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GLT 302: GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

In the present world of devices, measurements are mostly carried out by electronic
instrumentation, not the crude mechanical devices of the past. Most of these newer devices are
actually a modern combination of a mechanical device and electronic sensing element. This
course is designed to introduce you to some of the common basic instrumentation in the
laboratory and its use. It will also allow you to conduct some measurements and familiarize
yourself with these instruments.
Measurement systems are traditionally used to measure physical and electrical quantities such as
mass, temperature, flow, angle, level, voltage, pressure and capacitance. However, they can also
be designed to locate things or events, such as the partial discharge in a high voltage power
cable, a land mine, or epicenter of an earthquake. Measurement involves the use of an instrument
as a physical means of determining the value or magnitude of a quantity of variables. The
instrument serves as an extension of human facility, and in many cases enable a person to
determine a value of an unknown quantity which unaided human facility could not measure.
Instrumentation is used in almost every industrial process and generating system, where
consistent and reliable operation are required. It is the development or use of measuring
instruments for observation, monitoring or control. An instrument is a device that measures a
physical quantity. They may be as simple as direct reading handheld thermometers or as complex
as multivariable process analyzers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
No physical quantity can be measured with perfect certainty; there are always errors in any
measurement. This means that if we measure some quantity and then, repeat the measurement,
we will almost certainly measure a different value the second time. How then can we know the
true value of a physical quantity? The short answer is that we can’t. However, as we take greater
care in our measurements and apply even more refined experimental methods, we can reduce the
errors and, thereby, gain greater confidence that our measurements approximate ever more
closely the true value. The performance of the instruments that are related to steady-state
input/output variables only are referred to as “the static characteristics of measuring instruments”
which are well presented in the manufacturer’s manuals and data sheets. Below are the static
characteristics of measuring instruments;

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1. Accuracy: The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close a measured value is to the
true value or accepted value. Since a true or accepted value for a physical quantity may be
unknown, it is sometimes not possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement. Accuracy of
an instrument is the quality which characterizes the ability of a measuring instrument to give
indications approximating to the true value of the measure variable.
2. Precision: The precision of an instrument measures how closely two or more measurements
agree with each other. Precision is sometimes referred to as repeatability or reproducibility. A
measurement which is highly reproducible tends to give values which are very close to each
other.
3. Tolerance: Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy as it defines the maximum
error that is to be expected in some value or the maximum deviation from the conventional true
value. For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many
micrometers (10-6m), and electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps
5%.
Example, a packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop gives the nominal
resistance value as 1000Ω and the manufacturing tolerance as ±5%. If one resistor is chosen at
random from the packet, what is the minimum and maximum resistance values that this
particular resistor is likely to have?
The minimum likely value is 1000Ω – 5% = 950Ω.
The maximum likely value is 1000Ω + 5% = 1050Ω.
4. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in the measured variables in which an
instrument will respond. It is also known as ‘Threshold’
5. Range: The range of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure and it is stated by the manufacturer of the instrument.
6. Linearity: The percentage of departure from the linear value, i.e., maximum deviation of the
output curve from the best-fit straight line during a calibration cycle.

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Figure 1. Linearity
6. Sensitivity of Measurement: The sensitivity of measurement is the ratio of the change in
output (response) of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable. The sensitivity of
measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn on Figure 2 above.
∆ output
S=
∆ input
Dynamic characteristic are concerned with the measurement of quantities that vary with time.
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Classification of measuring instruments can be done in many ways, for the purpose of this class
we will be looking into it classification based on the kind of output, which is the ANALOG and
DIGITAL instruments. An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the
quantity being measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the
range that the instrument is designed to measure. A digital instrument has an output that varies in
discrete steps and so can only have a finite number of values.
Indicating analogue instrument has three main features
i. Deflecting (or operating) torque
ii. A controlling (or restoring) torque
iii. A damping torque

i. Deflecting Torque: A deflecting (operating) torque is produce by utilizing one or other

effect. i.e the actual method of torque consist of type of instrument the deflecting torque
consist of moving system (hence the pointer attached to it) to move from its zero position
when the instrument is connected to the supply.

