Mathematical Material for Chapter VI

2. .J

Algorithms
198 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

The examples of mathematical activities at the beginning of the preceding

chapters were themes. Yet the contents, starting points and objectives as
well as the ways to describe them can also be studied if whole courses are
concerned. How this can be done will be shown by an example, which now
is taken from a part of mathematics instruction that is known as the barest
and most algorithmic: column multiplication and division. We briefly
sketch first the traditional approach, and then that of Wiskobas. At the end
of the mathematical material we ask questions about starting points, goals
and goal descriptions, which are answered in the 'Commentary', so that the
reader is able to compare his own answers with that of the commentary.
Furthermore of this mathematical material offers a retrospective view of the
preceding sections of the book.

My experience of in-service courses in the past twenty

years is that if we cannot show different approaches in
what teachers still regard as the core of their jobs,
teaching algorithms, and show the relevance of concepts
in that context, then there is no change in classroom style
in any part of the teaching of mathematics (and who can
blame them given all the pressures?). Succeed in this, and
'all else is added unto you'. Fail here, and the rest is
looked on as a fringe activity.
Arthur Morley

Draft by: J. C. van Bruggen, A. Dekker, H. Ter Heege and A. Treffers.

 COLUMN ARITHMETIC

Under traditional instruction, column arithmetic can be characterised as

an isolated subject, globally organised according to the principle of
progressive complication of the problems. The order of the problems in
multiplication, for instance, is first one digit by two digit, by three digit, by
four digit ... numbers, two digits by two digits, two by three, two by four,
and so on. Besides the size of the factors, the number of required transfers
and the zero difficulties are also measures of complexity. Not until less
complex cases have been mastered are the next higher ones tackled.
Moreover one is almost exclusively concerned with the bare arithmetical
context-free problems. In other words: column arithmetic is neatly sepa-
rated from the solving of contextual problems. This is what we mean by
an 'isolated subject'.
These kinds of courses for multiplication and division usually contain
600 to 1000 bare arithmetic problems, which require about 60-100
lessons. The result of this intensive training is that at the end of the sixth
grade (12 years) two out of three pupils master the complete subject. That
is to say, as soon as solving contextual problems is the issue the pro-
cedures on which so much training time has been spent are often avoided. l
Problems involving a multiplication are attacked by such pupils by some
kind of repeated addition; problems involving a division by repeated
additions and subtractions.
Even if based on insight rather than on blind teaching of procedures
(which is not rare either), such an approach does not match the starting
points and objectives of mathematics instruction from the Wiskobas
viewpoint as were formulated earlier.
Indeed, the pupils are not active participants in the process of algorith-
misation; the opportunities for differentiat,ed working are restricted to the
terminal performance of the standard procedures, and the longitudinal
planning is straightforwardly directed towards the product of the algorith-
misation. Moreover there is too little oppoitunity left for mathematising:
none of the aspects of language, structure and dynamics, nor the specific
character of the mathematical activity, get a chance. Even the applicability
is in danger, as was mentioned earlier.
Is there another way? - that is our question. Can column multiplication
and division be taught so that the starting points and general goals we
have sketched can be realised?

199
200 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

1. Integrated Column Arithmetic According to Progressive Schematisation:

Introduction
Integrated instruction of column arithmetic which is globally organised
according to the principle of progressive schematisation of the numerical
activity is, as it were, the mirror image of the traditional isolated instruc-
tion of column arithmetic.
Rather than by "superficial" complexity such as number size, the steps
marking the course are distinguished by degrees of schematisation and
shortening inherent to the procedural actions. This includes the fact that
from the start pupils work with rather large factors while the problems are
solved at an adapted level of schematisation and shortening. At a more
advanced stage the same problems are more briefly written and more
quickly calculated. The pupils may run through the course at their own
pace, and the terminal objectives need not be the same for all of them.
This implies the fact that a quite heterogeneous group can be given the
same problems, which are solved in a differentiated way with regard to the
procedures applied.
Another important distinction from traditional teaching of column
arithmetic is implied by the adjective 'integrated' versus 'isolated'. Inte-
grated column arithmetic means that contextual problems are inducements
and starting points for the learning of the procedures of column arith-
metic. They also occur as applications of what has been learned. Moreover,
column arithmetic is intertwined with "clever calculating". Or to put it in a
more pointed way: column arithmetic comes into being as a kind of clever
calculating. The main elements expressed by the keywords 'integrated' and
'progressive schematisation' will now be illustrated.

