CONTENTS

Certificate
Preface i
Acknowledgements iv
Table ofCases vii
List ofAbbreviations xi
List ofTabies xviii

CHAPTER I
Introduction 1
CHAPTER2
Development of Education in India 30
2 .1. Definitional concepts 31
2.2 Education and the Constitution of India 34
2.2.1 Constitutional provisions before Constitution (Eighty-Sixth
Amendment) Act, 2002 35
2.2.2 Fundamental Rights 36
2.2.3 Directives Principles of State Policy 37
2.2.4 Education Right and Fundamental Duties 38
2.2.5 Constitutional provisions after (Eighty-Sixth Amendment)
Act, 2002 38
2.3 Meaning of Equality 39
2.3.1 Legal Equality 39
2.3.2 Political Equality 40
2.3.3 Social Equality 41
2.3.4 Economic Equality 41
2.3.5 Marxist View of Equality 41
2.3.6 Natural Equality 42
2.3. 7 Gender Equality 42
2.4 Infonnal Education in Primitive societies 42
2.5 Education of women in India-A Historical Review 43
2.5.1 Women in Ancient India 43
2.5.2 Women in the Vedic and the Post-Vedic Periods 44
2.5.3 Women in the Pauranic Period 44
2.5.4 Women in the Buddhist Period 45
2.5.5 Women in the Medieval Period 45
2.5.6 Changes in the British Period Affecting Women's Status 46

2.6 Spread of Women Education 47

2.7 Women in the Post-Independence Period 48

2.8 The Policy's Vision of Social Engineering 48

2.9 Post-Jomtien Phase of Indian Education 50

2.9.1. Trivialisation of Educational Aims 52

2.9.2. Fragmentation ofknowledge 53
2.9.3. Withdrawal from policy commitment to build a
common school system 53
2.9.4 Erosion of women's education policy 57

2.9.5 Increasing Abdication by the State 58

2.10 Literacy Scenario in India 59

2.11 Tampering With the Constitution 59

2.12 Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education

Bill, 2009 62

2.13 Colonialism and Women's Education in India 66

2.13.1 Period from 1757 to 1812 67

2.13.2 Period from 1813-1853 68
2.13.3 Period from 1854-1892 70
2.13.4 Period from 1892-1947 75

2.13.5 National Planning Committee's pattern 80

2.13.6 The All-India Education Conference plan 82

2.13.7 The Sargeant Report 82

 2.14 Factors Affecting Development of Higher Education in India 90
2.14.1 Politicisation 90
2.14.2 Poor Quality of Intake 90
2.14.3 Heterogeneity of Students Population 91
2.14.4 Gap ofCommunication 91
2.14.5 Unsystematic Growth 91
2.14.6 Managerial inefficiency 91
2.14.7 Overcrowded Classrooms 92
2.14.8 Wastage in Instructional Hours 92
2.14.9 Inadequate Student Services 92
2.14 .1 0 Inadequate Material Resources 93
2.14.11 Non-accountability of the Institutions 93
2.14.12. Inadequate Stress on Non-formal Channels 93
2.14.13 Inefficiency in Teaching 94
2.15 Development of Higher Education in India 94
2.15.1 Radhakrishnan Commission Report, 1948-49 95
2.15 .2 Kothari Commission Report, 1964-66 96
2.16 National Policy on Education, 1968 99
2.17 National Policy on Education, 1986 100
2.18 Programme of Action on National Policy of Education, 1986 102
2.18.1 Consolidation and Expansion 102
2.18.2 Development of Autonomous Colleges 103
2.18.3 Improvement Courses 103
2.19 Approach's Of the Ramamurti Report 104
2.20 Education for All by 2000 105
2.21 Central_Advisory Board of Education Working Group on Education
for Women and Other Disadvantaged Groups, 1991 107
2.22 Education for Women's Equality 109
2.22.1 Policy Parameters and Strategies 110
2.22.2 Empowerment of Women Ill
2.22.3 Research and Women's Studies 112
 2.23 Universalization of Elementary Education and Adult
Education · 113
2.24 National Policy on Education, 1992 114
2.:25 Goals For XI Th Plan 115
2.26 Janardhan Committee to Review Implementation of
NPE,.1992 115
CHAPTER3
Gender Equality and Women Education in India 118
3.1 Gender Inequality in Education: A Review of Theories 118
3.1.1 Classical Theories 118
3.1.2 Feminist Theories 120
3.2 Sex and Gender 122
3.3 Problem of Gender Equality 125
3.4 Judicial Response to Gender Justice 126
3.5 Discrimination on Grounds of Gender 127
3.6 Sensitivity towards Gender Bias 128
3. 7 Women's Education and Gender Equality 129
3.8 Education as Fundamental Right 129

