4th Waves Lab Experiments First Semester 2021

AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENG. DEPT.
MICROWAVE LABORATORY
4TH year
FIRST SEMESTER
2016-2017
1
Contents
 Experiment M-1:
o Reflex Klystron
 Experiment M-2:
o Part1: Study of a GUNN oscillation
o Part2: Power Measurements
 Experiment M-3:
o Part1: Directional couplers
o Part2: Matching with the Sliding screw
tuner
 Experiment M-4:
o Simulation of planar transmission line
structures
 Experiment M5:
o Microwave cavities
2
EXPERIMENT M-1
MICROWAVE SOURCES (1)
REFLEX KLYSTRON
1. Objective
To become familiar with the operation of the reflex klystron and to

measure some of its characteristics.
2. Equipment
 Klystron oscillator
 Ferrite Isolator
 Frequency meter
 Detector
 Waveguide carrier(s)
 Klystron power supply
 DC meter
3. Theory
The klystron is a microwave tube that makes use of velocity

modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into microwave
power. The oscillating frequency can be varied over a wide band and it can
be pulse and frequency modulated.
A schematic diagram of a reflex klystron is given in figure 1.

Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated by and pass through the
positive resonator grids towards the reflector. The reflector is at a negative
voltage with respect to the cathode, and consequently it retards and finally
reflects (reflex- klystron) the electrons, which then turn back through the
resonator grids. Suppose the klystron starts to oscillate then an HF-field
exists between the resonator grids. The electrons traveling forward will be
either accelerated or retarded as the voltage between the grids changes in
amplitude. Accelerated electrons leave the grids at an increased velocity
and retarded electrons leave at a reduced velocity. Because of the
difference in velocity the electrons leaving the grids will need different
time to return (i.e. have different transit times). As result the returning
electrons group together in bunches. This variation in velocity of the
electrons is called velocity modulation. As the electron bunches pass
through the resonator grids they interact with the voltage between the grids.
3
If the bunches pass through the grids at a time such that the electrons are
slowed down by the grid voltage, energy will be delivered to the resonator
and the klystron will resonate. The strongest oscillation will occur when the
transit time in the reflector-resonator regions is n+3/4 cycles of the
resonator frequency, where n is an integer including zero. If the bunches
pass through the grids at a time such that the electrons are accelerated by
the grid voltage, energy will be removed from the resonator and no
oscillation will occur.
Figure 1 :Schematic Diagram of a Klystron
Figure 2 shows the relationship between output power, oscillation

frequency and reflector voltage. The values are typical for a 2K25-type
klystron. It can be seen that oscillation will occur at many different
reflector voltages (corresponding to different transit times) the klystron is
said to oscillate in different “modes”. The frequency is primarily
determined by the dimensions of the resonator cavity. So by variation of
the volume of the resonator, mechanical tuning of the klystron is possible.
But, as can be seen, a small frequency change can also be obtained by
adjusting the reflector voltage (or the resonator voltage). This is called
electronic tuning.
4
Figure 2 : Power and Frequency vs. Reflector Voltage
The klystron can be modulated by applying a signal to the reflector.

Sine wave modulation covering a whole mode is shown in figure 3. The
result is both frequency-and amplitude-modulated.
Figure 3 : Sine wave modulation of the klystron
If the klystron output power is to be indicated by a detector followed

by a selective amplifier e.g. the standing wave ratio meter, the klystron
should be amplitude-modulated, e.g. square wave modulated. This is shown
in figure 4a.
5
Figure 4 : Square Wave Modulation of the Klystron
The same result may be obtained if the modulation voltage is applied

as in figure 4b. The important thing is that the klystron is modulated from
“full off” to “full on” during a modulation cycle. This means that beside the
importance of positioning the modulation voltage correctly, it is also very
important to use the correct amplitude. The result of having too low or too
high amplitude is shown in figure (5).
Figure 5 : The effect of incorrect modulation voltage
4. Preliminary Precautions
Student should take care of the switch on and off sequences else
severe damage may occur to the reflex klystron (check with your
instructor).
6
5. Experimental Procedure
5.1. Energizing the klystron. Square wave operation
5.1.1 Setup the equipment as shown in figure (6).
Klystron
Power SWR-
Supply Meter
Klystron Isolator Frequency Attenuator Detector

