5. List the individual tests that should be included in a soil test report.

i) Physical:

● Soil Moisture Testing (Grid Sampling & Zone Soil Sampling)

● Soil texture by Feel

● Soil texture by Fractionalization

ii) Chemical:

● pH test

● Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Nitrogen test

iii) Biological:

● Cotton strip assay test

● Microbial test

● Earthworm count numbers and species diversity

6. Provide a definition for ‘soil texture’ and ‘soil structure’ and explain their influence on plant /
crop production.

i) Soil texture - it is the proportional amounts of sand, silt, or clay in a soil make up its texture.
Because it affects nutrient absorption, soil texture plays a significant role in nutrient management.
For instance, soils with a finer texture often have a higher capacity to hold soil nutrients. Soil texture
plays a very important function in nutrient management because it impacts nutrient absorption. For
instance, soils with a finer texture have a tendency to have a larger capacity to retain nutrients in the
soil.

ii) Soil Structure - it is the gathering of soil particles into a structure. These collections are known as
peds or aggregates, and they often take on characteristic forms that are indicative of certain soil
strata. For instance, the surface horizon is characterized by granular soil particles. It is necessary to
have a proper soil structure in order to enable air and water into the soil, both of which are essential
for the development of healthy plants. Drainage will be improved, and the soil erosion that is caused
by excessive surface run-off will be reduced.

7. What are the effects of soil organisms on nutrient cycling and soil structure?

The process of transforming and cycling nutrients through the environment is centered on
decomposition by soil organisms. Decomposition releases carbon and nutrients from the intricate
materials that make up living forms, reintroducing them into the biological system where they may
be used by plants and other animals. Through their impacts on physical aspects and processes,
biological contributions to carbon and energy fluxes, and nutrient cycling, soil organisms play
important roles in ecosystems. hence may exert extremely effective influence on soil organism
activity. The activity and composition of the soil microbes and fauna, in turn, have a significant
impact on the plant community via their controls on nutrient cycling, the availability of nutrients in
the soil, and soil physical properties.
8. Explain how soil structure can be improved under field conditions?

The structure of the soil may be enhanced by the addition of organic matter and compost, which act
as a glue-like substance that helps keep the soil's particles together. It is recommended that these
soil amendments be worked into the ground in the late autumn. Adding sand to clay soils that have
poor drainage may help enhance the soil structure and provide a more fruitful and healthier
environment for plant growth.

9. Use a soil texture triangle to calculate the soil texture for the following combinations of sand,
silt and clay: 

a. 45% sand, 30% silt, 25% clay …………………………………… loam

b. 30% sand, 40% silt, 30% clay …………………………………… clay loam

c. 50% sand, 10% silt, 40% clay …………………………………… sandy clay

d. 70% sand, 15% silt, 15% clay …………………………………… sandy loam

e. 85% sand, 10% silt, 05% clay …………………………………… loamy sand

f. 80% sand, 15% silt, 05% clay …………………………………… sandy loam

g. 15% sand, 75% silt, 10% clay ……………………………………silt

10. What are soil profiles and what types of soil profiles exist?

A vertical layer of soil is what is known as a soil profile. It gives you the ability to investigate the
structure of the soil. Horizons are the sections that make up the layers of a soil profile. Horizons A, B,
C, and D are the primary soil layers. The letters O, A, E, B, and C stand for the five master horizons,
which are described below.

1. O Horizon

● Layers dominated by organic material.

● Some O layers consist of undecomposed or partially decomposed litter (such as leaves,

needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).

● They may be on top of either mineral or organic soils.

2. A Horizon or Surface soil

● It is the part of top soil.

● In this layer, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter.

● It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil life.

● This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other
soluble constituents.

● When depletion is pronounced, a lighter colored “E” subsurface soil horizon is apparent at
the base of the “A” horizon.

3. E horizon

● “E” stands for eluviated layer.

● It is the horizon that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and aluminum oxides, which
leaves a concentration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.

● These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and
B horizons.

4. B Horizon or Subsoil

● It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or physical alteration of parent material.

● This layer accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.

● Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon [illuviation
(opposite of eluviation)].

5. C Horizon or Parent rock

● Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material in sedimentary
deposits.
 ● It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.

● This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds (inorganic material).

6. R Horizon or Bedrock

● This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile.

● Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock.

● Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.

● These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other profiles.

11. Draw a soil profile, demonstrating key differences in soil horizons with an explanation for each
horizon.

A and B horizons are the top two layers of the soil. The A horizon is where there is most soil life and
is sometimes called topsoil. Depending on the soil, the A horizon can be further divided into A1, A2
or AO (organic). The B horizon is where clay and materials washed down from the A horizon
accumulate. This is sometimes called subsoil.

The C Horizon consists of weathering rock.

The D horizon is bedrock. This is rock which has weathered to produce the soil you see above it
(unless the soil has been deposited from elsewhere e.g floodplains contain soil that has been carried
downstream in water and then deposited as the flood recedes).

12. What soil properties influence the water holding capacity?

The primary factors that determine a soil's ability to store water are its texture and its organic
matter content. The ability of a soil to retain more water is directly proportional to its surface area;
hence, silt and clay-based soils have bigger surface areas than sand-based soils. Sand-based soils
have larger particle sizes.

13. State the practical significance of soil bulk density on plant growth.

Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction and soil health. It affects infiltration, rooting
depth/restrictions, available water capacity, soil porosity, plant nutrient availability, and soil
microorganism activity, which influence key soil processes and productivity.

14. Calculate the bulk density of the soil with the given data and give a recommendation regarding
the management of this soil.

▪ Volume of soil = 80 cm^3 ▪

Soil moisture content = 20% ▪

Weight of soil = 175 grams.

175 g / 80 cm^3 = 2.1875 g/cm^3

15. Explain the term “soil compaction” with examples of factors affecting soil compaction in
Australian Soils?

Compaction of soil particles reduces the pore space between them, leading to soil compaction .
There are fewer big holes, less overall pore volume, and more density in soils that are heavily
compacted. Water infiltration and drainage are both slowed down in compacted soil. Compaction
can be caused by a variety of factors, including raindrop impact (moisture content), soil type,
compaction amount, contact pressure, passing cars (rolling speed), construction equipment,
agricultural equipment, and even the trafficking or grazing of animals, according to Victorian
Resources Online. Soil strength is significantly influenced by moisture content, and this in turn has a
significant impact on soil compaction sensitivity.

Reference: https://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au