Mathematical Material for Chapter VII

The Wiskobas Curriculum

222 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

The present chapter explores the educational theory foundations of the

Wiskobas curriculum. Today, in 1986, the original six faces of the cube of
goals can easily be substituted by other ones which do more justice to the
actual arrangement of subject matter in the Dutch textbook series which is
based largely on Wiskobas. In what follows we describe its principal parts
as an orientation basis for a sketch of the instruction theoretic framework,
which in tum sheds new light on the instructional goals and, in particular,
on their third component, which concerns the teachinglleaming process.

The Lissajous curve on the previous page shows the projection of the
former IOWO logo, the Moebius strip, on one plane and that of the
OW & OC logo on the other. Its parametric representation is (sin t, sin 2t,
sin 3t).
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM

As far as didactics is concerned, the Wiskobas programme is globally

characterised by an emphasis on progressive mathematising, horizontally
as well as vertically (see Chapter II), and more specifically by:
1. The dominating part played by context problems, both as a source of
concept formation and as an area for applications.
2. The broad significance attributed to the development of context
models, schemas, diagrams and symbols.
3. The considerable, even decisive contribution of the pupils to the
character and form of the actual curriculum, which is expressed by
their own construction of solutions as well as by their own produc-
tions of problems, and which aims at transforming their intuitive and
informal actiVity into a reflective and more formal one.
4. The interactive character of the teaching/learning process.
5. The intertwining and structuring of the totality of learning strands.
These didactical characteristics are the common basis of the following six
subject matter domains, which will be dealt with more profoundly in the
remainder of this chapter.
I> Check for yourself how the above characteristics are expressed in the
six examples of Mathematical Material of the preceding chapters.

1. Basic Abilities, Elementary Arithmetic, and Estimating

Keeping the didactical characteristics sketched above in mind, it is almost

self-evident that, from early instruction, much attention is paid to context
problems involving the four basic operations. These problems should be
chosen as sources as well as examples of application. Identifying the basic
operations in a variety of elementary context problems is therefore one of
the basic abilities. It is complemented by tasks of the following kind: for a
bare arithmetical problem, appropriate simple context problems or situa-
tions are contrived, say, on the stage, in a dialogue or in a picture. The
intention is that full justice should be done to the variety of real mani-
festations of the four operations. Nor should one forget non-canonical
problems such as:

- which pile of books is higher, that with four or that with five?
- a thicker and a thinner book - which one has more pages?
223
224 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

- Mary was born in 1980, and John in 1981. How old are they now?
Who is taller?
- two friends celebrate their birthday together, one of them invites five
friends and the other six. How many have been invited?
- how long is the peel of an apple, who can make the longest one, and
how long will it be?
Even in memorisation and mental arithmetic elementary context problems
play a part: they can provide the arithmetical actions and properties with a
concrete orientation basis. The same holds for a variety of material,
models and diagrams.
Memorising the tables of addition and subtraction up to twenty and
those of multiplication and division involves a process of continued
shortening, of skilful reckoning, shortened counting, structuring based on
memorised knowledge, and insight into the arithmetical structure, estimat-
ing, repeated doubling and halving, and the efficient use of arithmetical
properties.
Elementary mental arithmetic develops by a process of continued
shortening of skilful reckoning based on knowledge of the multiplication
tables, understanding the properties of and insight into the positional
system. This mainly concerns addition and subtraction below a hundred,
multiplication by ten and multiples of ten, multiplying a number with
several digits by a one digit number and, finally slight extensions to
hundred and multiples of a hundred, thousand and multiples of a thou-
sand, . . . Training in basic knowledge and the development of abilities
takes place while sequences, tables, diagrams, and 'machines' are used in a
variety of games. Estimating is considered an extraordinarily important
means of learning to shorten certain arithmetical actions. For instance
counting, which plays an important part in early instruction, can be
'conquered' by having the children estimate results of 7 + 9 = ... ; 17 + 9
= ... ; 31 - 10 = . .. In other words, approximations are allowed
provided they don't deviate too much.
But estimating can also be a goal in itself: calculating by estimating.
Thus, either rough results are the goal or estimating as a means of
checking the orders of magnitude, or estimating is implied by the rough-
ness of the data, or finally a combination of these three elements. In brief,
it includes the appropriate use of empirical data, operations, approxima-
tions, rounding, precision and lack of precision, and estimation in numer-
ous everyday situations,where arithmetic applies.
Two examples of press-cuttings, useful in mental arithmetic, estimating
and developing a certain feeling for numbers:
25,999 chickens grilled
(From our correspondent, Hellendoom, Thursday)
In a fire on the farm of the family K in Hellendoom 25,999 chickens perished. There were
26,000 chickens in the burning shed. One chicken escaped. The fire, probably due to a
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 225

short-circuit, started in a empty barn and because of the strong wind it spread to the
chicken shed. The damage is estimated at more than half a million guilders.

l> Comment on this arithmetic.

