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An Innovative Approach to Concrete Mixture Proportioning

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DOI: 10.14359/51702351

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 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title No. 115-M68
An Innovative Approach to Concrete Mixture Proportioning
by Xuhao Wang, Peter Taylor, Ezgi Yurdakul, and Xin Wang
Slipform paving is a road construction process where concrete
is extruded by a paver that forms the stiff, fresh concrete into
the desired slab shape. Slipform paving is especially suitable for
time-sensitive projects requiring high productivity, as it allows
placement of 65 to 100 m3 (85 to 130 yd3) of concrete per hour.
Mixture proportioning for slipform paving applications has often
been based on recipes or previous mixtures rather than based on
developing proportions for the specific needs of the project using
local material. Therefore, a performance-based mixture propor-
tioning approach is needed to balance the target performance
requirements for workability, strength, durability, and cost effec-
tiveness for a given project specification.
The aim of this study was to develop an innovative performance-
based mixture proportioning method by analyzing the relation-
ships between the selected mixture characteristics and their corre-
sponding effects on concrete performance. The proposed method
provides step-by-step instructions to guide the selection of required
aggregate and paste systems based on the performance require-
ments of slipform pavements.
Keywords: aggregate system; mixture proportioning; optimization; paste
quality; paste quantity; performance-based specifications; slipform pave-
ment concrete.
INTRODUCTION
The terms “mixture design” and “mixture proportioning”
are often interchangeably used, although they refer to different
attributes. Mixture design is the process to determine concrete
performance characteristics required for a given application
and placement method, while mixture proportioning is the
process of determining the quantities of concrete components
required to achieve the specified concrete properties. There-
fore, the output from mixture design process becomes as an
input for mixture proportioning.1,2
Although greater attention is being paid to make mixtures
more efficient due to tighter budgets and demands for
increasing sustainability, some paving concrete mixtures are
still based on recipes that have been used previously and/
or on prescriptive-based specifications. Such an approach
actively promotes overdesigning mixtures by using cement
content as a safety factor. Assurance of achieving the desired
performance is provided by defining the limits on the type,
amount, and proportions of the mixture components,3 which
also has the effect of stifling innovation or optimization of
the mixture.
As a result, project costs may be increased and service life
may be reduced due to the adverse effects of excess cemen-
titious materials potentially increasing shrinkage cracking,
permeability, and other durability-related issues.4,5 The excess
cement also has an environmental impact due to its high
energy consumption and carbon footprint. While a reduction
ACI Materials Journal/September 2018
TECHNICAL PAPER
in the use of cementitious materials may be beneficial to some
properties, insufficient cement content can negatively affect
the workability.6 Therefore, mixture proportions should be
optimized to balance among constructability, performance,
economy, and sustainability. While performance-based speci-
fications encourage optimizing mixture proportions, the chal-
lenges listed as follows slow the progression from prescriptive
and performance-based specifications2,7:
• Resistance to change. Prescriptive specifications have
evolved to a comfort level that gets industry and state agencies
through the design, construction, and payment process. They
are familiar to the designers, inspectors, and contractors; thus,
time is needed to learn about and adapt to such changes.
• Resistance to change in the distribution of risk. Agencies
normally take almost all the risk because, as long as contrac-
tors properly follow the step-by-step instructions, they are
not always held responsible for the quality and performance
of the end product after the concrete is placed and construc-
tion has been approved.8 However, in performance-based
specifications, contractors take on more responsibility to
ensure that the delivered product will pass acceptance tests.
• A lack of good performance tests. Inexpensive, consistent,
and standardized performance tests are needed to provide a
reliable performance assessment in a timely manner.9
When considering the mixture design, the following crit-
ical parameters should be considered for freshly mixed and
hardened concrete:
• Workability—The ability to handle and consolidate the
mixture using appropriate equipment. Aggregate size, type,
and gradation, water content, and chemical admixtures can
be used to control this parameter.
• Fluid transport—The ability of the concrete to resist
passage of aggressive chemicals and, thus, increase poten-
tial durability. This it is typically improved by reducing
the water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) to a rational
level without sacrificing workability and introducing shrink-
age-related issues, and/or including appropriate amounts of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs).
• Aggregate stability—The selection of aggregates that
will not react or decompose (such as ASR or D-cracking)
within the mixture to cause expansion or cracking. This is
achieved by selecting appropriate aggregate sources and/or
use of SCMs.
ACI Materials Journal, V. 115, No. 5, September 2018.
MS No. M-2017-442.R1, doi: 10.14359/51702351, was received December 1,
2017, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2018, American
Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless
permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including
author’s closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the
discussion is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
749
Table 1—Mixture proportion parameters that control mixture performance characteristics
Fresh concrete Hardened concrete
Components
in mixture Resistance in cold
design Key parameters Workability Transport Strength climate areas Shrinkage Aggregate stability
Aggregate
Type, gradation √√ — √ √ — √√
system
Air, w/cm, SCM
Paste quality √ √√ √√ √√ √ √
type and dose
Paste quantity VP/VV √ — — — √√ —