Meter
Figure 6 : Set up for square wave operation of the klystron.
5.1.2 Set the variable attenuator at about 20dB.
5.1.3 Turn on the klystron power supply as follows:

* Check that all the voltage switches are off.
* Switch on the general switch of the power supply
* Switch on the AC supply switch. An AC source of 6.3 Volts is
now supplied to the heater of the klystron.
* Apply the repeller voltage by using the DC supply switch and
the knob of the “BIAS VOLTAGE” (note the rise in the repeller
voltage on the supply indicator). Adjust it to about -120 volts.
* Then apply the anode voltage by using the knob of the
“REGULATED SUPPLY”.
5.1.4 Connect the internal modulation of the power supply.
5.1.5 Change repeller voltage Vr and note the variation in the o/p
indicating the different zones of the klystron.
5.1.6 Adjust the stub of the detector to match it with the guide this is
indicated with the maximum output.
5.1.7 Readjust the attenuator to get a suitable output power.
5.1.8 Replace the ac meter by CRO. Observe and plot the output signal.
7
5.2. Zone Index Determination
5.2.1 Replace the CRO by a dc micro-ammeter and disconnect the

modulation terminal. With no modulation plot Pn against Vr where:
Pn is the normalized output power given as Pn = P/Pmax.
5.2.2 Determine the values of Vr at the zones maxima.
5.2.3 Assuming that the static transit angle is related to the voltage by the
formula:
K
= 2 (n + 3 / 4) (1)
Vo  Vr
where Vo is the resonator voltage, Vr is the repeller voltage, K is a constant

and n is the zone index, then for any two successive zones we have:
1 1
K( - ) = 2 (2)
Vo  Vr Vo  Vr
' ''
where Vr, Vr are the repeller voltages of successive maxima. Taking all
observed zones in successive pairs use this relation to determine the
average value of K, from this value of K determine the index n of the
lowest observable zone (maximum Vr) and the indices of all other zones
will be at once known.
5.3 Zone Studies on CRO
5.3.1 Use an external sweep generator to modulate the repeller voltage Vr

and feed the x-input of the CRO as in figure (7) then use the CRO in
the x-y mode with the detector o/p connected to its y-plate.
5.3.2 Adjust Vr and the vertical sensitivity to obtain a mode pattern similar
to figure (8). (Let o/p of the sweep generator be maximum.) varying
the setting of Vr (on the power supply) you can now scan the
different zones of the klystron.
8
Klystron
Power Generator Oscilloscope
Supply
Frequency
Klystron Isolator Attenuator Detector
meter
Figure 7: Set up for oscilloscope studies of the klystron.
5.3.3 Determine the relative

zone maxima amplitude
by sweeping all zones at
a given fixed y
amplification and
reasonable amount of
attenuation to is the
klystron from the load.
Compare with the
results obtained in (2).
5.3.4 Calibrate the x- axis of

the oscilloscope by
changing Vr to displace
the zone center from Figure 8: A mode pattern
one end of the beam to
the other and recording the repeller voltage increment Vr therefore
the x-axis sensitivity in volts/cm can be readily determined while the
voltage at the tops of the generation zones is known from the
measurement in (2).
5.3.5 Measure the P-Vr patterns for different zones and plot them, compare
with results in (2.1).
9
5.4. Frequency Measurement
5.4.1 The presence of the cavity wave meter in series with the circuit will
cause a notch to appear in the zone pattern at the point where the
generated frequency is equal to the cavity resonant frequency as in
figure (9). Changing the resonant frequency of the cavity displaces
this notch and thus it may be used to obtain the frequency
characteristics (i.e. f against Vr) for the different zones of the
klystron.
5.4.2 Determine also the klystron cavity self resonant frequency fo.
Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11
5.5. Q-measurement of the frequency meter
5.5.1 Adjust the reflector voltage Vr and the frequency meter to get the
pattern in figure (9) for the first zone of the klystron.
5.5.2 Expand the x- and y- sensitivities of the obtained pattern.
5.5.3 Determine the frequency sensitivity of the horizontal scale of the