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ii. Controlling torque: The deflection of a moving system will be indefinite if there were no
controlling or resting torque. This torque oppose the deflecting torque and increase the
deflection of a moving system. The pointer is brought to rest at a position where opposing
torque are equal.
iii. Damping torque: is one which act on the moving system of the instrument only which it
is moving and align oppose it motion. Damping torque is necessary to bring the point to
rest quickly otherwise due to inertial of the moving system, the pointer will oscillate
about it final deflected position for some times before coming to rest in a steady position.
The damping force can be produced by
1) Air friction
2) Eddy current
3) Fluid friction

Differences between Analog and Digital instruments

S/ Analog instrument Digital Instrument
N
1. It gives output that varies continuously as It gives output that varies in discrete steps
quantity to be measured. and only has finite number of values.
2. The output information is shown by a The output information is shown by digit
pointer
3. Required more power Required less power

4. It sensitivity is more Sensitivity of digital instruments is less

5. They are cheaper They are expensive

6. Has less resolution More resolution

7. Less accuracy High accuracy

8. No presence of LCD There’s presence of LCD

9. The reading of the output is difficult The output quantity is easy to read

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compared to digital instrument

10. Examples: speedometer, fuel gauge, Examples: digitals ammeters, voltmeters, etc
voltmeter, ammeter, thermometer etc

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

Moving iron instrument uses soft iron to measure the current and voltage of AC and DC. They
are non-directional. The working principle depends upon the movement of iron attracted by the
magnetic field towards it and repulsion between them. The magnetic field is produced by the
current in the coil. This instrument can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter.
The construction of moving iron instrument is divided into two (2) namely:
- Attraction iron (single iron)
- Repulsion type moving iron meter (double iron)

Working principle of Attraction Type

When the current flows through the coil, the moving iron attracted the coil which causes the
pointer to move. The pointer will come to zero position where deflecting torque us equal to the
controlling torque.
When the current in the coil is changed, the direction of the magnetic field also changed and the
moving iron will get magnetized in such a way that it is pulled in wards. Hence, this type of
instruments can be used for both AC and DC currents.

Figure 2. Attraction type iron

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Working Principle of Repulsion

The moving iron and fixed iron magnetized with some polarity due to which the two irons repel
each other (when the same type of magnetic materials is placed in a magnetic field they will get
magnetized uniformly and they repel each other). Because of their repulsive force, the coil starts
moving away from the fixed iron.
The controlling torque is exerted by the spiral spring made of phosphor bronze which is
connected to the shaft. An air chamber is provided for air friction damping because the magnets
can affect the reading. The deflection torque makes the pointer to move away from zero position.

Figure 3. Repulsion type iron.

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS

There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet moving coil type
which can only be used for direct current, voltage measurements and the dynamometer type
which can be used on either direct or alternating current, voltage measurements.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC)
In PMMC meter or (D’Arsonval) meter or galvanometer all are the same instrument, the PMMC
was developed by Jacque D’Arsonval in 1881 and has been in continues use ever since, a coil of
finewire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnet. According to the
fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it

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carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect. A pointer which attached the
movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to be measured which applied to the
coil. The (EM) torque is counterbalance by the mechanical torque of control springs attached to
the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped and its
angular deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed
reference, called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the
pointer deflection is also linear.
The meter movement is driven by current and uses the force arising from interaction of magnetic
field and current carrying conductor to rotate a moving coil against the referring force of a spiral

opponent. The force is proportional to the magnitude of the field strength.

Mathematical Representation of PMMC Mechanism
Assume there are (N) turns of wire and the coil is (L) in long by (W) in wide. The force (F)
acting perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the direction of magnetic field
is given by:
F = N ⋅B ⋅I ⋅L
WhereF= Force (N)
N: turns of wire on the coil
I: current in the movable coil (A)
B: flux density in the air gap (T)
L: vertical length of the coil (m)
Electromagnetic torque is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to the point of
W W
T I 1=NBIL T I 2=NBIL
suspension 2 in one side of the cylinder 2 in the other side of the
cylinder
The total torque for the cylinder sides

(
T I =2 NBIL
W
2 )
=NBILW =NBIA

Where A= effective coil area

This torque will cause the coil to rotate until an equilibrium position is reached at an angle θ with
its original orientation. At this position

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Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque

TI = Ts
Since Ts = Kθ
So, NBIA=Kθ
NBAI
θ=
K
NBA
C=
Where K

Therefore, θ=CI
The angular deflection proportional linearly with applied current

Figure 4a. Shows the direction of the force exerted on a single current carrying conductor
perpendicular to magnetic field.
Figure 4b. Shows how a torque is been produced on single turn in a magnetic field
Example 1: an electric power line carries a current of 1400A in a location where the earth
magnetic field is 5.0 x 10-5T. Determine the magnitude of the force on a 120m length of line.
F = BLI
F = 5.0 x 10-5 x 120 x 1400
F= 8.4N
Example 2: A 5m long wire carrying a current of 120A is immersed in a uniform
Magnetic field of magnitude 0.2T and width 3.0m. Determine the magnitude of the
magnetic force on the wire.