2. Column Multiplication According to Progressive Schematisation

As a starting problem of the course, we may take the following:

'Santa Claus has his gifts distributed in the village by eight
servants. Each has 23 parcels. How many parcels do they have
altogether?'
At the beginning of the third grade (8 years olds), the majority solve this
problem by repeated addition, albeit in a variety of manners:
- by repeated additions without using table products: 23 + 23 = 46,
46 + 23 = 69, 69 + 23 = ... ;
- by repeated addition with table jumps: 20 + 20 + 20 + ... , and
3 + 3 + 3 + ... ,160 + 24 = 184;
- by intermediate steps, with or without the use of table products:
8 X 23 via 5 X 23 and 3 X 23 or via 8 X 10,8 X 10,8 X 3;
 ALGORITHMS 201

- by the doubling method: 23 + 23 = 46, 46 + 46 = 92, 92 + 92 =

184; and variants such as 20 + 20 = 40, 40 + 40 = 80, 80 + 80 =
160,160 + 24 = 184;
- by various other counting or reckoning strategies, such as fitting 8 X
23 on a long number line and by the 'quarters method' 8 X 25 - 8 X
2, with or without the use of table products.
The cover page of the mathematical material shows the various solutions
of a group of 15 pupils at the beginning of the third grade.
At first sight one is struck by the diversity, though the significant
influence of the multiplication tables is equally striking. Obviously solving
problems is still insufficiently integrated with learning multiplication tables
- at least in this particular group. This is nothing to worry about.
Gradually while solving such problems pupils become aware of the ease of
doing long repeated additions by means of the multiplication tables. This
holds in particular as soon as the tens play a part, in 8 X 23 and even
more in 12 X 23,21 X 23 and so on. In the short run all kinds of informal
methods, such as splitting and doubling, are accepted because in the long
run they will keep their significance for the benefit of clever reckoning.
Yet as has been mentioned, after a certain time, as soon as bigger factors
occur, practice shows that almost all children use multiplication tables
both in the units and in the split of tens, and conversely by this occurrence
are stimulated to completely memorise the tables.
The beginning of the course is attuned to the various additive and
partially multiplicative methods pupils use in simple contexts. Using the
tables to perform repeated a<;lditions is reinforced, as is the adroit strategy
of taking groups of tens, in problems like 12 X 23 and 21 X 23. This
appears to be a most natural road leading to the standard algorithm:
children copy the clever methods because these continue the partially
informal strategies and also they are convinced by their superiority.
For example after about 10 lessons, a problem like:

A directory of 62 pages has 45 names per page.

How many names are there in the directory?
is dealt with by the majority as follows: 45 + 45 + 45 + ... is mentally
placed in a column - a mental act that is symbolically accentuated by
gesticulations in the air. Six groups of ten are being taken out of the
column and noted down, with two extra terms supplied and finally,all is
added up. We show the work of five thirdgraders after 15 lessons. In
(a) we still notice the thought traces of the long-addition-in-the-air: 62
terms divided into six groups of ten terms and two singles. Even reminders
of place value marking position/strokes are still visible. In (b) it is about
the same; the interchange of digits (7290 instead of 2790) shows that no
previous estimation of size had taken place.
202 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

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For unclear reasons commutativity had been applied in (c). This pupil
calculated the intermediate products 40 X 62 and 5 X 62 only partially,
which might develop into a handicap for reaching the stan!iard algorithm.
Here the teacher should intervene. As far as notation is concerned, the
approach of (d) is detached from the long addition, as is that of (e). The
notation is perfectly clear, the partial products are separately calculated
and then added. The next phase that announces itself is the straight-
forward calculation and notation of 60 X 45. In (e) we notice radical short
cuts. To a certain extent it is just the background of the long addition that
stimulates the clever use of some properties.
The particularly striking elements in the displayed work are the
following:
- after about 15 lessons pupils do multiplications with rather long
factors;
- they work-at different levels of schematising and shortening;
- they use adapted notations.
The next phase in the course is combining the tens, thus writing and
calculating 60 X 45 via 6 X 450 with immediate carrying in the partial
products. As a matter of fact this means attaining the standard form.
 ALGORITHMS 203