3.9 Right to education 131

3.10 Right to Free Education not as Absolute Right, is Not Relevant

Today 132
3.11 Judicial Response to Gender justice in Women Education 133

3.12 Is Right to Education a Fundamental Right? 144

3.13 Gender Bias in Education 155

3.14 The Indian Constitution Mandates Non Discrimination 158

3.15 Female Literacy 159
3.16 The Census 2001 160
3.17 Female Educational Participation 161
3.18 Gender Equality through Curriculum 161
3.19 The National Curricular Framework, 1986 162
3.20 UNESCO's Mandate for the Right to Education 163
3.21 Other instruments elaborated by UNESCO 165
3.22 International Sanctions towards Right to Education 168
3.23 Obligations Undertaken by Governments for Achieving Education
for All 169
3.24 International Legal Obligations Relating to the Right to Education 170
3.25 Foundations of the Right to Education in National Legal System 173
3.26 Education Policy of Government for Women's Equality 178
3.27 Mahila Samakhya: ~ducation for Empowerment 181
3.28 Where is Mahila Samakhya today? 184
3.29 Kutch Mahila Vikas Sanghatan 185
3.30 Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) in Madhya Pradesh 186

3.31 NGO Initiatives in Improving Girls' Access to Education 187

3.32 Education with Fun: Ankur, Butterflies and Eklavya 192

3.33 Government and Local Initiatives 194
3.34 Child Care and a Focus on the Girl Child: Mobile Creches and Nari Bikash
Sangha 195
3.35 Literacy Status in Some Asian Countries 198
3.36 Other Asian Countri~s 199
3.37 Literacy Status in Nine Most Populous Countries 200

CHAPTER4
Globalization and its influence on Women's Education 201
4.1 Globalization Trends 202
4.2 Impact of the Policy of Globalization 202
4.3 Information as a Transformative Tool 204
4.4 Education and Sensitization 210
4.5 NewiCTs 212
4.6 Technical Education 215
4.7 International Research Agenda 218
4.8 Women's Access to Information 219
4.9 Lifelong Learning for Women 223
4.10 Online Women's Groups 228
4.11 Barriers to Access 229
4.12 ICT and Gender Equality 252
4.13 Women on the Net 262
4.14 Internet Communication 275
4.15 Transformative Strategy 276
4.16 Influence of Globalization 286
4.17 Access to open Distance Learning 288
4.18 Educating Rural Women: Role ofiCTs 291
4.18.1 Trends in Bangladesh 291
4.18.2 Trends in Pakistan 292
4.18.3 Trends in Sri Lanka 293
4.19 Women's Development through ICTs 295
4.20 Inequalities in Education 301
4.21 Transnational Provision of Higher Education 303
4.22 Why Globalization?. 304
4.23 Internationalization or globalization of higher education? 308
4.24 Challenges of Education in Globalization 309

4.25 Tertiary Education Policy in the Context of the World Bank's Development
Strategy 312

4.26 World Bank Support for Tertiary Education 313

4.27 Women and Globalization ofHigher Education 314
4.28 Globalization and Higher Education Challenges 316
4.29 Trade liberalization and trends in higher education 323
4.30 Future of Higher Education in Globalization 325
4.31 Importance of Higher Education in the era of Globalization 327
4.32 Digital Technology and Its Impact on Education 329

