TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION

What is sociology?
The term sociology is a combination of two words, socius and logos, which mean respectively
society and study. Sociology has been defined differently by many scholars. However, it may be
taken to be the scientific study of human behaviour and how the group influences it and in turn
how human behaviour influences society. It is the study of human behaviour or human
interaction in any society. Sociology is sometimes referred to as the science of society or the
study of human societies. Ritzer (2015:5) defines sociology as “the systematic study and the
ways in which people are affected by, and affect, the social structures and social processes that
are associated with the groups, organisations, cultures societies and the world in which they
exist”.

Giddens (1993:08) defines sociology as the systematic study of human societies, giving special
emphasis to modern industrialized societies. Sociology studies industrialised societies with an
aim of understanding and predicting the future. Sociology tries to understand the individual’s
place in society, and society’s effect on the individual. Sociology studies human social
interactions at both micro and macro levels. The discipline came into being in order to explain
the social transformations and upheavals that took place in Europe in the 19 th century. Auguste
Comte a French philosopher coined the term sociology in 1838. In as much as sociology is said
to be a science, following Comtean positivism and the objectivity of a science, it is also
distinguished by its grounding in humanism through “the sociological imagination”.

Sociology and other disciplines

Sociology has a lot of similarities and differences with a lot of other disciplines, amongst those
discussed below:

 Sociology generally differs from journalism, which is often based on non- corroborated,
and often sensationalised stories which at times may even be personal opinions, whilst
sociologists have to corroborate and verify their information for it to be accepted as
scientific evidence. However, journalism is also broadening its scope in the contemporary
 era to incorporate what is now called ‘investigative journalism’- an approach closer to
sociology with emphasis on facts rather than opinions.

 Sociology is very closely related to but differs from anthropology. Cultural

anthropologists for example largely study different or “other” societies, with their main
thrust being on lengthy studies of cultures to produce qualitative accounts, whilst
sociologists may do relatively shorter studies, focusing mainly on modern societies, but
also looking at their cultures.

 The two disciplines however, borrow from each other and share certain theorists e.g. Karl
Marx. In a way, anthropology helps sociologists in understanding the different forms of
human social life that exists.

 Sociology is different from history, which looks at the past, although history is still
important in the shaping of sociology and human behaviour as well.

 While psychology focuses on mental processes and how they influence human behaviour,
sociology looks at how structures and cultures influence human behaviour.

 Economics is referred to as the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce
valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. Sociology on the other
hand does no narrow down its focus just to economic interaction, but takes a wider focus
on the impact of economics on the society and the individual.

 Philosophy on the other hand is referred to as the study of general and fundamental
problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and
language. Whilst al these are found in the subject matter of sociology, which is the
society, the focus in sociology will be on how individuals and societies are affected by
these matters, and vice versa.

However, it is important to note that generally, most disciplines classified as social sciences all
study human behaviour, whether it be sociology, psychology, political science, economics,
human resource studies etc, it is usually either the focus, method, theories or philosophical
underpinnings which differentiate one discipline from the other. One just needs to master the
discipline specific ones for what they will be studying.

Why study sociology?

 Helps us to understand how human behaviour is shaped by the group/society, and
how individuals may also to some extent affect societies. Sociologists are
concerned with the relationship/continuum between the micro (small scale, face to
face) and macro (groups, organisations, culture) phenomena.
 Sociology offers a sociological imagination. The term sociological imagination
was first used by sociologist CW Mills (1959). The sociological imagination is
the ability to situate personal troubles and life trajectories within an informed
framework of larger social processes. Ritzer (2015:17) defines the sociological
imagination as a way of linking private troubles with public issues. It is a
distinctive way of looking at data and reflecting on the world around them. Early
thinkers such as Marx and Weber tried to understand the larger processes that
were affecting their own personal experiences of the world. An example that
distinguishes private troubles from public issues is given by Mills (1959:9) in
Matthewman et al (2013: xiii) is that “when in a city of 100 000 only one man is
unemployed, that is his personal trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the
character of the man, his skills and immediate opportunities. But when in a nation
of 50 million employees, 15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue and we
may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open to any one
individual”. Therefore the sociological imagination helps us to understand where
personal troubles end and public issues begin and to be able to offer solutions to
these.
 Prediction in order to control – sociological research helps us predict how the
future will be like and thus gives us the “possible” ability to control the future.
 Helps by providing a means of increasing our cultural sensitivities. In terms of
social policy, it helps by enabling policy makers make suitable and culturally
appropriate societies.
  In terms of human resource management sociology helps managers to be able to
formulate appropriate policies that are acceptable within certain cultures.