The preceding is a rough sketch of multiplying according to progressive

schematisation. It is a procedure with a tail of partially additive proce-
dures, which are suggested as a means of solving context-problems
involving multiplications. From the natural starting point of the long
repeated addition the course develops as a progressive schematisation and
shortening: trimming the taiI.2

3. Long Division According to Progressive Schematisation

As a counterpart, long division takes a similar course, starting with
repeated subtractions: piecewise distribution produces a long tail, which
by taking ever bigger groups of tens or hundreds, and so on, is shortened
even further.
For a global view on the progressive schematisation of the division
algorithm, we consider the example 324 + 4.
How does a pupil solve this problem in the various phases of the
course? The problem is worded as follows:
Distribute 324 match stickers fairly among four children (Sjoerd,
Bauke, Bart, Jan); how many does each of them get?
Phase 1: The distribution is correctly realised very early by taking ever
bigger equal portions. (In the case of division by proportion it happens in
a similar way.)
Phase 2: The distribution takes place mentally and is noted down so
that one can read how much has been distributed and how much is left,
though shorter notations are possible.
Sjoerd Bauke Bart Jan
324
40 10 10 10 10
284
40 10 10 10 10
244
40 10 10 10 10

Phase 3: The positions grow larger as does the degree of schematising and
shortening
324 '---' '---' '---' '---'
200 50
124
120 30
4
4 1
0 81
204 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

Phase 4: At each round the maximal number of tens and units is

distributed or at least this is tried. The notation approaches the standard
pattern
4/324
320 80
4
4 1
o 81
After about 15 lessons many pupils do divisions like 6394 -:- 12 on levels
(a), (b), (c). (For example, a proportion division: translation of months into
years.)

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If the goal set for the whole group is level (c), it will again take 10 lessons
for the great majority to reach it. For the last step toward the standard
pattern 10 more lessons would be required. Indeed, it is well-known that
these kinds of transformations create new problems.3
If, however, one is satisfied with differentiated performances like the
preceding ones, the whole course of long division is finished after about
20 lessons.

4. Column Arithmetic Integrated with Clever Reckoning

Besides progressive schematising as exemplified by 62 X 45 and 324 -:- 4
 ALGORITHMS 205

the specific part played by the context deserves to be considered. The role
of the context differs fundamentally from that played in the traditional
instruction of column arithmetic, which centres around bare number
problems. If there is any attention paid to context problems in the
traditional case, it is restricted to application of the procedures learned by
means of bare number problems. In other words, in the traditional
instruction of this subject context problems are in general not used as
starting points, whereas in an integrated course of column arithmetic they
are used to prompt schematising and shortening at every important stage
of the learning process. The background argument for this approach is
that learning column arithmetic is made easier by suggesting concrete
representations of the numerical actions and that applicability is increased
by the a priori organic connection between the formal arithmetic proce-
dures and the informal methods of solving contextual problems used by
the pupils.
However, in the case of column arithmetic the adjective 'integrated'
refers not only to its relationship with contextual problems but also to that
with flexible and clever reckoning. This includes the idea that systematic
attention should be paid to the a priori estimating of the result and also
that clever reckoning by using relevant properties and rules must not be
lost from sight. The last is rather easy since the courses are solidly based
on clever reckoning.
Column arithmetic is, as it were, squeezed in between estimating and
flexible calculating with the additional aim being to counteract an attitude
exclusively directed at algorithms. In particular, in the third and fourth
grades where the instruction is often strongly determined by the domi-
nance of the column arithmetic rules - at least in the traditional approach
- the danger of prompting an a- or antimathematical attitude is immi-
nent.4 There is, however, one more reason to integrate column with
flexible arithmetic: the opportunity to effect breaches in the troublesome
additive "carry-over" for pupils solving contextual problems. 5 To be sure,
estimating plays a part too in the process of shortening procedures. In
brief, there are a number of serious arguments for including estimating,
clever reckoning and contextual problems in teaching arithmetic.
Finally, an example is given of an evaluation lesson for division at the
end of the course, where progressive schematisation and the significance
of contextual problems is involved. It gives the following problems:

1. Figure out 6394 + 12 as a pupil would do after a few lessons

oflong division.
2. Once more after about 10 lessons if he is not as clever as you.
3. Now for a pupil who is at least as able as you are.
4. Invent a little story where the result of the problem 6394 + 12
would be 532.
206 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

5. Once more where the result of 6394 ..;- 12 would be 533.

6. Still once more where it would be 532 rem. 10.
7. Now ifit is 532~.
8. Now 532.83 rem. 4.
9. 532.8333333 ...
10. An impossible assignment.