CRO using the results of parts 3.4 and 4.1 pertinent to this case.
5.5.4 Calculate the frequency meter cavity bandwidth f by multiplying the

half power width by the frequency sensitivity of the CRO horizontal
scale.
5.5.5 Calculate the quality factor Q of the frequency meter cavity from
Q = f / f.
10
5.6. Electronic tuning
5.6.1 Adjust the reflector voltage to get the highest mode on the
oscilloscope.
5.6.2 Determine the half power points as follows: adjust the reflector
voltage and the frequency meter to get the patterns in figure (11a-
11c) Note and record the reflector voltages and the frequencies.
5.6.3 Calculate the electronic bandwidth f ’-f ” and the tuning sensitivity
(f ’-f ”)/(V’-V ”) = .
5.6.4 Determine the quality factor of the klystron cavity. This can be
obtained from the modulation sensitivity max at the center of the
zone. The latter can be derived to take the form:
max = [fo/2Q] {2(n + 3/4)/(Vo - Vr)}
where Q is the quality factor of the klystron cavity and fo is its
resonant frequency.
5.6.5 Determine the frequency pulling of the klystron oscillations due to

unmatched load. This can be done as follows. Remove both of the
isolator and the attenuator and let klystron be connected directly to
the frequency-meter and then to the detector. The load now is mainly
the detector. Measure the frequency of oscillator and then calculate
the frequency pulling.
6. Questions
1. Discuss the modulation techniques in the reflex klystron showing the

advantages and disadvantages.
2. What are the factors that determine the resolution of the frequency
measurement?
3. The normalized load seen by the klystron in part 6.5 is measured to be
ZL=2. Verify theoretically the experimental results of frequency pulling.
Explain any difference.
7. References
[1] R. E. Collin “Foundation for Microwave Engineering” McGraw Hill.

[2] R. F. Soohoo “Microwave Electronics” Addison Wesley.
[3] E.L. Ginzton, “Microwave Measurements” McGraw Hill.
11
EXPERIMENT M-2
Part (1)
C/C OF GUNN OSCILLATOR
1. Objective
To become familiar with the operation of the Gunn oscillator and to
measure some of its characteristics.
2. Theory
The bulk effect of Gunn oscillator, named after J. B. Gunn who in
1963 was studying high field phenomena in Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
When the applied electrical field was about 2000 V/cm, he discovered
oscillations of microwave frequencies. In his own words:
“… When I pushed the electric field up to the neighborhood of
1000 to 2000 V/cm something entirely unexpected happened.
Instead of a simple variation of current with voltage, all hell
broke loose; the current started to jump up and down in a
completely irregular way, that very much resembled electrical
noise mechanism I know. The current variations were in the
order of amperes rather than the nano-Amperes you ordinarily
see. If no notice was taken of the oscillations, the voltage current
behavior was as in figure 1. At the voltage Vth, the GaAs started
to behave similar to a negative resistance. After many
experiments Gunn came to the conclusion, that this phenomenon
was a bulk (volume) in effect i.e. an effect not localized to the
contacts but extended across the volume.”
2.1. Transit-time mode
A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to a high field region, which

travels towards the anode. When this high field domain reaches the anode it
disappears and another domain is formed at the cathode and start moving
towards the anode and so on. The time required for the domain to travel
from the cathode to the anode (the transit time) gives the oscillation
frequency, i.e. a short device oscillates at a higher frequency than a long
one. The above is a very schematic description of the Gunn effect. For
more detailed information, see the references list.
12
Current
1/RL
1/RH
Voltage
Vth
Figure 1: Voltage-Current Characteristics of a Gunn Diode
2.2. Cavity-controlled oscillator
In a Gunn oscillator the diode is placed in a resonant cavity