• Strength—The ability to carry imposed mechanical

loads. This is achieved primarily by controlling the w/cm.
• Resistance in cold climate areas—The ability to resist
damage from freezing-and-thawing cycles and chem-
ical attack from deicing chemicals. This is achieved by
controlling the entrained air structure system and by the
appropriate selection of SCM type and dosage.
• Shrinkage—Strongly tied to early cracking risk as well
as the potential for warping in slabs-on-ground. Shrinkage
is primarily controlled by reducing the paste content of
the mixture.
Having selected the requirements for these parameters,
and others such as setting time (if required), work can begin
on proportioning a mixture to meet these needs using the Fig. 1—Tarantula curve.15 (Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
materials available.
describes an envelope in which a desirable amount of mate-
rials retained on each sieve is reported, as shown in Fig. 1.15
PROPOSED MIXTURE PROPORTIONING METHOD
The curve has been independently validated by concrete
The proposed mixture proportioning method breaks the
pavement contractors and agencies.
task into determining three components: combined aggre-
The aim of applying the Tarantula curve to provide an
gate system, paste quality, and paste quantity.2 The effects
optimized combined gradation economically is to combine
of each of these decisions on the afroementioned critical
the individual aggregates available so that the combined
performance characteristics are summarized in Table 1. The
system is within the envelope and as close to the center of
relevancy of each parameter from the three components to
the envelope as possible.
the performance characteristics is indicated by the number
of check marks.
Stage II—Selection of paste quality
The paste system should be selected based on the required
Stage I—Selection of aggregate system
performance criteria. In this stage, binder types and amounts
Mixture proportioning has been focusing on not only
of cementitious materials, w/cm, types and dosages of chem-
meeting basic performance specifications of a mixture
ical admixtures, and target air content need to be considered
but also producing the most economical mixture possible
and selected.
to win the bid. One way to reduce cost is to use as little
SCMs—Table 2 provides a comprehensive summary of the
cementitious paste as possible without compromising the
effect of SCMs on various concrete properties as a reference
engineering properties. Aggregate properties have a strong
to be used in slipform paving mixture design.16 Typically,
impact on system workability; therefore, a concept of opti-
SCM dosage is a compromise between obtaining the bene-
mized graded aggregate concrete becomes critical for paste
fits desired (for example, improving ASR resistance, work-
reduction while achieving desired workability.6,10,11
ability, and long-term permeability) while limiting negative
Practitioners may use graphical gradation techniques
effects (for example, lowering strength-gain rate, delaying
to proportion aggregates to achieve a so-called optimized
setting time, reducing scaling resistance, and increasing
combined gradation. Tools include the Power 45 chart,12
early-age cracking risk).
workability factor chart,13 specific surface area, and compu-
w/cm—Decreased w/cm can enhance strength and dura-
tational packing models. Research reported by Cook et al.6,14
bility, but it may adversely reduce the workability and
compared several historic aggregate concepts to the work-
increase the potential of autogenous shrinkage. Excess water
ability performance of low-flow concrete using the slump
content may increase the risk of segregation and bleeding
test and the box test. Work was carried out based on resieving
as well as negatively affect mixture performance. Strength
a given set of materials to adjust the amount retained on one
at any age is primarily a function of w/cm due to its effect
sieve size, by increments, and then to assess the workability
on porosity of the cement paste and the interfacial transi-
of a mixture with fixed mixture proportions.15 The Taran-
tion zone (ITZ).17 AASHTO PP 8418 recommends a w/cm
tula curve was developed based on the Haystack chart. It

750 ACI Materials Journal/September 2018

Table 2—Summary of SCM impact on concrete properties*
Supplementary cementitious material type
Class F fly ash Class C fly ash
Properties (FFA) (CFA) Slag cement (S) Silica fume Metakaolin Limestone powder
Marginal effect at
Increased, espe-
Water demand (for a Significantly low dose (<5%);
Reduced Slightly reduced cially at higher Slightly reduced
given consistency) reduced increased at high
dosages
amounts
May be difficult to
May be difficult to May be difficult to
Air void system entrain air with high Neutral Neutral Neutral
entrain air entrain air
LOI
Setting time Delayed Slightly delayed Slightly delayed Accelerated Neutral Neutral
Incompatibility
with chemical Low risk Some risk Low risk Low risk Low risk Low risk
admixtures
Slower but Slightly slower but Slightly slower but
Strength gain Accelerated initially Accelerated initially Neutral
continues longer continues longer continues longer
Heat generation Lower Slightly lower Slightly lower Higher Slightly higher Slightly lower
Shrinkage Neutral Neutral Neutral Increased Increased Neutral
Permeability Improved over time Improved over time Improved over time Improved Improved Neutral
Improved at suffi- Improved at high
Alkali-silica
Improved cient dosage (>15% dosage (>25% of Improved Improved Neutral
reaction
of binder content) binder content)
May be worse at
Improved at Improved at high
Sulfate attack Improved Neutral Neutral high dosages in very
sufficient dosage dosage
cold environments
Corrosion resistance Slightly improved Slightly improved Improved Improved Improved Neutral
Stiffness Strength-related
Freezing and
Neutral (rely on air-void system, strength, w/cm, and quality of aggregate)
thawing
Deicer scaling
Neutral (rely on air-void system, w/cm, proper finishing and curing, and bleeding control)
resistance
*
Compared to mixture containing ordinary portland cement only when all other parameters are kept constant (adapted from Reference 16).