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Only the portion of the wire in the magnetic field experienced a force. The magnitude of
the magnetic force is given by;
F = BLI
F= (0.2)(3.0)(120)
F= 72.0N
Advantages of PMMC
1. Low power consumption because of small driving power
2. No effect of stray magnetic fields
3. Very effective and reliable eddy current.
4. High torque-weight ratio resulting in high accuracy
5. Suitable in aircraft and aerospace applications.
Disadvantages of PMMC
1. It’s costlier as compared to moving iron instruments.
2. AC measurement is not suitable with PMMC instrument.
3. Aging of control spring and permanent magnet might cause error
4. It’s very delicate to use.

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

The digital multimeter is a very basic piece of equipment used to perform measurement of basic
electrical parameters. It reads in numbers, not via a pointer and scale like analog meters. Figure 2
shows two digital multimeters and test leads.

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Figure 5: Two Digital Multimeters and Test Probes

The most useful tasks performed with a digital multimeter include:
 Checking for continuity
 Measuring AC and DC voltage
 Checking the polarity of DC voltage
 Measuring AC and DC current

I. Checking for Continuity

It indicates whether a circuit is open or closed. Testing continuity is useful when
checking for broken wires, short circuits, fuse or switch operation.
To check the continuity of a circuit:
i. Turn the power off and discharge all capacitors
ii. Disconnect at least one conductor in the circuit
iii. Choose the RX 100 resistance scale or another resistance scale if more appropriate for
your application
iv. Plug the black test probe into the common (-) jack and plug the red test prove into the
positive (+) jack
v. Connect the ends of the test probe together to short the multimeter resistance circuit

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vi. Connect one test probe to the disconnected point on the circuit you want to test and the
other probe at the opposite end of the circuit
An open circuit has no continuity and will read infinite resistance, while a closed
circuit has continuity and will read some little or no resistance depending upon circuit
wire and loads.
II. Measuring Voltage and Checking Polarity of DC Voltage
Measuring voltage means measuring the energy potential in the circuit. To
measure the voltage of a circuit:
i. Select the proper type of voltage being measured, AC or DC
ii. Set the range indicator to the appropriate scale. If the voltage is unknown, start at
the highest scale and work your way down to prevent meter damage or personal
injury
iii. Plug the black test probe into common (-) jack and plug the red test probe into the
positive (+) jack
iv. Turn the power off and discharge any capacitors in the circuit
v. For DC circuits, connect the black test probe to the negative side of the circuit and
connect the red probe to the positive side of the circuit
vi. For AC circuit, connect the black test probe to the common or neutral side of the
circuit and connect the red probe to the live side of the circuit.
vii. Turn the power on
viii. Read the voltage on the proper scale

For Testing Polarity:

 If the meter reads a positive (+) value, the polarity is correct
 If a negative value appears on the digital meter, it means that the Polarity is reversed.
III. Measuring Current
To measure the current of a circuit:
i. Select the type of current being measured
ii. Set the range indicator to the appropriate scale
iii. Plug the black test probe into the common ( - ) jack and plug the red test lead into
the current positive (+) jack

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iv. Turn the power off and discharge all the capacitors in the circuit
v. Open the ground side of the circuit where the current is being measured
vi. Connect the meter in series (the circuit must be broken then the meter inserted in
line with the circuit).
vii. Turn power on and read the current on the proper scale.
NOTE:
Clamp ammeters can be used to measure current without needing
to open the circuit by simply clamping the meter on a single conductor and
reads current via induction.
CAUTION!
Never connect the meter across a voltage source. Doing so can result in damage to
your meter or the device being tested. This does not apply when testing a module
because it is current limited.