(microstrip, coaxial or waveguide.) In this case the oscillation frequency is
determined by the cavity rather than the diode itself. The mode of operation
is now not the true “transit-time mode”. It is possible to receive oscillation
in a cavity at higher and lower resonant frequency than the diode “transit”
frequency.
At 1970’s the Gunn oscillators dominate the low power local
oscillator and the low power transmitter market above 6 GHz. The
oscillation frequency range extends up to 100 GHz. The Gunn oscillators
are reliable and low-noise and produce CW power from a few milli-Watt
up to a few watts. Except mechanically tuned oscillators, there are also the
varactor-tuned and YIG-tuned sources. The YIG-tuned Gunn oscillators are
widely used in a microwave test instruments.
2.3. Gunn Oscillator
In that oscillator as shown in figure (2), the cavity consists of a

waveguide section with a movable short-circuit. By continuously turning
the tuning knob, the oscillation frequency changes. The Gunn diode is post
mounted across the waveguide and the iris surface as an impedance match
to the matching waveguide (R100).
13
Figure 2: Gunn Oscillator Construction
2.4. Square wave modulation
Although the Gunn-oscillator in this experiment is amplitude-

modulated with the bias voltage, we can use a separate modulator to obtain
square-wave modulation. The modulator consists of section of waveguide
with a PIN diode across, in principle; this is a shunt resistor with a voltage-
controlled resistance. When a positive bias is applied to the modulator, it
reflects most of the microwave signal in waveguide. With a negative bias,
the shunt diode does not affect the microwave signal. A measure of square-
wave modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output ratio
between on and off-state.
To protect the Gunn oscillator from reflection it is recommended to
insert an isolator between the Gunn oscillator and the modulator.
3. Equipment
 Gunn oscillator
 Ferrite isolator
 Frequency meter
 Rotary vane attenuator
 Thermistor mount
 Waveguide carrier(s)
 Gunn oscillator power supply
 Power meter
 Coaxial cable BNC connector
 Crystal detector
 Oscilloscope
14
 Matching the probe in the power measurement is essential for correct

reading using the power-meter; check with your instructor the detector
matching.
 Make sure to well connect the waveguide parts throughout the
experiment.
5.1. General
5.1.1 Set up the equipment as shown in figure 3.
Power
Power
Supply
Meter
Gunn Rotary Vane Frequency Thermistor

Oscillator Attenuator Meter Mount
Figure 3: Experiment set-Up
5.1.2 Put the modulator switch on the power supply into the “DC”
position.
5.1.3 Turn on the power supply with its main switch.
5.2. The voltage vs. Current Characteristic
5.2.1 Measure the diode current corresponding to the voltage. Tabulate the
results. The meter of the power supply can be used. If a higher
accuracy is required, use separate volt- and mA- meters. Do NOT
exceed 9V.
5.2.2 Measure the threshold voltage Vth and the corresponding maximal
current.
5.2.3 Use the results to draw the current vs. voltage. Compare the results
with the known characteristics of a typical Gunn Diode.
15
5.2.4 Assume the electric field corresponding to the threshold voltage Vth
is 3.2105 V/m in GaAs. Calculate the diode length in m if the field
is assumed to be constant across the bulk material.
5.3. Output Power and Frequency as a Function of Voltage
5.3.1 Switch on the power meter and zero set at the 1 mW range (rotary
vane attenuator at maximum).
5.3.2 Set the Gunn voltage on the power supply to 9 volts.
5.3.3 Decrease the attenuation to get a minimum deflection on the power

meter.
5.3.4 Tune the thermistor mount in the following way:

Completely withdraw the two stubs. Move the plunger to a position
that gives a maximum deflection on the power meter. Maximize the
deflection by sliding in the two stubs gently and readjusting the
plunger. When maximum deflection is obtained, the thermistor
mount reflects a minimum of power.
5.3.5 Adjust the rotary vane attenuator setting A2 to get a reading of 1mW
on the power meter. Note and record A2 in dB. The attenuation value
equals the oscillator power in dBm. (Explain why?)
5.3.6 Tune the frequency meter to obtain minimum deflection on the

power meter. Note and record the frequency.
5.3.7 De-tune the frequency meter at least 50 MHz.
5.3.8 Repeat the measurements in 3.5-3.7 for all voltages recorded above.
5.3.9 Use the results to draw the power vs. voltage curve and also
the frequency vs. voltage curve.
Note: A measure of frequency sensitivity against variation in voltage

for an oscillator is the oscillator “PUSHING FACTOR” (in
MHz/V), i.e. the incremental change in frequency with
increasing voltage. The pushing factor may be either positive
or negative. Determine the pushing factor at 8 V for this
oscillator from the graph.
16
5.4. Square Wave Modulation
5.4.2 Release the modulation button on the front panel of the power
supply to set the Gunn oscillator in the square wave modulation
mode.
Power
Supply Oscilloscope Detector
Gunn Rotary Vane