between 0.40 and 0.45 for concrete subjected to deicing
chemicals.
Air-void system—A stable system of small bubbles close
together cannot be achieved without the use of an appro-
priate air-entraining admixture (AEA). Air is considered
as part of paste system in this design method. Adequate
air structure should be selected for a particular applica-
tion. A good air-void structure will help to resist freezing
and thawing and improve workability for a given w/cm.
However, increasing air content will reduce the strength.
Each 1% increase in air content is accompanied by 5% to
6% reduction in strength, as a rule of thumb.1 AASHTO
PP 8418 recommends a minimum of 5% air (SAM number ≤
0.2 or spacing factor ≤ 0.2 mm [0.008 in.]) behind the paver
in freezing-and-thawing environments.
Stage III—Selection of paste volume
In concrete mixtures, enough paste is needed to:
• Fill the voids in between aggregate particles
• Coat the aggregate particles
• Lubricate aggregates to provide a desired workability
This concept is known as “excess paste theory”11 and used
by Koehler and Fowler19 on correlating performance of a
mixture to paste volume for a given aggregate system. It was
then applied to pavement concrete as a quantitative approach
to consider the interaction between paste and combined
aggregate system to achieve a better performance.
One challenge is to determine how much paste is required
to meet all these needs. The aim of the work described in the
next section was to determine appropriate values that should be
recommended for the newly defined parameter, paste to voids
volume ratio (Vpaste/Vvoids). The approach was evaluated on
pavement mixtures and self-consolidating concrete mixtures.4,20
Vpaste/Vvoids is determined by calculating the paste volume
of concrete mixtures and dividing that value by the volume
of voids between the combined compacted aggregates. The
paste volume includes the volume of water, cementitious
materials, and air in the system. The voids refer to the space
between the compacted combined aggregates that is deter-
mined by following the procedure in ASTM C29.21 A ratio
of 100% indicates that all the voids in between the combined
aggregate system are filled with paste, with no excess.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Mixture proportioning for slipform paving applications
has often been a matter of using a recipe from a previously

