CHAPTER II

THEORICAL FRAMEWORK

English is one of many languages in the world. There are some doubts as

to its future status, but even in the present it is worth countering the idea that is an

all embracing world language. There are many more people in the world,

especially in Indonesia, who do not speak English than there are people who do.

Therefore, English language teaching has an inmportant role in studying language

skill.

A. Definition of Teaching

Teaching is one of the teacher “awaken” . it means cause or push someone

(student) to learn. According hasibuan J.J states that teaching is creating

conducive environment happened process to learn. 1 In addition, teaching is

transferring of knowledge and focus. In case, student or teacher has to understand

the subject which will be taught. In other hand, teaching activity should happen a

process it is learning a process.2 Leo says that teaching is stand for treat,

encourage, activate, coordinate, heighten, infuse, nurture, and graduate. 3 H.

Doughlas Brown says that “teaching, which is implied in the first definition of

learning, may be defined as showing or helping someone to learn how to do

something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with

1
Drs. J.J Hasibuan. Dip and Drs.Moedjiono, Proses Belajar Mengajar, (Bandung: PT.
Remaja Rosdakarya, 2010), p.3
2
AD. Rooijakers, Mengajar Dengan Sukses, (Jakarta: PT. Gramedia, 1980), p.1
3
Leo, Sutanto, A challenging Book to Practice Teaching and English, Yogyakarta: Andi
Offset, 2013), p. 1.
 7

knowledge, causing to know or understand.” 4 So that teaching is a process that

improve the student's seeking level more easily and it might be overcome any

situation as an easy way.

Teaching is more than a set of methods. Teaching means addressing a set

of objectives, for particular group of students, at a certain point in the school year,

with certain resources, within particular time frame, in a particular school and

community setting. 5 It means finding a balance between direct instructions and

orchestrating the activities of individuals and groups of students. It means

developing students‟ skills and strategies for learning, at the same time they learn

the content of the curriculum.

According to Johnson English language teaching is defined broadly as

creating situation that promote second language and learning. It involves

organizing learning environment, language use and language learning activities

that are intended to facilitated students language development. 6 According to

Harmer learning can be defined as “the process of accepting the knowledge”. 7

Manser said that learning is an activity to gain knowledge or skill.8

Teaching learning process is an activity involving teachers and pupils in a

learning activity. Teaching learning process is defined as instructional process

4
Brown H.Doughlas,” priciple of language learning and teaching”, (New york:
Longman,2000) United State of America, p.7
5
Pollard, Lucy, Teaching English, (London: Lusy Copyright, 2008), p.22.
6
Johnson, Donna, Approaches to Research in Second Language Learning (New York:
Longman Publishing Group, 1991). P. 7.
7
Harmer J, How to Teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English Language
Teaching (Harlow: Longman, 1998). P.33.
8
Manser, Martin H, Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary, (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1995), p. 237.
 8

through the organization and direct instruction of the teacher, learners and

materials in the classroom. So the teaching learning is an activity involving

teachers and pupils who aim to understand the English language material

including four skills then practice it and develop it.

B. Definition of Speaking

Speaking is so much a part of daily life that we take it for granted. We can

communicate to the other persons using sign or writing, but speaking make the

communication easier. Nunanstates “to most people, mastering the speaking skill

is the single most important aspect of learning a second or foreign language, and

success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the

language.”9According to Hornby, speaking is making use of language in ordinary

voice; uttering words; knowing and being able to use a language; expressing

oneself in words; making a speech. 10 Brown states that speaking is a productive

skill that can be directly and empirically observed, those observations are

invariably collared by the accuracy and fluency. 11 Tarigan states that speaking is

one of the language skills in oral form to express the speakers’ ideas to everybody

else.12 Base on explanation above, it can conclude that speaking is the verbal use

of language to communicate with other. Speaking is important because with

speaking we can communication with other person in daily activities and also for

foreign language learners.