Isolator
Oscillator Attenuator
Figure 4: Measurement Set-Up for Gunn Oscillator
5.4.3 Set the rotary vane attenuator to zero dB.
5.4.4 Set the Gunn voltage to 8 V.
5.4.5 Adjust the vertical sensitivity and position of the oscilloscope to a

suitable value, on the DC mode until the bottom of the square
wave is 4 div. above the zero line.
5.4.6 Increase the rotary vane attenuator setting until the top of the
square wave is 4 div. above the zero line. The value A dB is the
modulation depth.
17
6. Questions
1. Why is the Gunn diode sometimes called a bulk-effect diode?

2. What is the purpose of the movable short-circuit section of the cavity ?
3. Why is it advantageous to have an isolator between the oscillator and
the modulator?
7. Reference
[1] Day, W.R. “Gunn Oscillators - A Decade Later”, Microwave Systems
News, April 1978 p. 56
18
EXPERIMENT M-2
Part (2)
POWER MEASUREMENTS
1. Objective
To study the microwave power concept and how to measure it with
the thermistor bridge.
2. Theory
Power is the basic measure of signal level at microwave frequencies.
Unlike the situation at lower frequencies, where the voltage or current are
used, the power in a waveguide is closely related to the electromagnetic
fields.
Two concepts are often used to describe the power capacity of
microwave components: average power and peak power. To explain these
terms assume a microwave source giving a continuous microwave output
(CW-signal), with a power Po as shown in figure (1).
Figure 1 : Microwave CW-Signal Figure 2 : Microwave Pulsed Signal
If the source is periodically (period time T) tuned on and off as in

figure (2) we get a pulsed signal.
The signal amplitude during the pulse is called the peak power while
the mean value over the modulation period is the average power .We obtain
from figure (2):
Paverage = peak (/T)
The factor /T is called the duty cycle and 1/T is the pulse repetition
frequency or PRF.
19
Typical pulse radar for detection of aircraft may have a duty cycle of
-3
10 or less, while the PRF value is determined primarily by the maximum
radar range.
As an example, a 10 kW klystron transmitter with a pulse width 0.2s and

PRF=1 kHz has an average power of
Paverage = (104 x 0.2 / 103) = 2 W.
Usually, microwave power is expressed relative to 1mW or in dBm,

which means (decibels above 1 mW).
By definition, the ratio between two different power levels p1 and p2 is
expressed in decibels or dB through:
10 log10 P1/P2
If P2=1 mW we get P1 expressed in dBm, for example:
0.1 mW = -10 dBm

1 mW = 0 dBm
20 mW = 13 dBm
1 W = -30 dBm
2.1. Power Measurements
In power measurements, the microwave power absorbed by a

thermocouple element or a thermistor, (the latter is a resistive element
having a large negative temperature coefficient) heats the elements up. A
thermocouple element gives a DC voltage output very nearly proportional
to the dissipated microwave power. The thermoelectric power sensor uses a
pair of thermocouples; the additional one is used for compensating against
variations in ambient temperature. The DC voltage is fed to a chopper-
stabilized amplifier and displayed in units of power. It is possible to
measure from -50 dBm to +50 dBm with this kind of power meter.
In the thermoelectric power meter, see figure (3) the thermistor

forms one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, which is balanced in absence of
microwave power and the thermistor is biased by LF and DC power. When
microwave power is applied, the bias power must be correspondingly
decreased in order to maintain the bridge in balance hence, the removed LF
power is equal to the applied microwave power.
The change in LF power is measured and displayed on a meter. The
dynamic range for the thermistor is less than for the thermoelectric power
sensor, usually -30 to +10 dBm.
20
Figure 3: Simplified Diagram of Power meter
The power meter PM 7841 utilizes an automatically balanced bridge

with DC and 15 kHz LF bias as shown in figure (3). The detection of the
LF signal is made so that meter deflection decreases when LF amplitude
increases.
Since the thermistor is a temperature-sensing device, it is unable to