ACI Materials Journal/September 2018 751

 Table 3—Chemical composition of cementitious
materials
Type I/II cement Class C fly ash (CFA),
Chemical composition (PC), % %
SiO2 20.10 36.71
Al2O3 4.44 19.42
Fe2O3 3.09 6.03
SO3 3.18 1.97
CaO 62.94 25.15
MgO 2.88 4.77
Na2O 0.10 1.64
K 2O 0.61 0.46
Fig. 2—Gradation of individual aggregate sources. (Note:
P2O5 0.06 0.84
1 mm = 0.0394 in.)
TiO2 0.24 1.84
produced concrete rather than adjusting the proportions
SrO 0.09 0.32
based on the needs of the project using local materials. With
decreasing budgets and increasing attention on sustainability BaO — 0.67
metrics, it is critical to produce mixtures that are more effi- LOI 2.22 0.18
cient in their usage of materials yet do not compromise
engineering performance. Therefore, an innovative perfor- 2. A blend of resieved aggregate samples to fit as close as
mance-based mixture proportioning method is necessary to possible to the maximum density line on the Power 45 chart
be user-friendly, easy to use in practice, and flexible enough (designated as “^45”)
to allow a wide range of materials. 3. A blend of resieved aggregate samples to be close to the
maximum density line on the Power 45 chart while staying
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION within a Tarantula envelope (designated as “Tarantula”)
Effect of aggregate system 4. An arbitrary 50/50 fraction blend of coarse and fine
This phase of the laboratory work included performing a aggregate samples with original gradations with the inten-
limited range of tests to assess the effects of different aggre- tion of representing a poor gradation (designated as “50/50”)
gate systems. It was primarily focused on concrete work- Table 4 summarizes the gradation changes made to the
ability on the basis that the hardened properties of a mixture aggregates where resieved aggregate gradations on specific
are mainly influenced by the paste quality. sieves are highlighted. The total matrix consisted of 12 combi-
Materials and test matrix—The chemical composition nations for a given aggregate type, as shown in Table 5.
of cementitious materials, ASTM C150/C150M22 Type I/II Unsieved aggregates: Similarly, another series of blended
portland cement (PC) and ASTM C61823 Class C fly ash aggregates were prepared including an intermediate limestone
(CFA), used in this phase of the work is described in Table 3. aggregate (that is, LS25, LS4.8, and sand in Fig. 2). Three
A commercially available vinsol resin-based air-entraining combinations were prepared as shown in Table 6 to repre-
admixture was used to achieve a 5 to 8% target air content sent an arbitrary combination (designated as 3 agg 60/30/10),
(tested in accordance with ASTM C23124). another combination seeking to be as close as possible to the
Sieved aggregates: Two coarse aggregate types were selected Power 45 line (designated as 3 agg^45), and the third combi-
as follows: gravel (designated as “G”) and crushed limestone nation with the aim of being close to the middle of the Taran-
(designated as “LS”). Three nominal maximum aggregate sizes tula envelope (designated as 3 agg Tarantula). The combina-
(NMAS) were obtained for each aggregate type: 19.0, 25.0, tions were prepared by mixing three raw materials at different
and 37.0 mm (0.75, 1.00, and 1.50 in.). A single interme- ratios without any additional sieving. The combined aggre-
diate crushed limestone aggregate with an NMAS of 9.5 mm gate gradations are shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b).
(0.38 in.), and a natural sand were also obtained. Figure 2 Concrete mixtures were prepared with a w/cm of 0.42 and
presents the gradation of each individual aggregate used in Class C fly ash at 20% replacement level. Each mixture was
this study where the notation LS37 denotes limestone coarse tested with Vpaste/Vvoids of 125%, 137%, and 150%, as indi-
aggregate with a NMAS of 37.0 mm (1.50 in.). cated in Table 6.
Four different gradations were prepared from these Test methods—The tests conducted in this phase were:
selected aggregates. A spreadsheet solver tool was used to • The volume of voids in the consolidated combined aggre-
achieve a combined aggregate gradation that fell within the gate system determined in accordance with ASTM C29.21
target curves based on minimizing the sum of the squares of • Vibration Kelly Ball Test (VKelly Test) was developed
residuals for the following scenarios: by Taylor and Wang25 to report how a low-slump mixture
1. A blend of coarse and fine aggregates at proportions responds to vibration, as shown in Fig. 4. The VKelly index
selected to be close to the Power 45 chart without resieving should be within the range of 1.5 to 3.0 cm/√s (6.0 to 1.2
(designated as “Plain”) in./√s) to be suitable for slipform paving mixtures.

752 ACI Materials Journal/September 2018

Table 4—Example gradations of G25 aggregates at the four scenarios
Blend scenarios G25 Plain G25 Tarantula G25 ^45 G25 50/50
Percent mass 59.2 40.8 64.0 36.0 59.2 40.8 50.0 50.0
Original and resieved aggregate gradations for each scenario
Sieve size, mm (mesh) G25 Sand Resieved G25 Sand Resieved G25 Resieved sand G25 Sand
37.00 (1-1/2 in.) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
25.00 (1 in.) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
19.00 (3/4 in.) 82.0 100.0 82.0 100.0 82.0 100.0 82.0 100.0
12.50 (1/2 in.) 37.0 100.0 55.0 100.0 50.0 100.0 37.0 100.0
9.50 (3/8 in.) 13.0 100.0 30.0 100.0 35.0 100.0 13.0 100.0
4.76 (No. 4) 0.6 98.9 5.0 98.9 5.0 98.9 0.6 98.9
2.36 (No. 8) 0.2 92.4 0.2 92.4 0.2 75.0 0.2 92.4
1.18 (No. 16) 0.2 77.5 0.2 77.5 0.2 45.0 0.2 77.5
0.60 (No. 30) 0.1 47.7 0.1 47.7 0.1 30.0 0.1 47.7
0.30 (No. 50) 0.1 11.0 0.1 11.0 0.1 11.0 0.1 11.0
0.15 (No. 100) 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.8
0.08 (No. 200) 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0

Table 5—Sieved aggregate combinations and voids measurements

Nominal maximum size of aggregate Voids in aggregate system, %
Aggregate type 19.0 mm 25.0 mm 37.0 mm 19.0 mm 25.0 mm 37.0 mm
G19 Plain G25 Plain G37 Plain 26.3 25.3 25.6
G19 ^45 G25 ^45 G37 ^45 26.7 26.4 26.4
Gravel
G19 Tarantula G25 Tarantula G37 Tarantula 26.7 25.3 24.7
G19 50/50 G25 50/50 G37 50/50 26.7 27.1 24.7
LS19 Plain LS25 Plain LS37 Plain 27.4 26.6 27.9
LS19 ^45 LS25 ^45 LS37 ^45 28.0 28.9 27.3
Limestone
LS19 Tarantula LS25 Tarantula LS37 Tarantula 27.3 26.3 27.7
LS19 50/50 LS25 50/50 LS37 50/50 27.7 27.5 25.2

Note: 1 mm = 0.0394 in.