9
David Nunan, Language Teaching Methodology a Textbook for Teachers (NewYork:
Phoenix, , 1995), p.39.
10
Hornby, Advance Learner’s Dictionary, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p.13.
11
Brown H. Douglas, Principle of Language Learning and Practice, (London: Hall,
2002), p.49.
12
HG.Tarigan, PengajaranPemerolehanBahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1999), p.56.
 9

C. Teaching Speaking

According to Ur, concerning the topic 'Teaching speaking', a fact is that

teaching practice, as well as theory, belongs unavoidably to this category. It is not

enough to know how to make a sentence in theory, when learning speaking, but

we must start to produce sentences. 13 According to Hughes, the objective of

teaching spoken language is the development of the ability to interact successfully

in that language, and that this involves comprehension as well as production. 14

Teaching speaking, in the researcher's opinion, is the way for students to

express their emotions, communicative needs, interact with other persons in any

situation, and influence the others. For this reason, in teaching speaking skill it is

necessary to have clear understanding involved in speech and also encourage the

potential of the learners to develop their speaking skill naturally. Overall, teaching

speaking skill emphasizes on the activities to make the students active and

creative.

D. The Component of Speaking

According to Vanderkevent there are three components in speaking. They

are speakers, the listeners and the utterances. 15 According to Harris there are five

components of speaking skill concerned with comprehension, grammar,

vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency. Comprehension For oral communication, it

13
Ur, Penny, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (New York:
Cambridge University Press, (1996), p. 56.
14
Nunan, David, Practical English Language Teaching, (England: Mc Grawhill
Publishing 2003), p. 113.
15
Vanderkevent, Teaching Speaking and Component of Speaking ( New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 23.
 10

certainly requires a subject to respond, to speech as well as to initiate it.16

According to Syakur, there are at least five component of speaking skill. Those

components are Comprehension, Grammar, Vocabulary, Pronunciation, and

Fluency.17 So, based on these explanations above, the researcher concluded that

without mastering vocabulary sufficiently is English learners will not be able to

speak English or write English properly.

Those component of teaching and learning process needs some

components to prepare in order that the process run well. Those components of

teaching and learning process are related to each other classifies the components

of teaching and learning process into six component: they are learning objective,

the curriculum and syllabus model, the role of teacher, and the students, the

material and evaluation. 18

1. Learning objectives are also statements that describe a learner will

be to do as a result of teaching. Learning objectives are aimed at

the tree domains of learning, knowledge, skill and attitudes. These

are also termed the cognitive, psychomotor and effective domain

learning.

2. Need analysis as a distinct and necessary phase in planning

educational programs emerged in the 1960‟s as part of the systems

approach to curriculum development and was part of the prevalent

16
Harris, David, Testing English as a Second Language, (New York: Mc. Graw. Hill
Book Company. 1974), p. 20
17
Syakur, Language Testing and Evaluation, (Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press,
1987), p. 3
18
Richard. J. C., and Rodgers, T. S, Approcess and method in language teaching,
(London, Cambridge University Press, 1985), P. 70.
 11

philosophy of educational accountability. Based on a needs

analysis of problem students with discussion the most frequent

difficulties were: (1)Comprehension of spoken English ( they speak

to fast, they mumble, vocabulary is idiomatic). (2)The pressing

need to formulate a contribution quickly ( I can’t think what to

say). (3)Shyness about the value of a contribution ( I might say

something wrong), (4)Inability to formulate an idea English ( I

don’t know how to say it in English). (5)Awareness that a given

function may be realized in different ways ( I don’t know the best

way to say it). (6)Frustration about being unable to enter the

discussion ( some students speak too much).

3. Syllabus design is concerned with the choice and sequencing of

instructional content. In language teaching, the syllabus has

traditionally been the stating point in planning in language

program, rather than an activity that occurs midway in the process.

The concept of language syllabus has been fundamental in the

development of language teaching practice in the twentieth. When

a syllabus is available, it becomes a useful for starting point in

surveying the existing situation. Syllabus ideally describes:

(1)What the learners are expected to know and the and of the

course or the course objectives in operational terms. (2)What is to

be taught or learned during the course, in the form of an inventory

of items. (3)When it is to be taught and at what rate of progress,

 12

relating the inventor of items to different levels and stages as well

to the time constraints of the course. (4)How it is so be taught,

suggesting procedures, techniques and materials. (5)How it is to be

evaluated, suggesting testing and evaluating mechanism.

4. Material has important role in teaching learning process. Teacher

has responsibility to choose material. Material is the amount of

information about the fact, principles and concept, which are

needed to achieve the goal. The material used in the process of

teaching and learning should be suitable with the subject being

learned and also the student knowledge.