OSCILLOSCOPES
The oscilloscope is probably the most versatile and useful instrument available for signal
measurement. While oscilloscopes still exist in both analog and digital forms, analog models
tend to be low specification, low-cost instruments produced for educational use in schools,
colleges, and universities. Almost all oscilloscopes used for professional work now tend to be
digital models. These can be divided into digital storage oscilloscopes, digital phosphor
oscilloscopes, and digital sampling oscilloscopes. The basic function of an oscilloscope is to
draw a graph of an electrical signal. In the most common arrangement, the y axis (vertical) of the
display represents the voltage of a measured signal and the x axis (horizontal) represents time.
Thus, the basic output display is a graph of the variation of the magnitude of the measured
voltage with time. The oscilloscope is able to measure a very wide range of both a.c. and d.c.
voltage signals and is used particularly as an item of test equipment for circuit fault finding
(trouble shooting). In addition to measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other quantities,
such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It can also indicate the nature and magnitude of
noise that may be corrupting the measurement signal.

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Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, automotive and the
telecommunications industry. General purpose instruments are used for maintenance of
electronic equipment and laboratory work. Special purpose oscilloscopes may be used to analyze
an automotive ignition system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an
electrocardiogram.

Figure 6: A digital storage oscilloscope

POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electric load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct
voltage, current and frequency to power the load. It basically consist of the following elements:
transformer, rectifier, filter and regulator.

Figure 7: Block diagram of a regulated power supply system.

Transformer: Electromagnetic device that changes the voltage of AC electricity by mean of
mutual inductance between the coils. Transformer play a major role in power supply system by
stepping down or stepping up voltage from the main supply. They are two types of transformer,

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1. Step up transformer
2. Step down transformer
The number of secondary turns is lower than the primary turns in steps down transformer. While
in step up the number of primary turns is higher than secondary turns.
Rectifier: After stepping down a voltage from the mains with the help of a transformer the actual
voltage is still AC voltage which cannot power our electronic instrument, therefore, such voltage
from the transformer has to convert to a DC voltage with help of a rectifying circuit. The current
from the DC voltage is a unidirectional current. They are of two types, half wave and full wave
Rectifier.
Filter: When AC power changes to DC, it still has distinct waves that need smoothing out. The
filter does not completely smooth out the waves to nothing, but it does reduce them considerably.
The output from this part is unregulated power.
Regulator: a voltage regulator reduces the ripple voltages left by the filter, getting rid of any
voltage surges or drops that could damage devices plugged into the power supply.

Figure 8: Waveforms of voltage in different stages of power supply.

SIGNAL GENERATOR
A signal generator is one of the most essential piece of technology in electronics and
communication. It’s an instrument that creates or generates either repeating or non-repeating
waveforms. These waveforms can be of different shapes and amplitude. Signal generators of all
types are mostly used in designing, manufacturing, troubleshooting, servicing, testing and
repairing electronic devices. As an example, a vehicle chassis may be connected to a large shaker
assembly, and this assembly is vibrated and moved in a motion that simulates going down a

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bumpy road. In this way a vehicle’s durability can be tested and its motion analyzed, without the
need to actually drive it down the road. Below is a picture of a standard signal generator.

Figure 9. A standard single generator

Signal Generator Types

Signal generators are of different types
1. Function generator: is a type of signal generator that is used to generate simple repetitive
waveforms whose frequencies are adjusted over a wide range of values. Typically, this
signal generator type will produce waveforms or function such as sine wave, triangular
wave, square wave and saw tooth waveforms.

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Figure 10: Most commonly used signals.

The functional generator delivers triangular, square and saw waves with frequency range of
0.01HZ – 100KHZ.
1) Sine waveform: source from wave oscillator, it’s used for AC mains eg socket & switch
2) Square waveform: table multivibrator, used as flasher lamp and clock pulses
3) Triangular waveform: source triangular oscillator, used for electronic musical instrument
4) Saw tooth waveform: source saw tooth oscillator, used in oscilloscope for time base
measurement
5) RAMP waveform: used for analog to digital conversion
6) Pulse waveform: used for data transmission, used in pulse train or oscillator
2. Arbitrary waveform generator (AWG): is a type of signal generator that creates very
sophisticated waveforms that can be entered in a variety of ways, even extending to
specifying points on the waveform. Being considerably more complex, arbitrary waveform
generators are more expensive than function generators, and often their bandwidth is more
limited because of the techniques required in generating the signals. An AWG is used in
higher-end design and test applications.
3. Pulse generator: As the name implies, it’s a form of signal generator that creates pulses.
These signal generators are often in the form of logic pulse generators that can produce

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pulses with variable delays and some even offer variable rise and fall times. Pulses are often
needed when testing various digital, and sometimes analog circuits.
4. RF and microwave signal generators: the radio frequency and microwave signal
generators are used for testing components, receivers and test system in a wide variety of
applications including cellular communications, audio and video broadcasting, GPS, radar,
Wi-Fi and satellite communications. RF and microwave signal generators normally have
similar features and capabilities, but are differentiated by frequency range. RF signal
generators typically ranges from a few kHz to 6kHz, while microwave signal generators
covers a much wider frequency range, from less than 1MHz to at least 20GHz. Some
models go as high as 70GHz with a direct coaxial output, and up to hundreds of GHz when
used with external waveguide source module.