Table 6—Mixture proportions and measured voids contents of unsieved three aggregate systems
3 agg ^45 3 agg 60/30/10 3 agg Tarantula
Cement, kg/m 3
Type I/II 230 249 269 233 253 273 224 243 263
SCM, kg/m 3
Class C ash 57 62 67 58 63 68 56 61 66
Coarse aggregate, kg/m3 LS25 932 909 885 1173 1143 1113 887 865 843
Fine aggregate, kg/m3 Sand 692 675 657 586 572 556 902 880 858
Intermediate aggregate, kg/m 3
LS9.5 338 329 321 195 191 185 186 181 177
Water, kg/m 3
121 131 141 122 133 143 118 128 138
Designed air, % 5.0
Cementitious content, kg/m3 287 311 336 291 316 341 280 304 329
Volume of paste, % 26.5 28.4 30.2 26.8 28.7 30.6 26.0 27.8 29.7
Volume of voids in aggregate, % 28.9 29.4 28.1
Volume of voids in concrete
21.2 20.7 20.2 21.5 20.9 20.4 20.8 20.3 19.8
mixture, %
Vpaste/Vvoids, % 125.0 137.0 150.0 125.0 137.0 150.0 125.0 137.0 150.0
w/cm 0.42
Aggregate weight fraction (Coarse
47.5/17.2/35.3 60.0/10.0/30.0 44.9/9.5/45.7
LS25/Inter. LS9.5/Fine), %

Note: 1.0 kg/m3 = 1.7 lb/yd3.

ACI Materials Journal/September 2018 753

Fig. 3—Three aggregate system combined gradations in: (a)
Tarantula curve; and (b) Power 45 chart. (Note: 1 mm =
Fig. 4—VKelly apparatus.25
0.0394 in.)
24 kg/m3 (40 lb/yd3) less cementitious material content
Results and discussion—
while providing better workability compared with the arbi-
Sieved aggregates: The measured volumes of voids of
trary 50/50 aggregate system.
the combined resieved aggregate systems ranged between
Unsieved aggregates: With the unsieved aggregate
24.7% and 28.9%, as shown in Table 5. Surprisingly, a
systems, a similar trend was observed as the sieved materials
blend of resieved aggregate gradations that fit close to the
(Fig. 6), where it was observed that a combined aggregate
maximum density line shown on the Power 45 chart did not
system fitting within the Tarantula curve requires less paste
always have the lowest voids content. Consequently, this
than the other systems to achieve acceptable workability. The
indicates that combined gradation following the theoretical
critical point demonstrated herein is that specifying a paste
maximum density line may not actually yield the lowest
content is not the sole parameter needed for workability, as
voids for aggregates with varying shapes. This is consistent
it is strongly affected by the aggregate system. These find-
with the particle packing behavior reported by Wang et al.26
ings encourage specifying an appropriate Vpaste/Vvoids with an
that the degree of compaction and variations in shape make
optimized aggregate system.
it impossible to establish an optimal particle size distribution
for all cases.
Paste quantity and quality
Two aggregate gradation systems, 50/50 and Tarantula,
The aim of the work in this phase was to investigate the
were selected to observe the effects of combined gradation
effects of paste content on performance. A wide range of
on workability. A mixture with a w/cm of 0.42 and containing
laboratory tests were carried out by Yurdakul et al.,4 and test
Class C fly ash at 20% replacement level were selected for each
results have been summarized in this study to provide suffi-
aggregate system. Each mixture was tested with Vpaste/Vvoids
cient data to support the proposed proportioning approach
of 125%, 150%, and 175% to determine the impact of
(Table 7).20,27-30
required paste volume compared to the voids volume on
Materials and test matrix—Physical and chemical prop-
workability. In a few cases, mixtures with Vpaste/Vvoids of
erties of cementitious materials, aggregates, and chemical
175% were not tested due to the slump exceeding the target
admixtures can be found in Table 7.
75 mm (3 in.).
The following tests were conducted:
Figures 5(a) and (b) show the relationship between VKelly
• Slump test – ASTM C14331
index versus Vpaste/Vvoids and cementitious material content,
• Chloride ion penetration test at 28 and 90 days –
respectively. For a given Vpaste/Vvoids, the combined aggre-
ASTM C120232
gate system that fits within the Tarantula curve is found to
• Compressive strength test at 28 days – ASTM C3933
provide better workability (the highest VKelly index). For
• Drying shrinkage test at 56 days – ASTM C15734
mixtures having Vpaste/Vvoids of 150%, an aggregate system
fitting within the Tarantula curve may require approximately

