromosomes in its cell
mice and rats
This can happen if meiosis is abnormal during gamete
All three consisted of 104 amino acids formation,
resulting in a gamete with 2 sets of
The sequence of mice and rat cytochrome is identical chromosomes (diploid)
9 amino acids in human are different from rat/mice If two diploid gametes fuse, it results in 4 complete sets
of
chromosomes - tetraploid zygote
This comparison suggests that mice and rats shared a If a diploid gamete joins with a haploid gamete, they form
recent common
ancestor, but not with humans a
triploid zygote
Polyploidys are often sterile as they can’t divide during
Comparing amino acid sequence of mitochondrial DNA: meiosis.
This is because all the sets try to pair up at once
and end up in a
muddle.
Difference in mtDNA can be used to study the origin and
However, they can grow perfectly well & reproduce
spread of
species
asexually
mtDNA is inherited through the mother only
For example, a tetraploid organism from a diploid parent
mtDNA is circular and not protected by histone proteins,
cannot
interbreed successfully and become different
so they
cannot undergo crossing over hence the only
species.
possible way of change
is through mutation
Autopolyploid: polyploidys that are derived from a
mtDNA mutates at around one mutation in 25000 years
single species and are infertile.
This has provided us with evidence that the origin of
H.sapiens
was from Africa around 200 000 years ago
7.10. Speciation
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new
biological
species arise
The main feature biologists use to decide whether two
organisms
belong to different species is their inability to
interbreed
successfully (reproductive isolation)
Reproductive isolation can take different forms:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Allopolyploid: polyploidys that are derived from different Receptor sends information to the central control in the
species. Note that meiosis happens more easily here as brain
or the spinal cord
the sets of
chromosomes are from different species and The input is processed and instructions are sent to the
can pair up. They are
fertile, but cannot breed with effector
parent species (self-fertile). Effectors such as muscles and glands cause the factor
to return
to its ideal value or set point
This is done through two coordination systems:
Nervous system, electrical impulse along neurons
Endocrine system, in the form of chemical
messengers (Hormones)
that travel in the blood
Negative feedback
Negative feedback keeps factors within narrow limits,

making it
close to set point as possible
When a factor is increased, an effector is stimulated that
makes the
factor decrease, and vice versa
Positive feedback
Is not used in keeping conditions constant as it increases

effect
when stimulus is increased
This is useful in other areas such as transmission of nerve
impulses
where the factor must be increased
7.11. Extinction
Living organisms are dependent on the environment and 8.3. Thermoregulation
other species
for their survival. When the environment
changes, organisms that
cannot adapt become extinct Involves maintaining a constant core body temperature
There are many factors that can cause extinction: by both the
nervous and endocrine systems
competition for
food and resources, climate change, The hypothalamus is the central control for body
habitat loss, hunting, diseases,
etc temperature,
consisting of thermoreceptor cells that
monitor the temperature of
the blood and keep it close to
set point.
8. Homeostasis The skin also contains receptors that sense the change in
temperature of the surroundings giving the
Homeostasis is maintaining a relatively constant hypothalamus an early
warning
environment for the
cells within the body, despite changes in
Decrease in temperature
external environment
Vasoconstriction- contraction of arteriole walls that
Controlled by the composition of blood, and hence the
tissue fluid supply
blood to capillaries near skin, restricting blood
Features of tissue fluid influences cell activity in many flow and
preventing heat loss, shunt vessels opened
Shivering- involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle,
ways,
such as:
generating heat for blood to absorb
Temperature- low temp, slow metabolic reactions.
High temp
however denatures enzymes and proteins Raising body hairs- traps air (good insulator)
Decreasing production of sweat- reduces heat loss by
Water potential- low water potential would cause
water to
move out of cells which slows/stops cell evaporation
from skin surface
Secretion of adrenaline & Thyroid stimulating hormone
functions. High water
potential however causes cells
(TSH)-
causes increase in metabolic rate and heat
to swell and may burst
Conc. of glucose- too less, no energy for cell to production especially in
the liver
respire,
too high would affect osmotic balance and Increase in temperature
disturb cells
Vasodilation- arteriole wall relaxes, allowing more blood
8.2. Homeostatic Control flow
and increase loss of heat to surroundings
Lowering body hairs- less air trapped, less insulation, and
Involves receptor that detects stimuli more
heat lost
A stimuli is a change in physiological factors, such as Increasing sweat production- sweat produced causes
temperature, pH of blood, water potential etc more
energetic molecules to escape and carry heat away
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
8.4. Excretion
Deamination is the removal of an amino group (NH2) from a
molecule. This is done in the liver when there is an excess of
protein,
rather than wasting a useful energy source
The –NH2 and a hydrogen atom are removed leaving

behind
a keto acid
Urea formation
Since ammonia is very soluble and highly toxic compound

it is
converted immediately to urea
2NH3 + CO2 CO(NH2)2+

H2O
Urea is the main nitrogenous excretory product, however

we also
produce creatinine and uric acid
Creatine is made in the liver from amino acids that is
used as an
energy store in muscles
Uric acid is made from the breakdown of purines
8.5. Structure of the Kidney
In the cortex:
Bowman’s capsule
Proximal convoluted tubule
Distal convoluted tubule
In the medulla:
Collecting duct
Loop of Henle
8.6. Ultrafiltration
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Involves filtering small molecules out of the glomerulus 1. Removal of Na+ from the cell:
Na+–K+ pumps in the basal
and into
the Bowman’s capsule due to hydrostatic
membrane use ATP
pumping 3 Na+ out and 2K+ in, lowering
pressure build up
its
concentration inside the cell
How it happens:
Hydrostatic pressure builds up in the glomerulus due 2. Passive movement of Na+/glucose/amino acid inside the
to the
wider afferent and narrower efferent arterioles cell:
This causes the hydrostatic blood pressure in the
glomerulus to
rise above that of the Bowman’s Na+ goes down its concentration gradient via a
capsule. cotransporter that brings along glucose/amino acids.
Water from blood therefore goes down its water This a secondary active transport as ATP was not used for
potential
gradient through the endothelium of the pumping
Na+ into the PCT cell but has occurred as a
capillary walls, the
basement membrane and result of
actively transporting Na+ out of the cell
podocytes, thus filtering substances. Glucose and amino acids diffuse down their gradient
Endothelium: one cell thick cell with many holes from cell into
blood via transport proteins in the basal
Basement Membrane: makes up inner lining of membrane
bowman’s
capsule and acts as filter for large
molecules eg large Mr
proteins, WBC and RBC 3. Reabsorption of water:
Podocytes: inner lining of bowman’s capsule with
Removal of ions from the tubule increases its water
large
holes
potential, and
increases the solute potential of the cell
Thus, water diffuses down its gradient into the cell, and is
reabsorbed in the blood via osmosis
4. Reabsorption of urea: urea is a small molecule and