The classification obtained in this way has for some time functioned as a shadow classifica-
tion, although it has never found its way into the official tables. Nonetheless, a closer look
at the equivalence formula is revealing. It takes some figuring, so let us restrict ourself to
The Netherland's. This nation has about 14 million people, as opposed to about three
billion in the USA, which is 200 times greater. The area of The Netherlands is 40,000
square metres to the USA's 33,000 square kilometres, almost a thousand times as much.
Weighing one against the other, the population coefficient of The Netherlands is one fifth
of that of the USA.

l> Comment on this arithmetic.

2. Column Arithmetic
In the preceding chapter we described what we call 'integrated column
arithmetic by progressive schematisation'. 'Integrated' meant column
arithmetic not isolated from skilful calculating and application, but just the
opposite: skilful reckoning in context serves in the Wiskobas programme
as an initial motiviitional point for learning the procedures of column
arithmetic. 'Progressive schematisation' meant not heading straight for
standard procedures; learning proceeds along the continuous path of
ever-continuing schematisation and shortening. Much less time (about
half) is spent on learning column arithmetic with this approach than the
traditional ones (see Chapters VI and VII). Moreover the procedural
patterns themselves become a matter of investigation. A retrospective view
on column arithmetic as far as the positional principle is concerned is
taken in 'The Land of Eight' (Chapter N).
Take the following examples:

1. Use the digits 1,3,4,5,6,7 only to make additions such as:

134
657+
791
a. Make an addition with as big a result as possible. Each digit may be used once only.

b. Make an addition with the result 800.

2. I did the division 15317 + 379 with a pocket calculator. It showed 40.414248. How
can you use the calculator to find the remainder of the division?
226 MA THEMA TICAL MATERIAL VII

3. Ratio
In the Wiskobas programme the subject ratio is assigned an important
place: it is a 'Gulliver subject'. This is at variance with the traditional
arithmetic instruction in The Netherlands, where 'ratio' has withered into a
set of stereotyped, highly schematised problems. 'New Maths' dropped
this subject: ratios were reduced to fractions. However, the field of ratio
provides a great opportunity of mathematising relevant realistic problems.
Ratios primarily serve to compare situations. Comparing is a way of
organising, of assessing divergences and bringing about corrections, which
assures it an important place in the instructional course.
From the very beginning the observed reality reveals points of rele-
vance, such as in examples of magnifying, reducing, ratio-conserving and
nonconserving, representations in drawings, maps to scale, and so on. In
the bottom classes (5-8 years) this allows qualitative preparation for the
more quantitative operations with ratios.
The transition from a visual to a more numerical grasp of ratio
develops gradually in the middle classes (9-10 years). Models and
schemas like the double-scaled numberline, the strip, the stick-shadow
model, the rectilinear graph, the string of coloured beads, and the propor-
tion table are aids both for detecting numerical relations and for pro-
cessing them arithmetically. Connections between numbers of items and
prices, paths and journey-times are then investigated, as well as the
compostion of recipes and mixtures. In the top classes (11-12 years)
percentages are introduced, and the proportion table plays a central part
in the technique of 'reducing to 100'. In addition, the application of ratio is
extended to linear and non-linear relations between magnitudes; the
calculations are more and more schematised and shortened. Ratios are
also relevant to fraction activities to be dealt with later on. In brief, they
are a link between the various domains of arithmetic and mathematics,
and reality. Moreover, this subject anticipates secondary instruction in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and geography (see 'Gulliver').
To conclude, we present two examples of ratio problems for 11-12
years-olds (see next page).

4. Fractions and Decimals

The global features we notice in the Wiskobas fractions programme- are,
firstly, the variety of access to fractions (measuring, fair sharing, equi-
valence of distributions, mixture) and, secondly, the principle of not
prescribing calculation recipes for either common fractions or decimals.
Fractions are 'provided' by measuring, distributing, magnifying, reducing.
Starting with these activities fractions are gradually used as a means of
organising and describing the results of breaking, fair sharing, measuring
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 227

.t4..

In the USA.
Speed limit 60 miles/h.
How much is this in km/h?