5. Summary

The characteristics of integrated column arithmetic according to progres-

sive schematisation may be summarised as follows:
1. The course of column arithmetic starts as it were stealthily as a kind
of clever reckoning by using tables, in particular that of 10; esti-
mating plays a permanently important part.
2. Contextual problems are a source of the process of algorithmisation.
As a matter of fact they extend a meaning to the numerical activities
and a support to performing the procedures.
3. Good use is made of the informal methods pupils apply to solve
contextual problems. The various methods are discussed in the
group in order to stimulate the use of the most appropriate ones. In
brief, the course leading to the relevant algorithms is pursued in the
most natural way. The algorithms develop gradually.
4. From the start, problems involving rather large numbers are offered.
The pupils solve them in various ways: uniform task set, differenta-
tion according to solving levels.
5. As the course proceeds calculations and notations are even more
schematised and shortened.
6. The terminal levels can vary according to the envisaged objectives.

6. Queries

This is the sketch of an alternative approach to column arithmetic. It

should be acknowledged that its global lines had already been drawn in
the beginning of our century by the German didactician Kiihnel.8
Casting a retrospective glance on what has been said in the present
exposition on starting points, goals and goal description, we now ask the
following questions:
1. How does the Wiskobas view on instruction express itself in such a
course of column arithmetic; and does that view necessarily lead to
this kind of approach?
2. How do the one-dimensional goals express themselves?
3. To what degree are two-dimensional product goals attained with this
instruction of column arithmetic?
 ALGORITHMS 207

4. How can three-dimensional goal descriptions of such long term

courses of column arithmetic be realised in practice?
5. What is the significance of such three-dimensional goal descriptions
for the theory - beside the practice - of instruction in the present
case?

COMMENTARY

1. Starting Points
In traditional teaching of column arithmetic the pupils are more often than
not immediately confronted with the standard terminal product, that is,
with a rigid procedure. Little if any opportunity is left for growing towards
the definitive algorithm, and by this means to experience the necessity of
an algorithm and to appreciate the efficiency and general applicability
of standardised algorithms. Moreover, by their overwhelming influence,
algorithms may put a restriction on the instruction of arithmetic in the
third to fourth grade and on the pupil's behaviour. In .contra-distinction,
Wiskobas proposes· an approach that leaves the child the chance to
develop terminal algorithms for himself, to rediscover the arithmetic rules,
which only in the course of centuries of human history got their final·
shape. This then is one way among others to help the child avoiding the
trap of a one-sided algorithmic attitude, or formulated in more positive
terms, to create important mathematical starting points such as learning
to schematise, to shorten, to develop notations, to reflect on one's own
activities. The faster learning of column arithmetic by this approach - we
will reconsider this point - is a bonus, since the Wiskobas algorithmic
programme is primarily a matter of principle because of its conception of
mathematics as a human activity fitted to the world that the child
experiences and lives in, and guided by the principle of reinvention. The
starting points of an active, differentiated and longitudinally planned
mathematically rich instruction are clearly visible in this approach, in
particular as regards the process of algorithmisation.
We did not, however, claim that this general view necessarily leads to
integrated column arithmetic by progressive schematisation. There is
another movement that would globally ·subscribe to Wiskobas' basic
conceptions and starting points as well as the consequent objections
against traditional programmes of column arithmetic, though their final
conclusions would diverge from those of Wiskobas. Rather than the
standard-algorithms (or variants) they endeavour to teach children
adapted methods that are not just standard 7 - let us call them the non-
standard movement.
208 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

2. One-dimensional Goals
Obviously there is a divergence as regards the one-dimensional goals
pursued. In the case of algorithmising, the non-standard movement
stresses exclusively the general goals of personal, social and mathematical
values. Beyond these, Wiskobas also stresses the preparatory value and
the social relevance of the standard algorithms (while admitting less
shortened versions). The availability of calculators and computers does
not reduce the merit of these values, even though in instructional practice
the actual teaching methods for column arithmetic may change and even
come closer to what we called the non-standard movement. These changes
concern, as we mentioned earlier, the process of algorithmising, that is the
general mathematical goals.