passively
gets reabsorbed
8.8. Reabsorption in Loop of Henle
8.7. Reabsorption in Proximal

Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
The glomerular filtrate is almost identical to the plasma’s
composition except it has no plasma proteins
Many of the substances however are needed to be kept
in the body,
thus most reabsorption occurs in the PCT
Adaptation of cuboidal epithelial cells:
Microvilli to increase surface area for many co-
transporters for
maximum reabsorption
Tight junction between cells so that fluid can’t pass
between
them
Many mitochondria to provide ATP for (Na+–K+) pump
on basal
membrane
Folded basal membrane providing large surface area
for
(Na+–K+) pump
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
When fluid enters collecting duct from DCT, it returns to

the
concentrated medulla region, thus water moves out
by osmosis into
the tissue fluid and is reabsorbed,
concentrating urine
8.9. Osmoregulation
Involves the control of water potential in body fluid
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus constantly monitor
water potential
in the blood
Decrease in blood water level
1. Osmoreceptors detect and send impulses to the

posterior pituitary
gland to secrete antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
2. ADH in the blood binds to receptors on the cells of
collecting
duct, activating intracellular enzymes
6. Vesicles that contain aquaporin in the cell are

stimulated to fuse
to membrane
7. This causes duct to become permeable to water
hence water moves out,
down its conc. gradient
Note: volume of urine decreases and becomes more

conc.
Increase in blood water level
Osmoreceptors no longer stimulate ADH production, so

aquaporins
moved back into cytoplasm as vesicles,
making cells impermeable to
water again
This process is very slow because ADH molecules take 15-
20 mins to
be broken down in the blood and another 15-
20 mins for aquaporins to
be removed from the
membrane
8.10. Control of Blood Glucose

When glucose is in low concentration our cells may not
1. Na+ & Cl- are actively transported out of
higher end of have enough
glucose for respiration, hence might not be
ascending limb into the tissue fluid able to carry out its
normal function
2. This increases concentration of ions in tissue fluid On the contrary, high concentrations can effect normal
3. Water is therefore lost from the descending limb behaviour of
cells as they may lose water due to the
4. Loss of water concentrates Na+ and Cl− along
the concentration gradient built
(cells become flaccid)
descending limb. The homeostatic control is carried out in the pancreas by
5. This concentrates the fluid inside the loop, so ions a tissue
called the islets of Langerhans which consisting
passively move
down their concentration gradient, two types of
cells:
into the tissue fluid α cells which secrete glucagon
β cells which secrete insulin
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) After a meal containing carbohydrates, glucose is
digested and
passed into the blood
First part functions the same way as ascending limb
When Blood glucose levels rise
Second part functions the same way as collecting duct
The α and β cells detect the change
Reabsorption of water in DCT and Collecting duct α responds by stopping secretion of glucagon
β responds by secreting insulin into the blood
Fluid in ascending limb is dilute due to loss of ions and Insulin is a signalling molecule that targets the liver and
urea,
concentrating tissue fluid in medulla muscle
cells and binds to a receptor
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
This stimulates the cells to increase rate of glucose Autoimmune disease

absorption by
making vesicles carrying glucose Solution: insulin injections and mini pumps, controlled
transporter proteins (GLUT) to bind
onto cell membrane diet
Non-insulin dependent diabetes, Type 2: pancreas
secretes
insulin but liver and muscle cells do not respond
properly.
Hunger and thirst are a consequence as kidney
cannot reabsorb
glucose, which passes in urine along
with extra water and salts
Instead cells metabolise fats and proteins instead
which leads
to build up of keto acid which is toxic.
Note: blood glucose levels may fall as there was no
glycogen
stored when glucose was in the blood.
8.12. Urine Analysis

Much easier to collect than blood samples
Urine tests can give early indications of health problems
Glycogenesis occurs which is the condensing of glucose Diabetes: presence of excessive glucose and ketones
molecules
to glycogen which can later be converted to in
urine, as blood glucose level rises above renal
glucose in respiration. threshold and so
not all reabsorbed
Glucokinase enzyme also stimulated which High blood pressure/kidney infection: presence of
phosphorylates glucose,
trapping it inside (as it can’t pass proteins
as they are too large to be filtered out
out through the GLUT)
When blood glucose levels fall (or adrenaline level rise)
8.13. Dipsticks and Biosensors
α responds by secreting glucagon into the blood
β responds by stopping secretion of insulin Dipsticks
Glucagon binds on to its receptor on liver cells that
activates the
G protein
G protein activates a membrane enzyme that catalyses
conversion of
ATP to cyclic AMP
Cyclic AMP binds to kinase enzymes that activates other
enzyme
cascade reactions which finally catalyse the
breakdown of glycogen
to form glucose
Gluconeogenesis: new glucose made from amino acid
and lipid
Note: muscle cells don’t have glucagon receptors
Urine analysis to measure: pH, glucose, ketones and