Frequency ranges and their applications

FrequencyRange Description Application
30KHz-300KHz Low Frequency (LF) Time standards, Navigation
300 KHz-3 MHz Medium Frequency (MF) AM radio, marine/aircraft applications
3 MHz-30 MHz High Frequency (HF) Amateur radio
30 MHz-300 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF) FM/TV Broadcast
300 MHz-30 GHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Cell phones, WLAN, GPR
3 GHz-30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF) Satellite, 5G mobile
30 GHz-300 GHz Extremely High Frequency (EHF) Imaging/detection application, 5G mobile
300 GHz-3 THz Tremendously High Frequency High resolution microwave imaging
(THF)

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial process control system
and many different types of pressure – sensing and pressure measurement systems are available
Pressure is defined as force exerted on a unit surface area. Mathematically, wehave:

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P = F/A
where
P = Pressure (Pa)
F = Force (N)
A = Area (m2)
The basic unit of pressure in SI units is the Pascal (Pa). It is defined as force of 1 Newton (N)
per square meter (m2). That is:1 Pa = 1 N/m2.Dimensionally, the unit of pressure is kgM2.
Since the Pascal (Pa) is a very small unit (1 Pa = 1.45 x 10-4 PSI), it is morecommon to use units
of kPa(1 kPa = 1000 Pa) and MPa(1 MPa = 1000 kPa or1 x 106Pa) when we deal with the
pressures we encounter in typicalindustrial process applications.
Absolute and Gauge Pressures
Pressure measurements can be stated as either gauge, or absolute.
Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g. tire ratings arein gauge
pressure).A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down toatmospheric
pressure (i.e. gauge pressure is in reference to atmosphericpressure – that pressure above
atmospheric pressure).Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the pressure unit (e.g.
kPa(g)).
Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gaugepressure. It is
denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit (e.g. kPa(a).)An absolute pressure indicator
would indicate atmospheric pressure whencompletely bled down - it would not indicate scale
zero.
The relationship between absolute pressure and gauge pressure is:
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
The standard value of atmospheric pressure is taken as the atmosphericpressure at sea level,
which is 101.3 kPa.
Note: a reading of less than 101.3 kPa(a) indicates a vacuum condition. Forexample, a typical
condenser pressure is 5 kPa(a) or a vacuum of 96.3 kPa.
Example: The pressure of the gas in a tank is 1000 kPa(a). What is the pressure in gaugeunits?
Solution
Gauge Pressure = Absolute Pressure - Atmospheric Pressure
Therefore, Gauge Pressure = 1000 kPa(a) - 101.3 kPa

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= 898.7 kPa(g)
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
In measuring pressure, the principles of force acting on manometric liquids are used in whatever
the force is acting on is used i. e. What the force is acting upon is used as gauge Instrument for
measuring pressures are called pressure gauges. There are two types of pressure measurement.
 The absolute pressure measurement
 The non – absolute pressure measurement
The absolute pressure is the pressure above the atmospheric pressure while
The non – absolute pressure is the pressure below the atmospheric pressure
GAUGES
There are basically two types of gauges
i. The absolute gauge
ii. The non – absolute gauge
The absolute gauge = these are used for the measurement of pressure above atmospheric
pressure. It is based on the physical properties e.g. different in height changes in temperature
Non – absolute gauge = they are instrument that are used to measure low range of pressure
below atmospheric pressure. They cannot be use directly. Such gauges are normally used
indirectly, indirect gauges involves the use of gas measured interms of pressure. E.g viscosity,
ionization, radiation changes in the property of the gas depending on the amount of pressure
exerted on it.
 DIRECT MEASUREMENT: Is a type of measurement which the instrument is exposed
directly to the pressure source
 INDIRECT MEASUREMENT: This type of measurement, the instrument (gauge)
records the physical properties and later to pressure.
We have two types of absolute gauge
1. Manometer gauge
2. Mcleod gauge
They are both used to measured pressure above atmospheric pressure.
A – U – tube manometer
B – Well manometer
C – Inclined manometer