< 50""",,, )

A stick of 80 cm produces a shadow of 50 cm.

At the same hour the shadow of the tower is 25 m.
How tall is the tower?

and calculating. At the start simple fractions are operated on, informally
rather than by rote. The progressive formalisation of the operation pro-
ceeds through four clusters of more or less simultaneous activities, which,
to be sure, are not clearly separated from one another.
The first regards 'fair table arrangements':

There are 24 pizzas for 32 children. Arrange them fairly, such as: two tables with 12 pizzas
each for 16 children.
228 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

The pupils are given a sequence of such tasks. The organising and
structuring activities lead to a kind of mapping of the situations in obvious
patterns, which allow for communication and encourage thinking.

16 16 8 24
Such schemas can be extended and shortened, that is, partitions can be
made with smaller and bigger numbers, which are all equivalent. Questions
can be asked like:
- Is the distribution fair?
- Who will get more, those at table , or at table ~?
- How much more?
- What about ~ and ,?
If the partition is carried out piecewise, one gets! + ! + ! = ~. In this way
ratio distribution situations are coupled to fractions. But, at the same time,
they are distinguished by means of notation. Indeed, ~ symbolises the
original situation of a table with 3 pizzas on it and 4 persons around it.
This is the beginning of the road towards operating with fractions: the
equivalence of distribution situations and of fractions emerges, as well
as ordering according to magnitude, previewing the determining of dif-
ferences. The second cluster of activities, which, as we have said, is closely
connected to the first, includes further exploration and elaboration.
Distributions are constructed with rectangles, circles and strips, and their
results are described. For instance:

Distribute 3 chocolate bars among 4 children. Draw the parts and describe them by
fractions.

The problem is solved in a great variety of ways. A few examples:

! + ! +!, 3 X!, 3 times a half of a half, ! +!, 1 - !. The task of distri-
buting 6 bars among 8 children can be solved by the same notation as the
table arrangements, but of course the variety is greater: 6 X i, ! + i, and so
on. During this activity of classifying ratio and distribution situations on
the one hand, and fractions as well as fractions of fractions on the other,
the converse - a third cluster of activities - is not neglected. This
involves the composition of fractions in problems like ! +! = ... ;
OJ 3" = ... ; 2 ~I XI 4.
13"3- 14 = ... ; ~1.1'3 I A··
gam It starts Wl·thth·
e plZza SI·tuti·
a ons
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 229

but now the pizzas have to be paid for. The central question is, how much
should a person pay who took first! and then %of a pizza (or who pays for
two people who got respectively! and %)? Initially one can prescribe the
pizza price; later on the pupils may choose it. How much do you pay
for to? This is another way by which adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing fractions can be realised (if the proportion table is used, dividing
by fractions does not pose new problems). Nothing, however, is enforced.
The jump from! + ~ to to via the price of 90 cents need not yet be made
explicit; looking for an appropriate price is not yet related to finding the
least common multiple of the denominators, and the multiplication rule is
not yet verbalised. Nor does this happen if pizzas are replaced by pieces
of chocolate bars and it is asked how many pieces is ! + ~, or how much
of the whole it is (here the rectangle model is best for both adding and
multiplying). Afterwards, conversely, the pupils can check whether the
result is correct by proceeding on the ~ymbolic level: to = to + 10 = ...
How do pupils finally come to operate with fractions? This happens in
the fourth cluster of activities. The students are constantly encouraged
to perform productions of their own on the symbolic level. This is done
both with regard to decomposition (i = ... + ... ) and to composi-
*
tion (! + = ... ). A first example is the series: i = * * *
+ + or
* *'
i = l + or i = 1 - The production of more complicated decom-
positions can be stimulated: ~ = ! + ! + ! + ! +! is a standard distri-
bution, belonging to " where each of the five objects is fairly distributed
among the six participants. This may be followed by ~ = ~ + ~ and
subsequently by ~ = ! + !. The transition from ~ to ! may be supported by
the table arrangement model as well as by that of paying for ~ or ! pizza or
by a combination of both of them. Then ~ becomes an alias of !. At a
certain moment the pupils can be asked to assemble what you might call
fraction 'monographs' of aliases. Similar production activities of com-
posing can be stimulated. The pupils may use the payment model, at first
explicitly and later tacitly.
Our second example series starts with ! +!. In principle, various
models and situations can be devised to solve such problems, reversing the
activities leading to the preceding 'monographs': the visual distribution of
the bar, the pizza price of Dfl. 4. - per unit, and so on.
As the first, second and third cluster of activities increase in multitude
and subtlety, the pupil can produce more problems of increasing ingenuity
at the symbolic level, and, in addition, the variety of applications
influences what is produced.
Overall, this sketch of a course on fractions faithfully reflects the
didactical principles of the introduction: context problems, models, pupils'
own production, the intertwining with ratio, measuring and calculating,
and interactive learning where children exchange products with one
another. We will close with a few examples:
230 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

How many litres in each petrol tank?

tank volume tank volume tank volume tank volume
40 litre 60 litre 30 litre 40 litre

*
A wine glass holds litre. How many glasses can be filled from a i litre bottle?