proteins
Glucose dipsticks contain glucose oxidase and peroxidase
Positive test: glucose oxidase oxidises glucose to form
gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide
Peroxidase catalyses reaction of hydrogen peroxide
and chromogen
(colourless chemical) forming a
brown compound
The colour formed is compared to a chart, the more
glucose present,
the darker the colour (semi-
quantitative)
Biosensors
8.11. Diabetes
Insulin dependent diabetes, Type 1: pancreas is incapable
of
secreting enough insulin due to:
Lack of gene that codes for insulin
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ATP proton pumps actively move H+ ions out of the guard

cells
This causes potassium channels to open & move into the
cell due to the electrochemical gradient produced
Electrochemical gradient is the combination of an
electrical gradient caused by the release of H+ ions
(making inside more negative) and a concentration
Allow people with diabetes to monitor their gradient due to low levels of K+ inside
blood glucose concentration much quicker Influx of K+ ions inside the cell increases the solute
than dipsticks potential and reduces water potential, thus water enters
by osmosis making cells turgid
They also contain glucose oxidase which catalyses the The stomata has uneven cell wall thickening; walls
same reaction adjacent to pore is very thick, whereas the walls furthest
However, a current is generated, detected and amplified from pore is thin
which gives
a reading within seconds (quantitative) When cells are turgid, the outer end cells lengthen,
The more the glucose present the greater the reading causing the guard cells open.
8.14. Homeostasis in Plants

Stomata has daily rhythms of opening and closing even if
kept in
constant light/dark
Opening during day maintains inward diffusion of CO2
and
outward diffusion of O2 and water vapour
Closing during the night as it does not respire and
conserves water
Stomata open when:
Increase in light intensity
Low CO2 concentrations
Stomata close in:
Darkness
High CO2 concentrations
Low humidity
High temperature
Water stress
8.15. Opening and closing of stomata

Opening of stomata
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Stomata closes when hydrogen ion pumps stop and

potassium ions leave the guard cells
Water then leaves the cells, causing it to become flaccid
and closing the stomata
Abscisic acid and stomatal closure
A stress hormone that causes the closure of stomata in

difficult conditions
ABA binds to receptors that inhibit proton pumps and
stimulate movement of Ca2+ ions into the cell.
Ca2+ acts as a second messenger, activating channel
proteins to allow negatively charged ions to move out
This causes potassium ions to move out and also closes
K+ channels so that they can’t enter
Water potential increases inside the cells, which diffuses
down its water potential gradient by osmosis.
The cell becomes flaccid and stomata closes.
Intermediate Neurone (Relay/Connector): transmit
impulse from
sensory to motor neurone
9. Coordination Found entirely in CNS
Motor Neurone: Transmit impulses from CNS to effector
Cell body lies within CNS and contains the nucleus
9.1. Types of Information Transfer Dark specks in cytoplasm are rough ER regions
Nervous System Endocrine System

Form of Chemical messengers
Electrical impulses
transmission (Hormones)
Sensory neurone
Formed at Secretory gland
generates impulse
Travel in Neurones Blood (endocrine)
Speed Instantaneous Slow
Duration Short-term Long lasting
effects Localised Widespread
Cell surface
receptor On cell surface
membrane OR within
location membrane 9.3. Reflex Arc
cell
Energy Large amount Less required
A reflex arc is the pathway along which impulses are
transmitted
from receptor to an effector without involving
Both involve cell signalling
the ‘conscious’ regions
of brain
Both involve signal molecule binding to receptor
Both involve chemicals Impulses travel from sensory to relay (not always) and
finally to
motor neurone
9.2. Neurones The effector acts before the brain processes the impulse
and
produces any voluntary movement.
3 different types of neurones: Hence, this is a reflex reaction, which is fast, automatic
and is
useful in response to danger
Sensory neurone: Transmits impulses from receptor to
CNS
Swelling of spinal cord containing cell body known as
ganglion
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
9.4. Myelin
Myelin is made when specialised cells called Schwann
Cells which
wrap themselves around the axon, enclosing
it within many layers
The uncovered regions between Schwann cells are called
Nodes of
Ranvier
About a third of axons on motor and sensory neurons are
surrounded
by myelin sheaths
Achieved by:
Plasma membrane being impermeable to Na+
/K+
Sodium-potassium pumps that actively pump 3 Na+
out and 2K+ in, increasing the concentration of
K+
inside, and Na+ outside
There are more K+ channels than there are
Na+,
therefore K+ diffuses down its
concentration gradient
Speed of Conduction
(outside the cell) faster than
Na+ diffuses in.
Myelination stops depolarisation from occurring, greatly Many large negatively charged molecules inside cell
increasing
the speed of conduction
It also prevents the leakage of ions and increases
insulation,
increasing speed of conduction.
Myelin also causes saltatory conduction which is when
action
potentials jump from one node to the next, which
is about 50 times
faster than unmyelinated axon
Diameter also affects speed of transmission; with thinner
axons,
there is greater resistance, hence, transmission is
slower
9.5. Transmission of Nerve Impulses

Nerve impulses are signals transmitted along the axon,
consisting of
waves of depolarisation, causing changes in the
potential difference
across the membrane (action potential)
Resting potential
Resting axons have a slightly negative electrical potential Action Potential
inside,
producing a potential difference of about -70mV It is the change in potential difference across the membrane
inside
compared to the outside
due to
changes in permeability of the membrane to Na+/K+
ions
An initial stimulus causes the opening of some voltage-

gated
channels causing Na+ to rush in, down its
electrochemical gradient
This causes the potential difference across the
membrane to become
less negative and is called
depolarisation.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
there is an excess
outflow of K+
If this potential difference reaches -50mV , then many