The English teaching material must be interesting and fun, the from of

material support for language teaching comes from textbook. There are some

reason why the textbook is used in teaching learning; it is useful learning aid for

the students, it can identify what should be taught or learned, it can indicate what

methodology should be used, it can provide attractively and economically, all or

most material needed. With interesting and fun learning atmosphere, the student

will be more motivated to study.

E. The Elements of Speaking

Brown states, in speaking activity there are elements that should be

considered by the speaker in order to make information that would be delivered

to other people can be accepted well. They are pronunciation, fluency and
 13

accuracy.19 Harmer states that the ability to speak English presupposes the

elements necessaryfor spoken production. They are Language features and

Mental / social processing. So that Speaking is not only having amount of

vocabularies and knowingthe grammatical structures, but also mastering all

elements of speaking above. All messages we delivered will be acceptable by all

communicants if we mastered those elements.

F. Techniques in Teaching Speaking

According to Fauziati, there are many activities to teach speaking. The

activities discussed here are just ways of getting student to talk each other in pairs

or in groups. They also aim to stimulate discussion and information trading

transaction such as activities may include role playing, simulation, games,

information gap, discussion, song, etc. 20 Harmer states there are nine classroom

speaking activities. They are discussion, conversation, oral report, role-play,

interview, questions and answers, using a picture or picture story, giving

instructions/descriptions/explanations, retelling story from aural or written

stimulus. There are many activities to teach speaking. They are discussion, role

play, simulation, information gap, brain storming, storytelling, interviews, story

completion, reporting, and playing card.

19
Brown H. Douglas, Principle of Language Learning and Practice, (London: Hall,
2002), p.55
20
Fauziati, Endang, Introduction to Methods and Approaches in second or Foreign
Language Teaching, (Surakarta: Era Pustaka Utama, 2009), h. 125.
 14

1. Role playing

According to Ladousse,the word “role” is they play apart (either their

own or somebody else’s) in a specific situation. The word ‘play’ means the role is

taken on in a safe environment in which students are as inventive and playful as

possible.21 Byrne says that the Role-play is an activity that the students take

“roles” as themselves or as other characters in the specific situation. 22 From those

explanation above, the researcher views that role play is a technique which

involves fantasy or imagination to be someone else or to be ourselves in a specific

situation for a while, improvising dialogue and creating a real world in scenario.

2. Simulation technique

According to Richards and Rodgers, simulation clearly promotes effective

interpersonal relations and social transactions among participants 23. Jones states

that In order for a simulation to occur the participants must accept the duties and

responsibilities of their roles and functions, and do the best they can in the

situation in which they find themselves.24 Simulation is a teacher training

technique. It is used to bring about modification in the behavior of the teacher.

3. Games

Gibbs defines that games as an activity carried out by cooperating or

competing decision-makers who want to achieve their objectives following a set

21
Laddouse, Gillian,P, Role Play, (New York : Oxford, 1987), P. 5.
22
Byrne, Donn, Teaching Oral English: Longman Handbooks for English Teacher,
(Singapore: Longman Group, 1986), p. 47
23
Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S, Approaches and methods in language teaching,
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 17
24
Jones, K., Simulations in Language Teaching, (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1982), p. 133
 15

of rules. 25 According to Rixon, games are closed activities that have a beginning

and an end with a winner who defines the end of the game. 26 Game-based learning

is a teaching method that allows learners to explore different parts of games as a

form of learning.

4. Information gap

Raptou says that in information gap activities, one person has certain

information that must be shared with others in order to solve problem, gather

27
information or make decisions. . According to Neu and Reeser, the Information

Gap Technique is a useful activity in a speaking class. In an information gap

activity, one person has certain information that must be shared with others in

order to solve a problem, gather information or make a decision.28 An information

gap activity is an activity where learners are missing the information they need to

complete a task and need to talk to each other to find it.

5. Discussion

Arends states that discussion gives students public opportunities to talk

about and play with their own ideas and provides motivation to engage in

discourse beyond in the classroom. 29 Wu states that discussion could stimulate

students to be involved in the active process of constructing knowledge.