CHAPTERS
Elementary and Higher Education for Women 332
5.1 Legislations on Education in India 333
5.2 Elementary Education of Women 335
5.3 Elementary Education and Literacy 336
5.4 Secondary Education 336
5.5 Total Literacy Campaign, 1988 336
5.6 Non formal Education 337
5.7 Plans and Programmes for Women's Education 344
5.8 Reasons for Low Educational Status of Girls 345
5.8.1 Socio-cultural Reasons 346
5. 8.2 Economic Reasons 346
5. 8.3 Educational Re.asons 346
5.9 Rights to Elementary Education 349
5.9.1 National and International Provisions 349
5.9.2 International Instruments Ratified By the Government oflndia 350
5.10 National Initiatives 352
5.11 Gokhale's Contribution for Compulsory Primary Education 354
5.12 Gandhi's Contribution for Basic Education 355
5.13 Mahatma Jyotiba Phule' s Contribution 355
5.14 Other Contributions 355
5.15 Barriers for Women Education 356
5.15.1 Social Barriers 356
5.15.2 Cultural Barriers 356
5.15.3 Religious Barriers 356
5.15.4 Political Barriers 356
5.15.5 Economic Barriers 357
5.15.6 Lack of Transport Facilities 357
5.15.7 Lack of Qualified Female Teachers 357
5.15.8 Inadequate School Facilities 357
5.15.9 The Government's Role 358
5.16 Education Committees 358
5.17 Schemes and Programmes 368
5.18 Children Under Six 374
5.19 No Fundamental Right to Claim Higher Education 379
5.20 National Policy Imperatives on Gender Equality in Education 381
5.21 UGC's Fist Guideline for Women's Studies 384
5.22 Women's Studies Centres: Roles and Functions 386
5.23 Women's Enrol-lment in Higher Education 386
5.24 Higher Education and Discrimination 388
5.25 Improvement in the Status of Women in Higher Education through Special
programmes. 391
5.25.1 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women, 1979 391
5.25.2 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development 392
5.25.3 Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women)
Act, 1986 392
5.25.4 Equal Employment Opportunity Offices 395
5.25.5 Pacific Charter for Women Managers in Higher Education 394
5.25.6 Commission on University Career Oppmtunities (CUCO) 395
5.25. 7 Scholarships and Fellowships 396
5.25.8 Issues in Doctoral Studies 398
5.25.9 Academic Women's Networks 398
5.25.10 Women's Universities and Colleges 398
5.25.11 Women's Studies 400
5.26 Education and Gender Gap 401
5.27 Strategy Towards Women's Education in the Five Year Plans 404
5.28 Development of Women's Studies Approach in the Xth Plan 409
5.29 Better School Access in 11th Plan 410
5;30 National Litera,;y Mission 411
5.31 Universal Elem~ntar-y Education 411
5.31.1 The Objectives ofthe SSA 413
5.31.2 Provisions for Girls Under SSA 414
5.32 Faster Growth of Girl's Participation 415
5.32.1 Improvement in Access to Elementary Education 415
5.32.2 Enrolment at the Elementary Stage 415
5.32.3 Percentage Share of Girls to Total 416
5.32.4 The Flip Side 417
5.33 Enrolment Ratio 417
5.34 Dropout Rate 419
5.34.1 Dropout Rate in Classes I-V 419
5.34.2 Dropout Rate in Classes I-VIII 420
5.35 Education for Girls Out of School 420
5.36 Rural Urban Gap 421
5.37 Second Level Technical Education 422
5.38 Perspective for Women's Education 422
5.3 9 Utilization of Education 435
5.40 Village Education Project 438
5.41 Higher Education for Women 443
5.42 Education Ratio among Communities 447
5.43 University Education of Women 453
5.44 Gender Budgeting 455
5.44.1 Macro level Gender Budgeting 455
5.44.2 Micro level Planning 456
5.44.3 Why Gender Budgeting 456
5.45 Place of Women's Universities and Institutions 456
5.46 The Impact of Higher Education among Women 458
5.47 Directorate of Adult Education · 462
5.48 Distance Education and Higher Education of Women 462
5.49 Sensitizing Panchayati Raj Representatives to Ensure Mass Participation in
Literacy Programmes 463
5.50The Need of Higher Education among Women 463
5.51 Educational Skill Deficits of Girl Student's 466
5.52 Jan Shikshan Sansthan 467
5.53 Gender Difference 470
5.54 Important Highlights of Literacy Scenario in India 472
5.54.1 State Groupings On the Basis of Literacy Rate, State/UTs 473
5.54.2 Rural-Urban Gap (Literates) 473
5.54.3 State-Wise Percentage ofFemale Literacy in the Country 474
5.54.4 World Male and female Literacy Rate 475
CHAPTER6 494
Conclusion
Bibliography 517