... glasses

The hall of an apartment is 2t metre long and Ii metre wide. The floor is laid with new
parquet (that is wooden boards). Dad bought an economy pack that can cover 5 square
metres of floor.

1
2jm
r

Is there not enough or is there too much? How many square metres?

In order to stress the fractional character of decimals, they are introduced

in connection with measuring, by changing (enlarging) the measuring units.
Another approach is non-exhaustive division (distribution).
Operations on decimal numbers are initiated by contexts, including
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 231

those which concern money. Gradually the children discover rules for the
basic operations using the decimal point. Our judgment and experience
suggest that tricks and rules taught by the teacher obstruct the applicabil-
ity of decimal numbers, which is indeed a problem. (Only in algebra
instruction might a broader applicability be attained.) The chcrracteristics
of the decimal positional system should be recalled where decimal num-
bers are to be introduced. Again, estimating and shortening contribute to
discovery of the rules. Calculators can be used as a didactic and a
checking tool. Again an example:

From our reporter

VILLEFRANCHE - Rarely has a racer gained a victory by such a slight margin as did
Laurent Fignon last Saturday at Villefranche-en-Beaujolais. After 51 kilometres the yellow
sweater appeared to have been 48 thousandths of a second faster than Sean Kelly.
Arithmetic experts figured out that Fignon finished 7.5 centimetres ahead of the Irishman.

t> A mistake made by experts. How could it have happened?

t> Calculate approximately the correct lag.
John has a kilometre counter on his bicycle. He adjusts it to nought and cycles along the
canal to his friend. There the counter shows 7.2 km.
He cycles back the same way. The'counter now shows 14.5 km.

t> How is this possible?

5. Measuring

Compared with traditional methods the Wiskobas programme pays much

attention to measuring: measure development, measuring by instruments
and by estimation, choosing convenient units in given measuring situa-
tions, calculations with magnitudes, processing measuring data by means
of tables and graphs - in brief, instilling a feel for measure. Standard units
are not used at the outset, nor does one aim directly for formulas, and
operating in the metric system is not governed by rules. Measuring is
approached conceptually, starting from practical situations.
Measuring is concerned with magnitudes such as length, area, volume,
time, money, density, speed and so on. They can be processed numerically,
that is, they can be counted, added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
Calculating with this kind of magnitude was indeed a subject cultivated in
traditional arithmetic, but it was done algorithmically within the frame-
work of the metric system. Wiskobas, on the contrary, has preferred the
now internationally accepted qualitative initiation into measuring. Take
area, for instance - certainly not the simplest magnitude. At the start
magnitudes are compared, ordered and composed before a measuring unit
is introduced. When comparing figures the question of which one is larger
is avoided as long as it is not clear in which respect the one might be
232 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

'larger' than the other. For this reason the concept of area is first coupled
with other magnitudes such as price, weight, and so on, in order to prevent
confusion with, say, perimeter. Not until one has proceeded via natural
measures to standard measures (,square units') is the term 'area' intro-
duced. A number of strategies are applied to compare and measure by
means of measuring units: superimposing, cutting, sticking together, re-
constructing dissections, counting, approximate calculation, refining the
measuring unit, general strategies and formulas (for instance decomposing
in half rectangles). In a way these working methods increase in difficulty,
from qualitative comparing through quantitative measuring to calculating
by means of formulas and general strategies. At the same time, the
connection with perimeter and volume is investigated, as well as the
behaviour of the magnification and reduction of the relation between
formulas, their practical use in painting, flooring, furnishing, cultivating,
and soon.
After this brief survey on just one aspect of measuring- area - let us
turn to the attention paid in the Wiskobas programme to measuring in
general, which includes:
- indirect measuring and estimating;
- arithmetic by estimation in relation to measuring;
- developing measures for speed (of reading), wind-intensity, angle,
density and so on;
- the meaning of precision and imprecision of errors in measuring, of
estimating, of rounding, and their total effects on the results of
computations;
- measuring in the context of investigations and experiments;
- tabulating and graphical processing of data;
- finding relations between magnitudes;
- integrating measuring with arithmetic and geometry.
While numerical data is processed in tables and graphs, the converse
activity of interpreting is not neglected.
In brief, measuring belongs to the foundations of arithmetical-mathe-
matical instruction: it offers most natural access to calculating and
provides models (such as the number line) and context problems which
cover a vast range of applications. Besides, measuring as such is an
important area of mathematics instruction, not least because of its
mathematical and soCial relevance (see our examples on the next page).