25
Gibbs, G, Teaching students to learn: A student-centered approach (Open University
Press: Buckingham, 1981), p. 77.
26
Rixon, S, How to use games in language teaching, (London: Macmillan, 1981), p54.
27
Raptou, V, Using information gaps activities in the second language classroom.
http:/www.caslt.org. Retrieved on July 13, 2020.
28
Neu, H., & Reeser, T. W, Parle-moiunpeu!: Information Gap activities for beginning
French classes, (Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1997).
29
Arends, Richard I, Classroom Instruction and Management, (United States: Central
Connecticute State University, 1997), p. 201.
 16

Furthermore, during group discussion, students learn from each other, whether

consciously or unconsciously. 30 Discussion is a variety of forums for open-ended,

collaborative exchange of ideas among a teacher and students or among students

for the purpose of furthering students thinking, learning, problem solving,

understanding, or literary appreciation.

6. Brain Storming,

Carroll and Wilson define brainstorming as a collaborative prewriting

strategy which works the way the brain works. Its purpose is to unfetter the brain

and to get the ideas down. 31 Scarry defines that brainstorming as a technique in

which a student uses free association to discover ideas come to mind on a given

topic.32 It can be concluded that brainstorming is a useful technique in writing

because it permits the students to approach a topic with an open mind. It helps

students to find the topic to be written and the content to be involved to support

the topic itself.

7. Storytelling

According to Cameron Storytelling is an oral activity, and stories have the

shape they do because they are designed to be listened to and, in many situations,

participated in.33 According to Handayani (2013, p.1), storytelling can encourage

students to explore their unique expressiveness and can heighten a student's ability

30
Wu. Effective Activities for Teaching English Idioms to EFL Learners
(http://iteslj.org/Techniques /Wu-TeachingIdioms.html, accessed July 13, 2020)
31
Carroll, J.A, and Wilson, E.E, Acts of Teaching: How to Teach Writing, (Denver, CO:
Teacher Ideas Press, 1993), p. 76.
32
Scarry, S., and Scarry, J, The Writer’s Workplace with Readings: Building College
Writing Skills (6th Ed.), (Boston: Thompson Learning, Inc, 2008), p. 57.
33
Cameron, L, Teaching languages to young learners, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001), P. 160.
 17

to communicate thoughts and feelings in an articulate, lucid manner.34 Based on

the theories from the experts above, a conclusion is drawn that story telling is an

alternative teaching technique which involves the combination of written word,

song, acting, mime, dance, and role play that provides ability to generate character

and make logical conclusion.

8. Interviews,

According to Kessler, this technique is a useful instructional activity for

the development of communicative purposes through the interview process which

can influence the students‟ enthusiasm for learning ESL. 35 According to Kagan, It

urges students to communicate in a specific conversational context in which each

student has a role to play. 36 The Interview technique plays an important role to

scaffold students in developing their speaking proficiency as well as their

interactions in the teaching learning processes.

9. Playing Card

Brown states that picture-cued as follow: familiar picture are displayed, and

test taker are told to write the word that the picture represent. Assuming in

identifying the picture (cat, hat, chair, table etc). No reliance in aural

comprehension for successful completion of the task.37 According to Bagwell

card game is an excellent tool for developing basic vocabulary skills, these full-

34
Handayani, Heny, Story Telling Can Improve Speaking Ability for Beginner,
(Unpublished Thesis. Bogor: University of IBN Khaldun, 2010), p.1.
35
Kessler, C, Co-operative language learning: A teacher’s resource book, (New York:
Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1992), p30.
36
Kagan, S, Co-operative learning, (San Clemente. CA: Kagan Publishing, 1994), p. 13.
37
Brown, H Douglas, Language Assessment :Principle and Classroom Practice, (New
York: Pearson education ,Inc ,2004), P. 223.
 18

color photos and matching word cards feature common objects found in everyday

life.38There are many activities to teach speaking. They are discussion, role play,

simulation, information gap, brain storming, storytelling, interviews, story

completion, reporting, and playing card.

G. Methods In Teaching English

According to Brown, H. Douglas, method is “a generalized set of

classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Method tends to

be concerned with teacher and student role and behaviors and secondary with such

features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing and materials”. 39

According to Edisherashvili, method is an overall plan in presenting a learning

process based on the selected approach. 40 Vin-Mbah states that that the success or

failure of learning also depends on what methods are applied in classroom by the

teachers.41 Method is applied to ensure teachers’ willingness in covering the class

during delivering the lesson to the pupils in the classroom.