distinguish between changes in applied power and ambient temperature.
This leads to some temperature drifts, especially during warm up. It is
recommended to check the zero balance during the experiments in order to
limit this kind of error.
2. M 7841
The bridge is being zeroed with the DC-bias by means of the variable
resistor R. When the meter is zeroed the applied LF power is 1.2 times the
power indicated for full of scale deflection. For instance, if the meter is
zeroed at the 1mW-range (0dBm) the applied LF power is 1.2 mW. When
the meter is indicating 1mW, the removed amount of LF power is 1mw,
remaining 0.2 mW of LF power. The factor 1.2 has been chosen in order to
make the balancing circuits operate at a convenient power level.
The bolometer can be either a thermistor or a barretter. The
thermistor has a negative and the barretter a positive temperature
coefficient. Both types can be used with the power meter PNM 7841. The
thermistor mount PM 7201x is a tunable waveguide mount. When
21
measuring, the mount must be tuned to give a very low reflection, because
when power is being reflected, the accuracy of the measurement is affected.
With these precautions the measuring accuracy of the power meter is
3 f.s.d.
3. Equipment
 Gunn oscillator
 Frequency meter
 Thermistor mount
 Waveguide carrier
 Gunn oscillator power supply
 Power meter
 T-piece BNC
 2 coaxial cables, BNC connector
 Oscilloscope
 Matching the probe in the power measurement is essential for correct

reading using the power meter. Check with your instructor the detector
matching.
 Make sure to well connect the waveguide parts throughout the
experiment.
5.1. General
5.1.1 Set up the equipment as shown in figure (4) but do not start the
Gunn oscillator.
22
Power Power Oscilloscope
Supply meter
Gunn Rotary Vane Thermistor

Isolator
Oscillator Attenuator Mount
Figure 4: Power Measurement Set-Up.
5.1.2 Since the thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient

make sure the switch at the rear of the power meter is in the
position (NEG).
5.1.3 The switch at the rear for selecting resistance value should be
in the position (100).
5.1.4 Select the 1 mW range on the front panel of the power meter,
turn it on and connect it to the thermistor mount.
5.1.5 Turn the oscilloscope on with sweep speed 50s/div and

vertical sensitivity of 0.2 V/div.
5.2 Measurement of LF power and comparison with CRO display
5.2.1 Zero the power meter by turning the coarse and the fine knobs.
5.2.2 Measure the corresponding peak-to-peak voltage (Vp-p) on the

oscilloscope.
5.2.3 Calculate the LF power dissipated in the thermistor as

2
 VP P 
PLF   / 100
2 2
Compare it with the expected 1.2 mW value.
23
5.2.4 Set the rotary vane attenuator at 0 dB.
5.2.5 Energize the Gunn oscillator (no modulation 8.5 V Gunn

voltage).
5.2.6 Watch the power meter and adjust the attenuator to obtain
about half f.s.d.
5.2.7 Tune the thermistor mount in the following way: Completely

withdraw the two stubs. Move the plunger to a position that
gives maximum deflection on the power meter. Maximize the
deflection by sliding in the two stubs gently and readjusting
the plunger. When maximum deflection is obtained the
thermistor mount reflects a minimum of power.
5.2.8 Adjust the attenuator to get a reading of 1mW.
5.2.9 Measure Vp-p, increase the vertical sensitivity if necessary, and

calculate the LF power as above. Record the results.
5.3 Modulated signals
5.3.1 Switch off the Gunn oscillator power supply and check that the
power meter reads zero. Readjust if not.
5.3.2 Turn on the Gunn oscillator (supply in DC mode) and adjust

the attenuation to get a reading of 1mW.
5.3.3 Switch on modulation (release the modulation switch and operate the
supply in the square wave mode) .
5.3.4 Note the power meter reading. The square wave modulation
can be regarded as a pulsed signal with 50 duty cycle . Does
measurement result confirm this?
5.4 Calibrating the dB-scale of the power meter
5.4.1 Switch off the Gunn oscillator and set the rotary vane
attenuator to zero. Check that zero reading is obtained on the
power meter. Readjust if necessary.
24
5.4.2 Turn on the Gunn oscillator and adjust the attenuation until a
reading of 1mW is obtained (modulation off).
Increase the attenuation of the rotary attenuator by 1 dB step
and record the power meter readings.
6. Questions
1. Why is it necessary that the power meter reading increases when
the LF power dissipated in the thermistor decreases?
2. Express 0.5mW and 25W in dBm?
3. IF the ambient temperature increases after zero calibration how
will measured power be affected?
4. Does 50 duty cycle imply square wave modulation?
7. References
[1] N. Kuhn: “How accurate is your power meter?” Microwaves Sep.
1977 p. 106.
[2] B. M. Olivier: “Electronic Measurements and Instruments”
McGraw Hill 1977,chapter 16.
25
Experiment M – 3A
DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
1. Objective
To measure the coupling and directivity of a directional coupler and to