754 ACI Materials Journal/September 2018

 Fig. 6—VKelly index versus: (a) Vpaste/Vvoids; and (b) cemen-
Fig. 5—Kelly index versus: (a) Vpaste/Vvoids; and (b) cemen-
titious material content for three aggregate mixtures. (Note:
titious material content for two aggregate mixtures. (Note:
1.0 cm/√s = 0.4 in./√s.)
1.0 kg/m3 = 1.7 lb/yd3; 1.0 cm/√s = 0.4 in./√s.)
between Vpaste/Vvoids and chloride penetration resistance at
Results and discussion—
28 days; however, the trend becomes less obvious at 90 days
Workability: Adding water, and thus increasing w/cm, is
due to ongoing hydration and pozzolanic reactions.
a common practice to improve workability. However, it may
In hardened concrete, aggregates are considered to be less
increase the risk of segregation and compromise hardened
permeable than paste, especially at early ages; therefore,
properties. Instead, water-reducing admixtures (WRAs)
concrete with more paste would be expected to have a higher
can be used to improve workability without sacrificing the
chloride penetrability.36
required w/cm by decreasing the yield stress with minor
Compressive strength: Figure 9 exhibits the correla-
effect on viscosity.
tion between Vpaste/Vvoids and a 28-day compressive strength
Figure 7 illustrates that a minimum amount of paste is
that indicates that increasing Vpaste/Vvoids from 110 to 160%
required in the system to achieve a workable mixture. It
increased strength. Further increasing the ratio beyond
is found that even with the addition of WRA and the use
160% does not further increase strength or in some cases,
of SCMs, 110% of Vpaste/Vvoids seems to be a critical point,
may lead to a decrease. These results support the findings
below which it may result in zero slump. In addition,
discussed by Yurdakul et al.4 that, after reaching the crit-
Vpaste/Vvoids below 125% may exhibit honeycombing and
ical paste volume that is required for the mixture to reach a
challenges for mixing, consolidation, and finishing.4
plateau, further increasing paste content will not provide any
Vpaste/Vvoids within the range of 140 and 250% seems
benefits to the strength. Therefore, it is suggested that the
to be sufficient to provide the desired slump for slip-
paste volume should not exceed twice the volume of voids
form paving concrete, for the aggregate system tested. In
of the combined aggregates.2 Data from three mixtures with
mixtures containing portland cement only (PC), the Vpaste/
w/cm of 0.35, 0.45, and 0.50 are highlighted to illustrate
Vvoids of 140% appears to be sufficient to achieve the desired
these trends (Fig. 9).
slump; whereas for mixtures containing fly ash (FA), the
Drying shrinkage: The impact of Vpaste/Vvoids on 56-day
critical Vpaste/Vvoids is 125%, likely because of the spherical
drying shrinkage for mixtures with various w/cm and SCM
morphology of fly ash particles, as reported by Yurdakul
replacement level for a fixed aggregate system is shown in
et al.4 Mixtures with slag cement (S) require a slightly higher
Fig. 10.29 The data demonstrate that, as expected, drying
Vpaste/Vvoids, likely due to higher fineness.35
shrinkage increases with increasing paste volume, for a
Chloride penetration resistance: Figures 8(a) and (b)
given aggregate system and w/cm.
present the relationship between Vpaste/Vvoids and chloride
Summary: Minimum Vpaste/Vvoids values required for a
penetration tested in accordance with ASTM C1202 at
range of performance properties are summarized in Table 8.
28 and 90 days, respectively.4 The data exhibit a relationship

ACI Materials Journal/September 2018 755

Table 7—Summary laboratory studies
Cementitious Fine aggregate
material system Cementitious weight fraction Tests used to
Laboratory No. of (replacement dosage material of total aggregate determine critical
study mixtures w/cm by weight, %) content, kg/m3 content, % Vpaste/Vvoids, % Features Vpaste/Vvoids
Effects of various Slump; chloride
0.35 to FFA(20); CFA(20); mixture characteristics penetration test;
26 64 237 to 415 42 110 to 290
0.50 S(40) on performance with compressive
single aggregate system strength
FFA(15 and 30); Similar to Reference 27, Slump;
0.40 or
27 54 CFA(15 and 30); 356 42 192 to 286 except target air: 2, 4, compressive
0.45
S(20) or 8% strength
Slump;
0.40 to compressive
28 20 FFA(25); S(40) 247 to 427 39 122 to 196 Similar to Reference 27
0.55 strength; drying
shrinkage
Effects of various
Slump;
aggregate systems on
29 40 0.45 PC 279 24 to 45 117 to 159 compressive
performance with single
strength
paste system
Effects of small range
of paste content with
0.36 to FFA(25); CFA(25); various aggregate Compressive
19 40 416 to 473 45 or 55 230 to 274
0.41 S(30) systems on performance strength
of self-consolidating
concrete

Note: 1.0 kg/m3 = 1.7 lb/yd3.

Fig. 7—Effect of water content on workability (Notes: (a)

represents 0.35 ≤ w/cm ≤ 0.40; (b) represents 0.40 < w/cm
≤ 0.45; and (c) represents 0.45 < w/cm < 0.55. 1.0 cm =
0.394 in.)
In general, a minimum ratio of 125 to 160% is suggested
to achieve a minimum workability, while 150 to 175% is
required to achieve the desired strength for the aggregate
systems tested in this study. However, it is noted that the
minimum ratio is likely to be different for different aggre-
gate textures and gradations.