1. The direct method

According to Rodger and Richard, direct method is totally against GTM

(Grammar Translation Method). As mentioned earlier, that English as a foreign

language can be taught without translation, because language can be taught

38
Bagwell, Rebecca, Vocabulary Card Games, (eHow Contributor, 2010). p. 52
39
Brown H Doughlas, Teaching by Principle: An Interactive Approach To Language
Pedagogy, ( New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1994)p. 16.
40
Edisherashvili, N, Communicative Language Teaching in Georgia: Froem Theory to
Practice, (Leiden University, 2014), p. 84.
41
Vin-Mbah, F. I, Learning and Teaching Methodology :What Teacher Should Know and
Should Able to Do, Journal of Educational and Social Research, Vol. II, No.4, May 2012, accessed
on July 15 2020.
 19

effectively when using it actively in classroom and using appropriate teaching

techniques in explaining of grammar rules. 42 Gurrey says that direct method is a

principle, not a teaching method. 43 The direct method of teaching English is also

known as the Natural Method. The direct method of teaching was developed as a

response to the Grammar-Translation method.

2. The grammar translation method

This method of teaching English is grammar heavy and relies a lot on

translation. According to Patel and Jain, GTM is used in a basic learning. It allows

teacher to use mother tongue in teaching. Moreover, it is more focused on a word,

not a sentence. It is also used in teaching vocabulary and concerned on the word

meaning and its form. 44 According to Khamhuber, the method may be frustrating

for students but it was still applied to know the grammar rules as cited in. 45 The

Grammar Translation Method (GTM) is an method of second language instruction

based mostly on the translation of passages from the native language into the

target language.

3. The audio lingual method

According to Joseph, the audio lingual method otherwise known as the

New Key Method or Army Method is based on a behavirourist theory that things

42
Richard, J. C, Rodgers, t. s, Approach And Methods in Language Teaching, (UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 15.
43
Gurrey, P, Teaching English as a Foreign Language, (London: Longmans, 1966), p. 24.
44
Patel, D. M. F., & Jain, P. M, English Language Teaching (Method, Tools, and
Techniques), (Jaipur: Sunrise blisher, 2008), p, 21.
45
Khamhuber, P, Comparison of Grammar in Australia and Spanish English Language
Teaching Textbook, (Magister der Philosophy: University of Wien, 2010), p. 53
 20

are able to be learned by constant reinforcement. 46 According to Lestari, audio-

lingual method is to improve students speaking ability teachers present the

material to the students through dialogs. The dialogs are learned thought drills,

such as: repetition, substitution, and question-answer.47 The Audio-lingual

Method was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of

structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue.

4. The structural approach

According to Freeman, methods which are taught to the teachers make a

base and give them thinking about the applicable techniques and principles

according to the situation where they stand. 48 Widdowson states that the belief is

that “Language learning comes about by teaching learners to know the forms of

the language as a medium and the meaning they incorporate. 49 The structural

approach is based on the assumption that language teaching can best be done

through systematic selection and grading of structures or sentence patterns.

5. Suggestopedia

According to Xue, suggestopedia is a teaching method, which focuses on

how to deal with the relationship between mental potential and learning ability

and it is very appropriate to use in teaching speaking for young language

46
Joseph C., Mukalel. Approaches to English language teaching. (Delhi: Discovery
Pulshing House, 1998), p. 57.
47
Lestari, Puji S, Audio-lingual as an alternative method in teaching speaking because in
Audio-Lingual the learners enable to speak in written and oral communication at MAN I Batam,
(Batam: Thesis, 2011). P.17.
48
Diane Larsen-Freeman, Marti Anderson, Techniques And Principles in Language Teaching,
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), p.225.
49
Widdowson HG, Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP Teaching Language as
Communication, (Oxford: OUP, 1991) p 160.
 21

learners.50 According to Stevic, some of the key elements of Suggestopedia

include a rich sensory learning environment (pictures, colour, music, etc.), a

positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods:

dramatized texts (texts contain the dialogues), music, active participation in songs

and games, etc. 51 This method relies heavily on students’ belief about the

method’s effectiveness. This theory is intended to offer learners various choices,

which in turn helps them become more responsible for their learning.