more
channels open, causing inside to become +30mV
This wave of depolarisation is an example of positive
feedback
Hence for an action potential to be produced, the
potential must be
raised to a minimum threshold
potential of -50mV
If lower than this, an action potential will not be
generated
How action potentials carry information
This is known as the all-or-nothing law as the
neurones either
transmit impulse or do not Action potentials do not change in size whether large or
After 1ms, all Na+ voltage-gated channels close &
K+ small
stimulus & has constant peak value of +30mV
gated channels open, causing K+ to diffuse
out, thus The brain receives action potential from specific position
repolarising the membrane. of
neurones and interprets the nature of the stimulus eg
The sodium potassium pump continues pumping these position:
retina, nature: light
ions and
maintaining their concentration across the
membrane, allowing more
action potentials to occur. Strength of stimulus
Local circuits are set up, where the permeability of the
The brain interprets this from the frequency of the action
neighbouring region of the axon is increased potential-stronger stimuli have larger frequency
Also strong stimuli cause more neurones to be stimulated
hence the
number of neurones carrying action potential
can tell us about
the strength
9.6. Receptors
A receptor cell responds to stimulus by converting energy
from one
form to electrical impulse, initiating an action
potential (acts as
a transducer)
Receptor cells are often found in sense organs and are
specialised
cells which detect specific type of stimulus
Some receptors are the ends of sensory neurones, thus
there is no
synapse between the receptor cells and
sensory neurones.
Axons have a refractory period after the action potential,
where
it is unresponsive to new stimulations. Its Tongue
consequences are:
Action potentials do not merge and so are discrete The tongue is covered in many papillae, each papilla has
There is a minimum time between action potentials many taste
buds over its surface and within each taste
occurring at
one place on neurone bud lies around 50-100
chemoreceptors that detect
Length of refractory period determines max different chemicals, giving different
sensations
frequency at which
impulses are transmitted Eg: sodium chloride (salt) as stimulus
Hyper polarisation occurs when the cell potential Na+ ions diffuse through highly selective channels of
becomes
more negative than resting potential as microvilli and cause depolarisation of the membrane:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
receptor
potential. 1. Ensures one-way transmission as the receptors are
2+
If sufficient stimulation is produced, voltage-gated Ca only in post
synaptic neurone and vesicles are only in
presynaptic neurone
channels open; Ca2+ then enters, causing exocytosis of
2. Decreases the overload of information in the brain as
neurotransmitter vesicles
impulses with
low frequencies do not reach the brain
Neurotransmitters cause action potential in the sensory
3. Involved in memory and learning due to the
neurone and
eventually reaches the cortex of the brain
formation of new
synapses that links neurones
Note: if receptor potential is below the threshold, it
involved
causes a
local depolarisation of the receptor cell and
4. Interconnection of nerve pathways: sensory and relay
doesn’t stimulate the
sensory neurone to send impulses.
have many
dendrite increasing surface area for many
synapses. This connects
neurones from different
9.7. Synapses parts of the body and spreads information
throughout.
Region where two synapses meet, there is a small gap
called the
synaptic cleft
9.8. Structure of striated muscle
Cholinergic synapse
Synapses that have acetylcholine (ACh)

Action potential stimulates the opening of voltage
gated
Ca2+ channels at the presynaptic knob, causing
an
influx of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm
This causes exocytosis of ACh vesicles, which fuse
with the pre
synaptic membrane, then diffuse across
the synaptic cleft
ACh has a complementary shape to the chemically
gated receptor
protein on the post synaptic
membrane, and binds to it
This changes the shape of the protein and opens the
channel for
the entry of Na+
Na+ depolarises that part of the membrane; if pd is
above threshold, an action potential is generated
Acetylcholinesterase recycles Ach by breaking it into Striated muscle is multinucleate (syncytium) and consists
acetate and choline, preventing the permanent of
several tissues eg connective, nerve, striated muscle,
depolarisation of
the membrane. blood.
Choline returns to presynaptic neurone and combines It is made up of bundles of muscle fibres/cells (fascicles)
with Acetyl
coA to form Ach again. Each muscle fibre is made up of regular arrangement of
myofibrils,
which produce the striated appearance of
muscle fibres
Structure of muscle fibre
The sarcolemma (cell membrane) splits into many

Role of synapses: infoldings
called T-tubules
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Sacroplasm (cytoplasm) contains many mitochondria that A band: includes the darker parts in the centre where
generate
ATP for muscle contraction actin and
myosin overlap
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) (endoplasmic reticulum) H band: the grey area within the A band where only
have
many protein pumps that transport Ca2+ into the myosin is
present
cisternae
of SR I band: the white area next to the Z line where only actin
is
present
9.9. Structure of the Myofibrils

9.10. How muscles contract
Myofibrils are made of contractile units called sacromeres
(between two Z discs) which are made of thin and thick Muscles movement is caused by contraction, causing Z
protein
filaments discs to pull
closer together by a process of sliding
Myosin: fibrous protein with globular head that makes up The energy comes from the ATP in myosin heads (an
thick filament ATPase)
Actin: globular protein; two chains of actin overlap to
Process from stimulation
make up
thin filament
Tropomyosin: fibrous protein twisted around actin chain Sarcolemma is depolarised by an incoming action
Troponin: protein that is attached to the actin chain at potential which
spreads along membrane and down the
regular
intervals T-tubule
Calcium ions are released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
(using ATP)
and bind to troponin, causing it to change
shape
This in turn causes tropomyosin to move, exposing
myosin binding
sites on actin filament
Myosin heads bind with this site forming cross-bridges
Myosin heads tilt, pulling actin filaments towards centre
of
sarcomere (M line)
Z line: where actin filaments are attached to The heads hydrolyse ATP, providing energy for heads to
let go of
actin and return to original position so that it can
M line: where myosin filaments are attached to
bind again to
exposed site
This process continues as long as binding sites are open
and ATP is
in excess
It can be reversed by relaxation of muscle (no cross
bridge) and
contraction of antagonist muscle that pulls
filaments further away,
lengthening sarcomere
During contraction, the A band is unaffected however