Basic concepts in sociology

Culture
According to Tylor (1871 in Cheater 1989:103-123) culture is “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society.” This definition can be criticized for being vague because it has
been applied to a wide range of phenomena (It is too broad).
 Giddens (1993:08) argues that culture is the way of life of the members of a society or
groups within a society. Culture differs from society in that while culture looks at the way
of life of a group, society refers to the system of interrelationships connecting individuals
within a group. However, the difference is not really great and the two are connected.
 Keesing (1974:80) defines culture as a set of shared meanings and values. Thus culture
can be viewed as a cognitive system where it consists of standards for deciding what to
do about it and for deciding how to go about doing it
 Popenoe (1994) defines culture as shared values, language, knowledge and material
objects. People learn culture over time.

Culture as a resource – culture can be liked to a super market where people pick and choose the
things they want. Thus people pick and choose the norms and values to use in everyday life. Men
and women use several aspects of culture either to attack others or defend themselves.
Culture as an instrument of domination
(Bourdieu 1984) maintains that culture plays a major role in maintaining social inequality. Based
no their social origins, individuals acquire capacities for interpreting and using culture codes that
affect their opportunities to maintain or change their social position. In a patriarchal situation, it
is culture that upholds the position of men over women. Cheater (1986:06) goes on to argue that
culture can be viewed as a set of ideological precepts that can be mobilized into socio-political
interacts.
Culture as a way of life
O’Connor and Downing (1995:03) highlight that culture is the essence of a people’s way of life,
e.g. how they dress, their marriage system, religion etc
Culture industries
These include newspapers, books, art, music who maintain/perpetuate a people’s way of life.

The 3 symbols that constitute culture

Peterson (1979:137) argues that norms, values and beliefs are the symbols that constitute culture:
a) Values – these are choice statements that rank behaviour or goals. They are abstract
ideals held by members of a given society. Values can also be defined as ideas shared
by people about what is desirable, acceptable and right.
b) Norms – these are more specific than values. They refer to the “dos” and “don’ts” of
social life. These are the rules governing social life which people are expected to
observe. Norms can be formal/ written down or informal. Three types of norms are
folkways, mores and taboos. Folkways are norms of little strength that may be easily
broken without any formal sanctions. Mores (pronounced MO-RA-YS) are strong
norms whose violation leads to formal punishment. Taboos are the strongest
proscriptive norms considered sacred governing what one must not do. They spell out
acts considered unimaginable and unthinkable. Violation of taboos has serious
consequences.
c) Beliefs – these are existential statements about how the world operates that often
serve to justify norms and values. Popenoe (1994) defines them as any statement that
purports to describe some aspect of collective reality. Beliefs are what people hold to
be true or have confidence/faith in. They help us construct our reality and matters of
spirituality and cosmology.
Culture therefore refers to the norms, values, beliefs, and material goods created by people in
society. Norms can be divided mores, folkways and taboos.
Subculture- a distinctive culture of a small group existing within mainstream culture
Counterculture- a culture of a group that directly challenges mainstream culture
NB Students to research on culture shock, culture ethnocentrism, culture hybridisation and
acculturation.
What are sanctions?-rewards and punishment for particular conduct. So sanctions can be positive
and negative.
What is a social institution? - A relatively stable cluster of social structures that is intended to
meet the basic needs of societies. Examples include families, schools, and churches.
What is society? – Ritzer (2015:7) defines it as a complex pattern of social relationships that is
bounded in space and persists over time”. Lenski and Lenski (1995) define a society as people
who interact in a defined territory and share culture.