RECOMMENDED KEY STEPS OF PROPOSED

MIXTURE PROPORTIONING METHOD
A spreadsheet is available at http://www.cptech-
center.org/research/documents/Mixture-proportioning-
spreadsheet.xlsx that assists users through the described
process. The data collected in the work discussed herein
Fig. 8—Relationship between Vpaste/Vvoids and chloride
permeability at: (a) 28 days; and (b) 90 days (reorganized
from Reference 4).

756 ACI Materials Journal/September 2018


Fig. 9—Correlation between Vpaste/Vvoids and 28-day
compressive strength. (Note: 1 MPa = 145 psi.)
Fig. 10—Correlation between Vpaste/Vvoids and drying
shrinkage (reorganized from Reference 29).
have supported the proposed mixture proportioning concept
and method as follows:
• Step 1: Determine the performance-based properties
required for the slip-form paving mixtures in a particular
environment
For example, a mixture used for a slipform paving
project may be required to achieve the following design
specifications:
1. A desired slump is between 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in.).
2. Material needs to resist freezing-and-thawing cycles
and deicing chemicals. Therefore, a minimum of 5% total
air content or a spacing factor less than 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) is
required in accordance with AASHTO PP 84.
3. A 28-day compressive strength of 24 MPa (3500 psi) is
required for structural design purposes.
4. A maximum rapid chloride permeability value of
1500 coulomb, or surface resistivity greater than 27 kΩ-cm,
is needed at 56 days.37
5. A 28-day drying shrinkage is required to be less than
420 microstrain to reduce shrinkage-induced cracking risk.
• Step 2: Select an appropriate aggregate system
Select aggregates that will not react or decompose within
the mixture to cause expansion or cracking. The physical
properties of aggregates such as specific gravity, NMAS,
and absorption are needed and the volume of voids should
ACI Materials Journal/September 2018
Table 8—Suggested minimum Vpaste/Vvoids for
different SCMs
Suggested minimum Vpaste/Vvoids, %
Performance
properties PC FFA CFA S
Workability 140 125 125 160
Compressive
150 150 150 175
strength
Chloride ion
penetrability Practically low when achieving workability and
compressive strength requirements
Drying shrinkage
be measured (Vvoids agg.) for the combined aggregate system
in accordance with ASTM C29.21
Current recommendations are to achieve a combined
aggregate gradation within the Tarantula curve to stay
close to the middle of upper and lower limits on each sieve
while trying to stay close to the maximum density line
of the Power  45 chart. The solver tool in the spreadsheet
can be used to achieve the combined aggregate gradation
to fit within the envelope for materials available based on
minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals (RSS)
expressed in Eq. (1). Therefore, the solver tool was set by
changing the percent mass of aggregate fractions to achieve
the minimum RSS while using the combined gradation to
fit the target curves—that is, the middle of upper and lower
limit on each sieve within Tarantula curve and maximum
density line of the Power 45 chart
n
RSS = ∑ ( Pm ( Di ) − Pt ( Di ) ) ≥ minimum (1)
2
i =1
where Pm(Di) denotes the volume fraction of the solid ingre-
dients in a mixture multiplied by percentage passing of those
solids from each sieve, and Pt(Di) denotes target percentage
passing each corresponding sieve using middle of upper
and lower limit on each sieve of the Tarantula curve and
maximum density line of the Power 45 chart. Note that some
combinations of aggregates may not reach a solution.
• Step 3: Select the paste quality parameters to achieve
the desired workability, mechanical, and durability-related
performance from Step 1
◦◦ Binder type and percentages – in accordance with
Table 2 recommendations. For example, Class F fly ash
can be used to replace 20% of portland cement by weight
to achieve the performance requirements in this case.
◦◦ Air void system – based on the need for resistance to
freezing-and-thawing, target 6% air in the mixture.
◦◦ w/cm of 0.40 may be selected as a starting point for
desired durability and strength in this case.
• Step 4: Select the paste quantity parameter
Initial Vpaste/Vvoids values, as an input depending on SCM
selection and referring to Table 8 recommended values,
typically range between 125 and 175%. To comply with the
workability, compressive strength, drying shrinkage, and
permeability requirements, a Vpaste/Vvoids of 150% can be
selected as a starting point in this case.
• Step 5: Calculate the paste and aggregate content based
on the initial parameters determined earlier
757
 With predetermined parameters from Steps 1 to 4—that
is, aggregate fractions derived from Excel’s solver tool (for
example, 20% Class F fly ash replacement dosage, a w/cm of
0.40, and a Vpaste/Vvoids of 150%)—another solver tool in the
spreadsheet can be applied to set the total volume of ingre-
dients to be 1 m3 (27 yd3) by changing the total cementi-
tious material and aggregate weights. The individual aggre-
gate weight can then be determined based on the fractions
derived in Step 2. The following algorithms from Eq. (2) to
(6) should apply in this step:
Wcementitious = Vcement × ρcement + VFFA × ρFFA (2)
Waggregate = Vcoarse × ρcoarse + Vinter agg. × ρinter. agg + Vfineρfine (3)
V paste Vcement + VFFA + Vwater + Vair
= = 150% (4)
Vvoids (1 − V paste ) × Vvoids agg .