both H and I
bands decrease in length
Providing for muscle contraction
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ATP can be provided from little ATP found in muscle by The presence of FSH and LH stimulates oestrogen to be
respiration
and lactic fermentation produced by
the cells surrounding the follicle
Creatine phosphate stores is an immediate source of Oestrogen however, has a negative feedback on FSH and
energy that
regenerates ATP in the absence of respiration LH so their
concentrations decrease
When oestrogen reaches a level 2-4 times initial value, it
creatine phosphate + ADP creatine + ATP stimulates a surge of LH, causing the ovarian follicle to
burst and
ovulation occurs (14-36 hours after the surge)
When demand for energy has reduced, creatine is
The corpus luteum is now formed, releasing
recharged to form
creatine phosphate in the presence of
progesterone and some
oestrogen
ATP from respiration
Progesterone inhibits secretion of FSH and LH so that no
When there is an energy demand and not enough ATP to
more
follicles develop
regenerate
creatine phosphate, creatine is converted to
Corpus luteum begins to degenerate, decreasing
creatinine and excreted
progesterone and
causing menstruation
9.11. Hormonal Communication Birth Control
Hormones are made in endocrine glands (ductless) and Birth control pills can contain progesterone only or both
are secreted
into the blood progesterone and oestrogen (combined)
The progesterone pill may not prevent ovulation to occur
Hormonal control in menstrual cycle but
they reduce the ability of sperm to reach the egg cell
by increasing
mucus levels in the cervix
The menstrual cycle is coordinated by the anterior The combined pill supresses secretion of FSH and LH due
pituitary gland
and by the ovaries to the
negative feedback from high levels of progesterone
The anterior pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating and oestrogen
Hormone (FSH) and Luteinising Hormone (LH) During the 7 days of menstruation pills are not taken to
The corpus luteum (follicle after releasing gamete) drop
progesterone levels and cause menstruation,
secretes
both oestrogen (stimulates endometrium to reassuring that woman is
not pregnant
grow, thicken and
develop numerous blood capillaries) Note: pills must be taken daily to be effective as missing a
and progesterone (to
maintain endometrium) single day could cause ovulation
9.12. Electrical Communication in

Plants
Venus fly trap:
A carnivorous plant that obtains nitrogen compounds by

digesting
small animals
FSH and LH are in relatively high concentrations during

menstruation
(4-8 days) and so cause one follicle to Nectar secreting glands attract insects
mature Each lobe has three sensory/ trigger hairs that respond
when
deflected
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Outer edges have stiff hairs that interlock to trap insect Active gibberellin stimulates cell division and cell
Surface of lobes has glands that secrete digestive elongation
whilst interacting with auxin, causing the plant
enzymes to grow tall
Plants that are homozygous and have the recessive allele
Action of shutting the trap le produce a non-functional enzyme (due to substitution

mutation in its primary structure)
The deflection of a sensory hair opens Ca2+ channels at
Thus, active gibberellin is not produced and so the plant
cells at the base of hair, causing inflow of Ca2+ and is
genetically dwarf
generating receptor potential (depolarisation) Applying active gibberellin to plants that would remain
If two hairs (or one hair touched twice) are stimulated short can
stimulate them to grow tall
within
20-35s, action potentials travel across the lobe to
close it. Gibberellins and seed germination
+
H ions are pumped into the cell walls, breaking
cross Seeds are in a state of dormancy; this allows it to survive
links (acid growth hypothesis) through
cold winters and is only activated when enough
Calcium pectate ‘glue’ in middle lamella dissolves water is present
Ca2+ enters the hinge cells causing water to enter by
osmosis hence expanding the hinge cells
Lobes of the leaves flip from convex to concave
rapidly (change
in elastic tension)
Further deflection of hairs stimulate entry of Ca2+ into
gland cells, causing exocytosis of vesicles containing
digestive
enzymes.
Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy
Adaptations to avoid energy waste
Stimulation of single hair doesn’t trigger closure eg rain or

debris
Gaps between stiff hairs allow tiny insects to crawl out, so
plant
doesn’t waste energy to consume small meals
10. Genetic technology
Genetic engineering: the transfer of genes from one
9.13. Chemical Communication in Plants organism into
another (of the same/different species) to
express the gene into its new
host.
Two types of plant growth regulators
Recombinant DNA (rDNA): is DNA made by joining lengths of
Auxins: influence elongation of roots and shoots
nucleotide
from two or more different sources
Gibberellins: seed germination and stem internode
elongation Steps essential for producing genetically modified
They travel directly from cell to cell (diffusion/active organism:
transport)
or carried in xylem/phloem sap Identify gene and either:
Cut/ splice from chromosome
Auxins
Synthesise from reverse transcription of mRNA
Plants make several chemicals known as auxins, of which Synthesise from free nucleotides
the main one
is IAA Make multiple copies by polymerase chain reaction
Auxins are synthesised in growing tips/meristems (PCR)
Auxins bind to a protein receptor which stimulates Insert gene into vector:
Plasmids
ATPase to pump in
H+ into cell walls, reducing its pH.
Viruses
Proteins called expansins are activated at low pH,
Liposomes- tiny spherical sacs made of
loosening
cellulose microfibril linkages
phospholipid
molecules
Water is absorbed by osmosis and pressure potential
Insert vector with new gene into the cell
causes the wall
to stretch, elongating the cell
Cells with the new gene are identified and cloned
Auxins also inhibit lateral growth so that plant grows
taller
10.1. Identifying the Gene
Gibberellins and stem elongation
Cut from chromosome:
The dominant allele Le
causes the synthesis of the
last
enzyme that produces active form of gibberellin, GA1
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Restriction Endonuclease: enzyme that comes from chromosomes from

plasmids.
bacteria which
can breakdown DNA of invading virus Plasmid is then cut open using same restriction enzyme
(bacteriophages). used for the
DNA so that sticky ends are complimentary
‘Endonucleases’ as they cut the DNA from the sugar Plasmid and DNA are mixed together
phosphate
backbone DNA ligase then links sugar phosphate backbone of DNA
These enzymes bind to specific target site on the DNA with
plasmid, forming rDNA.
molecule
which has a specific base sequence
Usually they bind to (inverted) palindromic sites, sites Properties of plasmids allowing them to be used as vector:
in
which the sequence reads the same in
Low molecular mass: can be taken up by bacteria easily
complementary strands when
read from 5’ to 3’
Polylinker: a short length of DNA containing several target
sites for different restriction enzymes
One or more marker genes can be added, allowing cells
that take
up recombinant plasmid to be identified,
making it easy to screen
An origin of replication so that they can be copied
Resistant to shearing
Easy to isolate in large quantities
Can form either:

Blunt ends: straight cut across sugar phosphate 10.3. Inserting and identifying bacteria
Sticky ends: short unpaired, staggered ends that can with rDNA
easily
form H bonds with complementary bases cut
using same restriction
enzyme.
Bacteria are put into solution with high Ca2+ conc, are
cooled and then given electric shock to increase chances
of plasmid
passing through cell membrane
Only about 1% take up the plasmid and are said to be
transformed
In the past, we used to use agar plates containing an
antibiotic to
identify the bacterium with the plasmid, but
this causes unnecessary
resistant strains to be formed
Other genetic markers:
A gene from jellyfish codes for an enzyme that
Using reverse transcriptase produces GFP
(green fluorescent protein) needs to be
inserted into the rDNA
(with its promoter), which
By using the reverse transcriptase enzyme, free
fluoresces in UV light.
nucleotides, mRNA
and DNA polymerase, we could obtain
If an organism contains GUS assay enzyme and is
a cDNA strand (complementary
DNA)
incubated
with some specific colourless/non-
This process, however requires you to find the mRNA
florescent substrates, it can
transform them into
molecules in a
cell cytoplasm
coloured or fluorescent substances.
These are easier methods to identify bacteria and also
Synthesising from nucleotides:
more
economical than using antibiotic resistance
Since proteins have now been sequenced, we can genes
synthesise DNA
artificially from nucleotides. Promoters: controls the expression of genes
The sequence of nucleotides is held in a computer that
directs the
synthesis of short fragments of DNA (ref Region of DNA to which RNA polymerase binds as it starts
section 10.7
Bioinformatics). The fragments are then transcription of the template strand.
joined to make longer
nucleotides that can be inserted Promoters only allow synthesis of genes that are required
into plasmids. & so waste
less energy on unwanted proteins
Eg B-galactosidase is made only when the bacteria is
10.2. Inserting Gene into Vector growing in
a medium containing lactose, in the
absence of glucose.
Plasmids: small, circular, double-stranded DNA that is used In order for gene inserted into bacteria to be expressed,
as a
type of vector, which transfers new genes into a appropriate promoter needs to be added.
recipient cell
10.4. Gel electrophoresis
To obtain plasmids, bacteria are treated with enzymes to
break their
cell walls and are then centrifuged to separate A technique used to separate different molecules.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
A mixture of molecules is placed into wells cut into Fragments of DNA move towards the anode as it has
agarose gel and
applying an electric field. negatively charged
phosphate groups
Genetic profiling (fingerprinting): sequencing a length of
DNA
of one organism and comparing it to another by
looking at the
‘variable number tandem repeats’ (VNTRs)
Steps in electrophoresis:
DNA extracted from anything that contains cells such
as, root of
hair, blood splatter, saliva and so on
PCR is used to increase number of DNA
DNA cut into fragments using restriction
endonuclease
DNA is placed on agarose gel and current is applied
Fragments travel towards anode, shorter fragments
Movement of charged particle in response to electric
traveling
further/faster, than longer ones
field depends on:
To make fragment visible:
Net charge: +ve molecules move towards anode (+), -
Place absorbent paper (nitrocellulose paper) on
ve
molecules move towards cathode (-); highly
gel to
transfer fragment on it
charged molecules
move faster.
Heat the paper to separate both DNA strands
Size: smaller molecules move faster
Add probes (short sequence of single strand),
which form
complementary base pairing with
10.5. Electrophoresis of Proteins VNTR regions
Probes also contain radioactive isotope which,
Proteins are made up of amino acids and the charges on when placed
on an X-ray film, emits radiation,
these amino
acids depend on R groups present and pH making the film go dark
The dark strips on the film match position of
fragment on
gel
Alternatively, label probes with fluorescent stains
that
fluoresce when UV light is shone
10.7. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Is a method for rapid production of a particular fragment
of DNA to
produce a very large number of copies
Steps involved in PCR
o
DNA is denatured by heating to 95 C and double

helix
splits into two strands
Annealing: Attaching primer onto ends of DNA after
cooling
to about 65o C (primer is short sequence of

complimentary DNA)
In acidic pH, NH2 R groups (bases) gain a proton and Elongation: Taq polymerase adds free nucleotides
become NH3+, hence net charge becomes positive
∴ onto primer
at 72o C to complete new DNA strand

moves towards cathode This process is then repeated many times, at each
In basic pH, the COOH R groups (acids) lose their protons time doubling
amount of DNA produced (exponential
inc.)
and become
COO–, hence net charge becomes negative
∴
moves towards anode Taq polymerase is used because:
It is not easily destroyed by denaturing so doesn’t
In neutral conditions, the NH3+ is cancelled
by the COO– have to be
replaced every cycle
so it depends solely on the R group High optimum temperature: so temp. does not have
E.g. haemoglobin in sickle cells contains slightly lower to be below
(65o C ), hence faster rate of reaction