6. Total Physical Response

According to Richard, Total Physical Response is language teaching

methods built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach

language through physical (motor) activity. 52 According to Asher, TPR involves

havin students listen to a command in a foreign language and immediately

responding with the appropriate physical action.53 Otherwise known as TPR is an

approach that follows the idea of ‘learning by doing’. Beginners will learn English

through a series of repetitive actions such as “Stand up”, “Open your book”,

“Close the door”, and “Walk to the window and open it.” With TPR, the most

important skill is aural comprehension and everything else will follow naturally

later.

50
Xue, Jinxiang, Critical Review on Suggestopedia, Division of Language and
Communication (2005), www.eslkidstuff.com/articles.htm. accessed on July 10th 2020.
51
Stevick, E. Teaching languages: A way and ways. Chapters 18-19 (Rowley, MA:
Newbury House, 1980), p.112.
52
Richard J.C, Grammar and Spoken Language, (USA: Linguistic Applied Press,1995), p. 93.
53
Asher, J. J, Technique of Learning, (USA: Linguistic Applied Press, 1964), p. 253.
 22

7. Communicative language teaching

According to Hymes, its primary goal is for learners to develop

communicative competence, or simply put communicative ability. 54 Vongkay

defines that the study of human language should place human in a social

environment. 55 Shejbalova states that a CLT is not limited on oral skills, but it

influences reading and writing skill, in case to promote students’ confidence in all

languages.56 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a branch of

communicative approach, however it does not only concern on communication,

but also on grammar rule which is taught in order to be practiced on

communication.

8. The silent way

According to Richards and Rogers, The silent way is based on the premise

that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the

learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. 57 Larsen

Freeman states that, ”the teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In

this role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situation likely to

promote communication. Above all, students are communicators. 58 The teacher

acts merely as a facilitator trying to encourage students to be more active in their

54
Hymes, D, Models of the interaction of language and social life, (New York: Hold,
Rinehart and Winston, 1972), p. 281.
55
Vongxay, H, The Implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in An
English Department In A Lao Higher Educational Institution: A Case Study, (Master: Unitec
Institution of Technology, New Zealand, 2013), p. 33.
56
Shejbalova, D, Methods and Approaches in Vocabulary Teaching and Their Influence
in Students' Acquicitions. (Masaryk University, 2006), p. 35.
57
Richard, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S, Approach and Methods in Language
Teaching, (London: Cambridge Univesity Press, 1986), p. 41.
58
Larseen Freeman, D, Techniques and Principles in Language Teachin,. (Oxford:
University Press Oxford, 2000), p. 128.
 23

learning. The main of this way of teaching is for the teacher to say very little, so

students can take control of their learning.

9. Community language learning,

According to Richard, Community Language Learning represents the

use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages. 59 According to Marion

E. Bunch, individual instances of learning range all the way from the simplest

change in behavior resulting from practice to the most complex of those in the

category of the higher mental processes. 60 This is probably one of the English

teaching methods where the student feels the safest as there’s a great emphasis on

the relationship and bond between the student and teacher.

10. Task based language learning

According to Nunan, Task-Based Language Teaching itself is an approach

which emphasizes the process of learning to communicate through interaction in

the target language61 Breen perceives tasks as any structural language learning

endeavor which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified

working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. 62

Task-based language learning is an approach where the planning of learning

materials and teaching sessions are based around doing a task.

59
Richards, Jack C, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 19860, p113.
60
Bunch, Marion E, Marx, Melvin H, Fundamentals And Applications Of Learning. (New
York: MACMILLAN PUBLISHING, (1977), p. 3.
61
Nunan, David, Research Method in Language Teaching, (Routledge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992), p. 77
62
Breen, M. Learner Contributions to Task Design. In Candling, C. an D. Murphy (eds)
Language Learning Tasks. (Englewood Cliffs, N. S: Prentice Hall, (1987), p. 346.
 24

11. The lexical approach,

According to Lewis, the Lexical Approach concentrates mainly on

developing language learners’ proficiency with lexis in the sense. 63 Made frida

Yulia states that, lexical-based approach held the view that facilitating learning

was more than teaching itself. 64 The Lexical syllabus or approach is based on

computer studies that have previously identified the most commonly used words.