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A) U- TUBE MANOMETER

The u – tube manometer is made of u – shape tube that transparent and of a uniform diameter.
Mercury oil or water is used as a manometric fluid or liquid.
OPERATIONS
When pressure is not exerted, the manometer liquid in the two arms is equal. I .e. the levels of
the height of the liquid in the two arms are the same. This is because the atmospheric pressure is
actually equally on both an arm, when the u- tube is to be used an arm of the manometer is
exposed to the pressure source and there will be drop or a rise depending on the pressure from
the system. If the pressure to be measure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, there will be
arise, but if it is lower than the atmospheric pressure there would be a drop, the difference in
level. Shows the actual pressure from the source.
Total pressure experienced is given by
Pa + ps = pa + hyg
Where h = difference in height
g = is acceleration due to gravity
y = density

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN USING THE MANOMETER

i. One must ensure that a height density liquid is used when the pressure to be measured is
higher. If this precaution is not taken, the liquid in the manometer arm will overflows.

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ii. For low pressure measurement, low density liquid is used in the manometer otherwise the
difference in level in the arm will not be measured
B) WELL MANOMETER
The well manometer is made up of a cylindrical tube of cross sectional area (A) and its
transparent; this is attached to a tube of smaller diameter and cross – sectional area (A).

L = h + d = differences in level rise + drop

OPERATION: When the well manometer is not in used or when pressure is not applied the
level of liquid in the well and the tube will be the same, this is the zero level, to measure pressure
from any point or any system the open end of the well is exposed to the pressure source. It is a
result of pressure from the system, there would be drop in the level of liquid in the well and a
rise in the level of liquid in the tube, these creates the differences in height. The total pressure
therefore is the summation of the atmospheric pressure and the pressure from the source i. e.
P = pa + ps........................................... (1)
Pa + hyg
Pa + (h + d) yg .................................... (2)
Vfall = Ad = ah
d = ah/A............................................. (3)
Substituting for (3) in (2)
P = pa + (h + d) yg
P = pa + (h + ah/A) yg
P = pa + hyg (1 + a/A).................................... (4)
Equation (4) is the total pressure in the well manometer while in use.

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C) INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER

The inclined tube manometer consist of a well which is a cylindrical tube of cross – sectional
area (A) of a smaller diameter attached to the larger arm when not exposed to any pressure
sources, the level of the liquid in both arms are the same, when it is to be used the well is
exposed to the source of pressure intended to be measured. As a result of the pressure, there is a
drop of the liquid in the well, which in turns gives an equal rise informs of volume in the liquid
in the manometer tube. Since total pressure PT =Pa + Ps orPT= Pa + (h + d) yg
But interms of volume Ad = RaWhen Ad is the decrease in volume of the liquid in the well, and
Ra is the increase in volume of the liquid in the tube
Ad = Ra
d = Ra /A
But sin θ = h/R
h = RSinθ
PT = Patm+ (RSinθ + Ra/ A) yg
PT = Patm+ Ryg (sinθ + a/A)
FOR EXAMPLES
If the following are given by
A = 100cm3
a = 60mm3
R = 2cm
θ = 300
Y = 1000kgm-3
g = 9.8m/s2

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GLT 302: GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION

First of all let convert from centimetres to meters

Since 100cm = 1m
100×100 ×100 cm3
X = 10cm3
X = 1m3 × 100cm3 = 1.0 × 10-4 m3
1000000
1000 mm = 1m
1000 × 1000 ×1000 mm3 → 1m3
60mm3 → xm3
X = 60mm3× 1m3 = 6
1000000000mm3 100000000
= 6.0×10-8m3
For R
2cm = 0.02m
Since 100cm = 1m
2x = xm
X = 2×1 = 0.02
100
For patm
1000mm → 1m
760mm → x
X = 760 × 1m = 76/100 = 0.76mHg
1000
PT =Patm+ Ryg (sin θ + a/A)
= 0.76 + 0.02 ×1000 × 9.8 (Sin 300 + 6 × 10-8m3)
1.0 × 10-4m3
= 0.76mHg + 196(m × kg/m × m/S) (0.5 + 6 × 10-4)
= 0.76mHg + 196(m × kg/m × m/S) (0.5 + 0.0006)
= 0.76mHg + 196(0.5006)
= 0.76mHg + 98.118
= 98.8776mkgs-1

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