negative
charge than normal as it’s R group is non-polar
(valine) hence when
separated sickle cell moves less than
that of normal (non-polar
valine replaces polar glutamic
10.8. Microarrays
acid)
Tool to identify the genes present in an organism’s
genome, which
genes are being expressed and the level
10.6. Electrophoresis of DNA of activity
It could also be used to compare genes present in two
different
species
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Microarray is a collection of genes, each in placed in Gene sequencing is the order of base pairs in sections of
depressions
on a small chip/ slide DNA,
allowing genomes of many species to be published
Researches can use these databases to find similarities
Process: between the
sequence of what they are studying and of
saved sequences in the
databases
DNA is collected from each species, cut up into different
Sequences can be matched and degree of similarity
fragments
and denatured to give lengths of single-
calculated, this
can show if there is common ancestry
stranded DNA
Information stored in database about plasmodium allows
DNAs are labelled with fluorescent (eg species A = red,
us to find
new methods to control it eg providing valuable
species B =
green) and mixed together allowing to
information in the
development of vaccines
hybridise with the probes on
the microarray
DNA that does not bind to the microarray is washed off
Microarray is inspected using UV light 10.10. Producing Human Proteins by GE
Fluorescent patches show hybridisation has taken
place Insulin
Red tags indicate the gene probe is present in species Factor VIII - blood clotting protein
A Thyroid stimulating hormone
Green tag indicates the gene is present in species B Human growth hormone
Yellow tag indicates the gene is present in both
The general advantages of producing the proteins by
species
Microarray is then scanned using laser scanner and read genetic
engineering is that:
using a
computer. Data stored in computer indicates Simple nutritional requirement
which genes are present
in which species. Large volume of product produced
Production facilities do not require much space and
so can take
place all around the world
No risk of infection e.g. HIV from blood donation
Less ethical issues as blood need not be extracted
from animals
or donors.
Disadvantages: bacteria don’t modify their proteins the
same way
eukaryotes do since Golgi bodies are absent.
Insulin
In the past, diabetics were treated with insulin extracted

from
pancreases of pigs or cattle
Gene technology made it possible to synthetically make
our own
insulin
So the advantage is that we now have a reliable supply of
insulin
available to the increasing demand
GF insulin is identical to human insulin unlike insulin
previously
extracted from cows
To Identify the genes present that are being expressed:
Method of insulin production:
The mRNA is reverse transcribed to form cDNA
PCR can be done if cDNA is in low quantity mRNA from human pancreatic β cells are extracted
The same process as above can be used mRNA is incubated with reverse transcriptase producing
The fluorescence in the microarray indicates that those single
stranded cDNA
genes were
being transcribed and their intensities DNA polymerase is used to convert into double strand
indicate the activity of
each gene Insulin gene (cDNA) is then inserted into a plasmid to
transform the
bacterium
10.9. Bioinformatics The bacteria can now produce insulin, so they are grown
in large
fermenters and insulin is extracted and purified
Bioinformatics is the collection, processing and analysing of
biological information & data using computer software Reason why mRNA is more suitable than DNA extraction:
Bioinformatics combines biological data with computer mRNA is only from gene coding for insulin, whereas DNA
technology and
makes links has all genes
and so you must locate and extract gene
Databases hold gene sequences, complete genomes, Restriction enzyme would be needed for DNA extraction
amino acid
sequences and protein structures Large number of mRNA that code for insulin
Factor VIII
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
This is a protein that is essential for blood clotting, people

10.13. Diseases and Gene Therapy
who
do not have it are said to be haemophilic
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID): the inability
Method of Factor VIII production:
to
produce the enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA)
Human gene inserted into hamster kidney and ovary cells which helps detoxify
the immune system. Without it, the
They are then cultured in fermenters, and so they immune system is crippled, and
sufferers usually die in
produce the
protein infancy from common infections.
Protein is extracted, purified and regularly injected to Children are isolated inside plastic bubbles to protect
patients from
infections.
Before recombinant factor VIII, it came from blood Gene therapy used to introduce normal alleles of ADA
donors and caused
risk of infections eg HIV gene, using
retroviruses at foetal stage. (Regular
transfusions were
necessary)
Inherited eye disease this is a form of hereditary
10.11. Genetic Screening
blindness in
which retinal cells die off gradually from an
early age
Genetic screening is the analysis of a person’s DNA to check
for the
presence of a particular allele for breast cancer, Gene Therapy
Huntington’s disease
(late-onset disease), Sickle cell anaemia,
cystic fibrosis, haemophilia
and etc. Is the altering of a genotype and inserting the normal
allele into
the appropriate cells using a vector, producing
Adult woman can screen for faulty alleles of the genes a functional
recombinant DNA
BRCA-1 and
BRCA-2 which increases chances of breast Eg the CFTR gene in cystic fibrosis is usually the cause of a
cancer mutation of a deletion of 3 bases, so in theory inserting
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD): At the 8 cell normal
dominant allele would transcribe the normal
stage
during an IVF, one cell can be removed and checked protein
for diseases; if
embryo healthy, then implanted, if not it is
discarded Cystic Fibrosis
Amniocentesis: performed at 15 weeks, a sample of
amniotic fluid
obtained and cells checked for any genetic Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele that codes
abnormalities for a
transport protein called CFTR, causing the
Therapeutic abortion is terminating pregnancies for production of abnormal
thick mucus that is difficult to be
medical
reasons and having advice from professionals removed
Parents decide to have abortions even if the defect is Other body parts such as pancreatic duct can become
minor and
child could have normal life blocked as well
as reproductive ducts causing infertility
People that are diagnosed with the disease may never CFTR effects on lungs:
develop it but
would have to live with the fear of knowing Due to mucus not moving effectively by cilia, bacteria
it may start at any time
(eg Huntington’s) and dust
accumulate, causing infections
Parents also abort due to the sex of their child, and use Reduces gaseous exchange, by making it a longer
PDG to
select the sex of the embryo. This preselection, diffusion
pathway
amongst others
mentioned above, are considered Causes difficulty in breathing
unethical. Lungs may be scarred
Could lead to the birth of designer babies where parents The CFTR gene normally codes for a transport protein
select
other aesthetically pleasing traits, also unethical that allows
chloride ions to pass out of cell
10.12. Types of Vectors