Lenski and Lenski’s (1995) theory of the evolution of society

These authors differentiate societies by forms of technology. Societies with simple technology
(e.g. hunter gatherers) have little control over the nature and therefore can support a few number
of people. Societies with complex technology are not better but can support a large number of
people who live highly specialised lives. They described 5 types of societies.
(a) Hunting and gathering societies
These are the simplest forms, using simple tools to hunt animals and gather fruits and vegetation.
They consist of small bands of a few dozen people who are nomadic, moving on as they deplete
vegetation in an area or follow migratory animals. They rarely form permanent settlement.
Everyone’s life is much the same and is focused on getting the next meal. They only have
spiritual leaders. Women are the primary providers of food. The societies existed around 12 000
years ago. Examples include the Pygmies of central Africa and Bushmen of southern Western
Africa.

(b) Horticultural and pastoral societies

-people discovered the use of hand tools and started raising crops. They also engaged in
pastoralism (domestication of animals) e.g. the Tuaregs. These groups remain nomadic but had
more populations than the hunter gatherers. Social inequality emerged as societies engaged in
slavery, protracted warfare and even cannibalism. Such societies existed between 10-12 000
years ago.

(c) Agrarian societies

 These societies had discovered agriculture. They engaged in large cultivation using
ploughs harnessed by animals or more powerful machines. There are high levels of social
inequality compared to the previous two, landowners are more important than everyone
else. Agriculture propels men into a position of social dominance.

(d) Industrial societies

These started around the 1750s. They are based on industrialisation (the production of
goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery. Industrial societies
emerged as a result of the industrial revolution, with the building of railway lines,
discovery of machines and creation of factories. They are characterised by occupational
specialisation, loss of traditional values and kinship ties, changes in family organisation,
(such as divorce and single parenting) and huge populations concentrated in cities.

(e) Post-Industrial societies

The term post-industrial society was coined by Daniel Bell (1973). These societies are
based on post industrialism (technology that supports an information based economy).
There is a move from an economy based on factories and machinery to that based on
computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store and apply information.
This is also referred to as the information society which is also characterised by the
growth of the service industry (ranging from high status service providers such as doctors
and lawyers to lower status house cleaners and those who work behind the counters of
fast food restaurants).

What is socialisation?
When children are born into society they are socialised into the way of life of that group.
Socialisation is a process of inculcating societies’ norms and values into an individual.
Socialisation takes place in two levels: primary and secondary.
Primary socialisation is a process whereby an infant/child acquires the skills/ways of life of a
society into which he/she is born. It mainly takes place at home and is done by the parents or
family of the young child.
Secondary socialisation happens in schools, workplaces, universities, etc. where individuals
continually learn to adjust to the demands of society.
Socialisation is a life-long process that starts from birth and end in the grave or death
Roles
As an individual is socialised into society’s norms and values, he/she learns to take a role. Roles
are socially defined expectations that a person in a given status or social position follows. It is
the duty one carries out whether at home, in the workplace or at school. For example, my role is
to lecture and yours is to be attentive students. Roles are allocated to individuals by society.
Where these roles become too many for an individual they can cause role strain/role conflict/role
confusion. For example, where one is a student, father, brother, worker, husband, boyfriend, son
and an uncle.

Status
This refers to a position that one occupies in the society. It is linked to roles in that for one to
perform a certain role they have to occupy a certain social position. For example, to be a teacher
you have to occupy a certain position. It can either be achieved or ascribed. An achieved status is
not that an individual puts some effort or strives to achieve, e.g. being a teacher, nurse, doctor
etc. One is not born in that position. The ascribed status does not require any effort form the
individual. One finds herself/ himself in that position, mostly by birth. For example, being a
prince, chief, woman, man.