3. Two-dimensional Goals
The two-dimensional product goals are concerned both with the terminal
algorithms and their applicability in a context. Let us first consider the
envisaged terminal algorithms.
For the majority of children the envisaged level in multiplication
problems is:
62 X 45 --> 60 X 45 = 2700
2 X 45 = 90
2790
For the division it is:
12J6394
6000 500
394
360 30
34
24 2
10 532 rem. 10
A small minority of pupils would be allowed less shortened variants of
long division, such as those shown previously in (a) and (b) of the example
of pupils' practice. If the method of (b) or even (a) is accepted as a kind of
minimal level, the percentage of mastery is considerable higher than the
usual 70% (or even less) for long division, whereas the invested instruction
time - mark well - is considerably reduced. x Both facts are easily
understood and explained as soon as it is realised that in progressive
schematisation the procedural acts are built on insight and the numerical
techniques are less advanced. Insight protects the learners against a variety
of idiosyncratic mistakes, which are a well-known phenomenon in long
division. And as far as the arithmetical techniques are concerned, the less
 ALGORITHMS 209

shortened method, far from compelling the pupils to estimate exactly the
partial quotients, gives them the opportunity to split off easily recognisable
parts. In other words, practically every pupil can learn a long division
whereas the long division is only accessible to two out of three pupils.
Since from the start column arithmetic is tied to solving contextual
problems, it may be taken for granted that in the integrated approach the
applicability of the procedures of column arithmetic is not lower than
in the isolated approach. This, however, has not yet been corroborated
statistically.

4. Three-dimensional Goal Descriptions

It is not feasible to give a three-dimensional goal description of every
lesson or instructional episode, and to be sure it is not needed. One can
restrict oneself to the important marks or beacons in the entire courses of
column multiplication and division. Part of these are the so-called evalua-
tion lessons, which we alluded to in 'The Land of Eight' (Chapter IV).
Here we must be satisfied with a few indications of three-dimensional goal
description by means of catchwords and phrases:
- The start of the course in multiplication: contextual problems, a
pattern card of solutions, stimulating the use of tables, splitting off
tens, gesticulating in the air, ways of notation, the case of zeroes;
- intermediate phase: required basic abilities, shortenings in calculation
and notation, stimulating to shorten, the significance of verbalising
the procedural acts, re~ention of insight into the underlying longer
procedural acts, the mastery needed at a certain level for more
schematising and shortening, a priori estimations;
- terminal phase: possibilities of differentiation, preserving the basic
abilities, the kind of contextual problems, speed of performance.
All these elements should concretely and in a didactical context be
represented in the goal descriptions. The same holds with regard to
division.
Earlier on we gave an example of an evaluation lesson for long division
after about 20 lessons, which might be an appropriate endpoint for a
three-dimensional goal description. Indeed, it can offer a pattern card
of solutions, characteristic mistakes, suggestions for teachers, levels of
mastery, schematising and shortening, opportunities for reflecting on one's
own learning process, and for application. Such a description of an
evaluation lesson in a didactical context might even yield a good overview
of the course as a whole.

5. The Significance for Instruction Practice and Theory

The significance for instruction practice has been made sufficiently clear
210 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI

by the preceding exposition; three-dimensional goal descriptions, for

instance, in teacher guides belonging to methods or textbooks, are neces-
sary to shed light on the envisaged instruction - in the present case of
column arithmetic according to progressive schematisation, integrated
with solving context problems, estimating, and clever reckoning. So they
are a guide-line for teaching practice.
Yet such goal descriptions are also of theoretical significance. As a
matter of fact they can serve to illustrate the particular principles of
instruction theories according to which courses have been conceived.
The model of instruction as developed for column arithmetic and
presented by the three-dimensional goal description stands out in bold
relief against the background of general teaching theories such as the
information processing theory of learning, Gal'perin's theory of stepwise
evolution of mental actions, Davydov's activity theory of forming scientific
concepts.9
To summarise one would say that the specific features of structure can
be visible in three-dimensional goal descriptions or - to put it the other
way round - that in a particular case the starting points and objectives are
solidified to form a 'local' instruction theory or model. Interpreted this
way a description may yield a concrete orientation basis for theory
building and in this way fulfil a theoretical - beside the practical -
function in instruction. This is not a farfetched claim since effective action
in instructonal practice presupposes a more or less explicit 'theory', a
practical theory of action - one understands - which includes starting
points and goals.