1. Viruses
2. Naked DNA
3. Liposomes
Viruses
Retroviruses insert their genes into host randomly, so

they may
insert it within a gene, or even worse into the
regulatory gene and
so can cause cancer
Chloride ions are essential to be transported out so that
Lentiviruses also insert genes randomly, however, they they cause
concentration gradient outside, hence causing
can be
modified to inactivate replication water to move out of
cells by osmosis
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
The water mixes with the mucus making it easy for

removal by the
sweeping movement of cilia
The recessive allele codes for a faulty version of this
protein, not
allowing cl- ions to pass out of the cell, so
water doesn’t move out
and mucus remains thick.
Vectors used for epithelial cells to take up gene:
Liposomes in aerosol sprays
Viral delivery by retrovirus/ adenovirus
Naked DNA for direct delivery
However, problems occur in practical situation such as:
Allele needs to get into as many cells throughout
respiratory
system, including cells that divide.
Short natural lifespan; effects only last for a few days Golden rice is meant to be healthier than white rice due
Low uptake by target cells to
increased Vitamin A content, as its deficiency can cause
Only target lung cells at this time blindness
and the immune deficiency syndrome that in
Side effects such as infections caused by the virus turn causes a high level
of mortality in children in
However naked DNA is used (DNA directly inserted developing countries
into
tissues) to prevent problems associated with Pro-vitamin A carotenoids are present in the aleuronic
vectors. layer of
normal rice grains however; this layer is usually
The advantages on the other hand are: removed so that it
does not go rancid quickly
No physiotherapy/antibiotics are needed Therefore, projects to produce rice that contain carotene
Less time consuming than other types of treatments in the
endosperm were undertaken producing genetically
modified golden rice
10.14. Genetically Modified Plants Vector used: Agrobacterium
First generation of golden rice used genes from daffodils
Herbicide resistant crops Second generation of golden rice uses genes from maize
Growing herbicide resistant crops allows you to spray Disadvantages to growing Golden Rice would be:
herbicide
after seed has germinated, killing weeds that
would otherwise
compete for space, light and water GM seed could be difficult for farmers in developing
Vector used: Agrobacterium plasmids countries to
obtain, as it cannot be replanted
Gene is taken up by plant cells to form a callus. The callus High cost of buying GM seed, so also expensive for
is then
grown under ideal conditions to form a GMO plant people to buy
Example: sugar beet May not grow well in all conditions
This increases the yield of crop however; it has Might reduce efforts to relieve poverty
disadvantages
such as:
Genetically modified plants become agricultural 10.15. Social Implications of Using GM
weeds
Pollen will transfer into the wild, producing off-spring
Organisms in Food Production
that
are invasive weeds
Modified crop plants can become agricultural weeds
Herbicide resistant weeds will evolve due to the usage
Introduced genes may be transferred by pollen to wild
of same
herbicide and so mutate
offspring and
so become more invasive
Insect resistant crops Can be transferred by pollen to organic certified farms
Hazard to humans as they can produce allergies
This is another important development that allows plants The herbicide can leave toxic residue on the crop
to be
protected against attack by insects Growers need to buy seeds each season which is
Vector used: Bt (a Bacillus bacterium) expensive
Bt gene is inserted into the plant. It produces crystal Can lose traditional varieties with their desirable
proteins
which kill insects when taken up background
genes, hence would have to make
Examples: Bt maize, Bt cotton programmes of growing and harvesting
them. Also
Again, crop yield increases however its disadvantages are: forcing us to setup seed bank to preserve them
Evolution of resistance by insect pests No bioaccumulation
A damaging effect on other species of insects Allows non-leguminous plants to fix nitrogen
The transfer of the added gene to other species of Increased yield in insecticide and herbicide resistant
plant. crops
Increased quality/ taste
Golden Rice
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Flavr Savr tomatoes can ripen on vines, reducing food

waste in
supermarkets
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE A2 LEVEL
Biology (9700)
Copyright 2021 by ZNotes

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ZNOTES.

UPDATED TO 2019-21 SYLLABUS

The importance of random sampling is that a habitat may be

Biodiversity: The variety of species in an area along with their

The three levels of diversity:

1.3. Genetic Diversity

2. Decide approx. what % area inside quadrat is

Mark-release and recapture:

Used with mobile animals

1.6. Systematic Sampling

Using transacts: to detect changes in community composition

Pearson’s linear correlation

2124 the data sets.

nx, y 10 × 10.2 ×

where n is the total number of organisms of a particular

1. Rank both species (where the highest data is ranked 1

2.1. Taxonomic Hierarchy Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia areas (habitat

Needle inserted in ovaries to extract mature follicles

3.5. Culling and Contraceptives Anabolic reactions: synthesizing complex substances

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Species don’t always benefit from this organization as when a

WWF - World Wide Fund of Nature

ATP can be synthesized by two

Is the lysis of glucose to form 2 molecules of pyruvate (3C)

First stage is phosphorylating glucose using 2 ATP, this is

Occurs in the matrix of mitochondrion therefore must

Coenzyme A is a complex molecule composed of

Net Gain CO2

2 FAD is reduced only in the Krebs cycle

Reduced NAD produces 3 molecules of ATP

However, some energy is used to transport ADP into the

This produces a small yield of ATP as only glycolysis

Alcohol fermentation in plants

Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate

Lactate fermentation in animals

Respiratory substrate Respiratory quotient (RQ)

When values are closer to infinity or higher than 1.0,

This is because most of the energy liberated in 4.6. Respirometer

Respiratory quotient (RQ): the ratio of oxygen taken

Adaptation of palisade tissue:

Contain large numbers of chloroplasts

Note: this apparatus can also be used to measure RQ

Takes place in the thylakoid membranes

Chloroplast appear as biconvex discs about 3-10 µm Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation

Only involves Photosystem I

5.4. Limiting Factors

Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic

A better understanding of the environmental factors on

Chlorophylls (Primary Pigments) Allow the sample to evaporate to concentrate the

Absorption spectrum: is the graph above and shows the

Repeat with a different solvent, placing the

Lowest absorbance corresponds to lowest rate of

Note that rate is higher at lower wavelengths, this is not

There are 22 pairs of autosomal homologous

Takes place in the tubules of the testes

Codominant alleles have both the phenotypes of each

6.6. Monohybrid Crosses

The –NH2 and a hydrogen atom are removed leaving