6. Geometry

Geometry instruction as conceived by Wiskobas is the exploration of the

 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 233

Determine the (approximate) thickness of the page on which this text has been printed. Say
how you did it.

Tides

Measure on a map the length of The Netherlands coastline from Hook of Holland to Den
Helder.
The difference in the width of the beach at low and high tide is an average of 100 metres.
How much is the beach area reduced by the high tide?
How much is the coast length reduced?

space where we live and move. Spatial experiences are mathematised by

problems and experiments. Initially spatial phenomena are mainly struc-
tured by visual means. The 'I see it like that' argument testifies to un-
verbalised insight. A broad foundation of intuitive notions is laid for
future concept attainment: the geometric reality will be organised by
reasoning and arguing, supported by linguistic symbols, pictures, chains of
conclusions. Concepts are made explicit, in order to be fitted into local
networks of statements and relations. This descriptive layer of geometrical
concepts is again the foundation of a non-globally organised deductive
system. But this is the theoretical level, beyond the scope of primary
education.
Let us restrict ourselves to primary instruction and amplify the preced-
ing sketch. 'Natural' phenomena of spatial perception form the point of
departure for developing geometric abilities and ideas.
234 MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL VII

Initially this means looking and trying. For instance:

- looking boxes are made and analysed (look and wonder);

- orientation in space by means of pictures (where was it taken ?);
- building with blocks under certain conditions (four cubes houses);
- front and side views of such buildings;
- exploring shadows of the sun or a lamp;
- plane networks for spatial figures;
- exploring the mirror;
- and so on (see figures).

Make a looking box.

 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 235

The children only have a picture:

A map of a big island, Waterland, is hanging on the wall of the classroom. The question is:
who can tell from which point the picture was taken?

Make a~ many four cube houses as possible.

Shadows of a cube. If possible, make a quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon.

236 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

This canvas covered with a thin reflecting layer is a marvellous aid for making selfportraits.

~
I

What went fundamentally wrong when this reflecting canvas picture was drawn?

~~--'-"
The coast of Soldaria stretches exactly North-South. North is the harbour Urtak, and a bit
South of it the harbour Romsk.
One day the coastguard of Urtak sees an emergency signal - West South West. The
coastguard at Romsk sees the same signal right in front of the coast, that is West.
1. Make a drawing of the situation (a map). .
2. The distance Urtak-Romsk is 3 km. How far is the ship from the coast?

.... H
-110

-,., 0100

',/ 0
.... 010

1:. /10
Z
 THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 237

Which picture belongs to which camera?

At an advanced stage of instruction the same activities can be made more

profound by description and reasoning: the looking boxes are related to
projections; orientation by means of pictures is related to angles; buildings
are erected from a given point and side views by 'spatial reasoning', that is,
by provWg or refuting the available possibilities; the effects of shadows are
understood by change of perspective; plane networks are analysed; size
and place of mirror images are investigated and explained.
Obviously, geometric concepts like point, line, plane are not defined
'from outside'; they arise from problems and experiences· with light,
shadow, aiming, projecting, and so on.
In brief, geometry instruction is de~igned according to the principle of
progressive mathematising, with its horizontal and vertical components, as
was the case in the five preceding subject areas. The other didactical
characteristics of the introduction are not neglected, of which we stress, in
particular, that of intertwining, in the present case of geometry with
arithmetic and measuring, as expressed in visualising, constructing models,
and spatial reasoning. Presumably there is no other area of mathematics
which can further the development of a mathematician better than geo-
238 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII

metry, because of the motivating force of the problems arising in perceived

reality - this, at any rate, is the experience of Wiskobas.
For the sake of completeness and as a finishing touch to this short
description of the Wiskobas programme we repeat the question asked at
the end of the introduction in an adapted form:
[> Please check how the didactical characteristics of Wiskobas as outlined
in the introduction are globally expressed in the preceding description of
the six subject matter areas.
In the following basic text the specific question, as well as the general
one we have just asked, is placed in a framework for instruction theory.