H. Media in Teaching speaking

The media is one of the tools in teaching and learning that aims to make it

easier in conveying the purpose of the teacher to his disciple. Harmer states that

media is devices or tools used by the teacher to gether and deliver the information

to the students. It should also be varied in use to make the teaching and learning

more attractive. 65 Gagne defines that media are various components in learners’

environment which support the learners learn. 66 According to Davis, teaching

media in the classroom are appropriate for triggering ideas, making difficult

subjects more understandable, and for holding attention on important ideas. It

should lead students to remember ideas by becoming more involved with

them.67 According explanations above, the teacher can use handouts, book,

newspapers, magazine, charts, slides, overheads, real objects, flash card and

63
Willis, D, The Lexical Syllabus: A New Approach to Language Teaching, (London:
Collins COBUILD, 1990), p. 95.
64
Yulia, M.F, Vocabulary: Lexically-Based Second Thousand Words of General Service
list, (Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University press), p. 67
65
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, (London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited,
2002), p.134.
66
Robert M gagne, The Condition of Learning, (Pennsylvania: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1977), p. 8.
67
Davis, B. H. 1991, Teaching with Media,
http://www.mit.edu/~bhdavis/TeachMedia.htm, accessed on july 15 2020
 25

videotape or film, television, and radio, as well newer materials and methods such

as computers, internet, and interactive video conferencing to teach the students in

the classroom.

I. The Role of Teacher and Learner

According to Nunan, teacher roles are: (a)The type of functions teachers

are expected to fulfil, e.g whether that of practice director, counselor or model.

(b)The degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place. (c)The

degree to which the teacher is responsible for content. (d)The interactional

patterns that develop between teachers and learners. 68 Harmer states there are

many role of teacher in the classroom, such as teacher as controller, organizer,

assessor, participant, resource, motivator and observer. 69 Tamim and Grant

identify four roles of teachers in PjBL classes: reinforcer, extender, initiator, and

navigator. Thus, across the literature, teachers in different types of student-

centered classes take on, or are supposed to take on, the roles of facilitators and

instructional managers.70 According to explanations above, the teacher’s roles are

as teacher as controller, organizer, assessor, participant, resource, motivator and

observer. And the student’s roles are as interactor, negotiator, the passive

recipient, listener, and performer.

68
David Nunan, Language Teaching Methodology a Textbook for Teachers, NewYork:
Phoenix, , 1995, p. 84.
69
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited,
2002, p 57..
70
Tamim, S. R., & Grant, M. M, Definitions and uses: case study of teachers
implementing project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of ProblemBased Learning,
https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1323. accessed on July 15 2020.
 26

J. Problems in Speaking

According to Xiuxin, speaking problems of the learners In term of

speaking problems related to anxiety, studies have found that anxiety about

speaking English has been identified in many other countries. The first problem

was related to a lack of proficiency in English, the second was the fear of making

mistakes and being subject to ridicule, and the third was related to large class

sizes, followed by an unwillingness to take risks, then a low tolerance of

ambiguity, and finally the competitive nature of the classroom. 71

Harmer states that students will not always use correct English. The

students will face problems and make mistakes when writing or speaking 72.

Susilawati says that in an oral discussion, shyness, nervousness, feeling afraid of

making mistakes, not knowing the way how to pronounce certain words, is the

potential problems that can hinder the students to speak. 73 According to

explanations above, there are three problems in speaking, such as lack of

proficiency, the fear of making mistakes or being subject to ridicule, and large

class sizes. In other hand, the problems of speaking are clustering, redundancy,

reduced performance, colloquial language, rate of delivery, stress, rhythm,

intonation, and interaction.

71
Xiuqin, The Effects of Foreign Language Anxiety on Students' Speaking, (Jiangsu,
china: 2006), p. 37.
72
Harmer, Jeremy, How to Teach English (New Edition), (New York: Pearson Education
Limited. 2007), p. 96.
73
Susilawati, Ai, The Effect of Learning Strategy Training: Socio affective strategy in
Improving Speaking, (Bandar Lampung: University of Lampung, 2007), p. 25.