Wwater
= 0.40 (5)
Wcementitious
Vcement + VFFA + Vcoarse + Vinter agg. + Vfine + Vwater + Vair = 1 m3 (6)
where Vcement, VFFA, Vcoarse, Vinter.agg., Vfine, Vair, Vpaste, and
Vvoids are the volumes of total cementitious materials, port-
land cement, Class F fly ash, coarse aggregate, interme-
diate aggregate, fine aggregate, total air content, paste, and
voids in concrete, respectively. ρ stands for density, W is the
weight for their corresponding footnotes, and Wcementitious is
the weight of total cementitious materials.
• Step 6: Adjustment of mixing water content
According to the moisture content and absorption of
aggregates, the actual amount of water used for mixing
should be adjusted.
• Step 7: Prepare trial batches to assess fresh properties
and adjust Vpaste/Vvoids and admixture dosages as necessary.
Prepare a final trial batch and measure hardened properties
CONCLUSIONS
The data collected in the work discussed herein have
supported the innovative performance-based mixture
proportioning concept and method by analyzing the rela-
tionships between the selected mixture characteristics and
their corresponding effects on tested properties. Step-by-step
instructions and a spreadsheet were provided to guide the
selection of required aggregate and paste systems based on
performance requirements. The same approach has poten-
tial to apply to other concrete applications than slipform
concrete pavements. The following conclusions, which
emphasize the specific innovations proposed in this method,
can be drawn:
• The voids in a combined aggregate system should be
measured to provide a quantitative parameter to determine
the paste content demand.
• A solver tool was developed in a spreadsheet for target
curve fitting based on minimizing sum of the squares of the
residuals (RSS). Current recommendations are to maintain
combined aggregate gradation within the Tarantula curve to
758
stay close to the middle of upper and lower limit on each
sieve while trying to stay close to the maximum density line
of the Power 45 chart. It has a potential to minimize paste
content required to achieve a desired performance.
• The proposed design parameter Vpaste/Vvoids varies
depending on the aggregate system available and SCM
types, but a good starting point for trial batches is between
125% and 175%, depending on the performance require-
ments of an application.
• The data collected to date provide an insight to the
proposed performance-based proportioning method.
Optimum design parameters for different performance
requirements merit further investigation.
AUTHOR BIOS
Xuhao Wang is an Associate Professor in the School of Highway at
Chang’an University, Xi’an, China, and Key Laboratory of Special Area
Highway Engineering, Ministry of Education, Xi’an, China. He also serves
as an Associate Research Scientist at Qinghai University-Tsinghua Univer-
sity Sanjiangyuan Research Institute, Qinghai University, Xining, China.
He received his BS in civil engineering and his MS and PhD in civil engi-
neering materials from Iowa State University, Ames, IA. His research inter-
ests include proportioning and performance evaluation of slipform paving
and self-consolidating concrete, and sustainability of concrete mixtures.
Peter Taylor, FACI, is the Director of the National Concrete Pavement
Technology Center and a research Associate Professor at Iowa State
University. He received his PhD in civil engineering from the University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. He is a member of ACI Committees
130, Sustainability of Concrete; 308, Curing Concrete; and 325, Concrete
Pavements. His research interests include optimization and evaluation of
pavement concrete material and sustainability of concrete mixtures.
ACI member Ezgi Yurdakul is a Senior R&D Engineer at GCP Applied
Technologies, Cambridge, MA. She received her PhD in civil engineering
materials from Iowa State University in 2013. She is currently Vice Chair
of ACI Committee 211, Proportioning Concrete Mixtures; Secretary of
ACI Subcommittee 211-A, Proportioning-Editorial; and a member of ACI
Committees 212, Chemical Admixtures; 325; Pavements; 506, Shotcreting;
and 544, Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. Her research interests include
mixture design optimization, chemical admixtures, shotcrete, and perfor-
mance-based specifications for concrete.
ACI member Xin Wang is a PhD Student in the Department of Civil,
Construction, and Environmental Engineering at Iowa State University,
where he received his MS in civil engineering. His research interests include
concrete air structure and joint deterioration evaluation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper was extracted and expanded based on National Concrete
Pavement Technology Center published research report by the same authors
(Taylor et al. 2015). This study was partially supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation Project (NSFC 51868066) and the Qinghai
Science & Technology Department Natural Science Foundation Project
2018-ZJ-931Q. The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to the
Iowa Department of Transportation and the other pooled-fund state partners
for their technical and financial support under the Federal Highway Admin-
istration (FHWA) Transportation Pooled Fund Study TPF-5(205).
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759
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