measure the return loss of a test device.
2. Theory
The waveguide fields can be
regarded as the sum of a forward
traveling wave and wave traveling in
the opposite direction. A directional
coupler is a device with which it is
possible to measure the two waves
separately. It consists of two
transmission lines. The MAIN ARM
and the AUXILIARY ARM, which
are electro-magnetically coupled to
each other, so that the power entering
port 1 in the main arm divides
between port 2 and port 3, and almost
nothing comes out in port 4 (see
figure 1). Power entering port 2 is
divided between port 1 and port 4.
To define the coupling and
directivity of the coupler we use
figure 2. Port 4 of the coupler is
terminated with a built-in termination.
Figure 2-a shows the directional
coupler with only a forward wave. In
figure 2-b there is only reversed wave present.
Coupling C = 10 log (PI / P3F) in dB.
Directivity D = 10 log (P3F / P3R) in dB.
The directional coupler used here is a high directivity waveguide coupler.
When measuring the reflection from a test device the signal is incident at port 2,
the test device is connected to port 1 and the reflected signal is at port 3 (see
figure 3).
Assume that the coupling factor is C. The power the detector receive is
then P3 = Pr / C. In order to measure the power P1 a common method is to replace
26
the test item with a short, which reflects all the incident power and measure at
port 3. This power here is P3 = P1 / C.
Thus the ratio between the two signals detected at port 3 is P r / P1 = ||2 =
the return loss of the test item.
Usually the return loss is measured with a precision variable attenuator
inserted between the coupler and the detector. When measuring on the test
device the attenuation is set to zero. When measuring on the short the
attenuation is set to a value “A” dB, which gives the same level of the detected
signal as with the test device. “A” is then the return loss of the test device in dB.
The accuracy of the return loss measurement is determined by how much
of the incident power at port 2 “leaks” up into port 3, i.e. the directivity of the
coupler. E.g. a directivity of 40 dB corresponds to a return loss of || = 0.01.
This means a SWR = 1.02
Since the reflected wave from the test device and the “directivity” wave
can add in any phase, the uncertainty of the measured reflection coeffiecint is
±0.01.
3. Equipment
 Gunn oscillator  Termination
 Rotary vane attenuator  Directional coupler
 Detector  Waveguide carrier(s)
 Ferrite Isolator  Shorting plate
 Slide screw tuner  DC meter
Detector
Gunn Ferrite
Oscillator Isolator Rotary-Vane Termination
Attenuator
Detector
Figure 4. Coupling Measurements
27
4. Procedure
4.1 Coupling C:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in fig.4 and set the rotary vane
attenuator to 0 dB.
2. Achieve a reference reading on the meter.
3. Disconnect the directional coupler from the attenuator and connect the
detector instead of it.
4. Increase the attenuation until the reference reading is achieved. The
coupling is now the attenuation value. Record in table 1.
4.2 Directivity D:
attenuator to 0 dB
3. Disconnect the directional coupler from the attenuator and connect
the detector instead of it.
attenuation value now is C + D in dB. Record in table 1.
Detector
Gunn Ferrite
Oscillator Isolator Rotary-Vane Termination
Attenuator
Detector
Figure 5. Directivity Measurements
4.3 Return Loss RL:

attenuator to 0 dB.
3. Replace the test device with a short.
attenuation value now is the return loss in dB. Record in table 1.
28
Detector
Gunn Ferrite
Oscillator Isolator Rotary-Vane Short
Attenuator
Test Device
Figure 6. Return Loss Measurements
Coupling C+D Directivity Return Loss ||

dB dB dB dB
Table 1
5. Questions
1. Suppose that the directional coupler has a coupling of 20 dB and a
directivity of 40 dB.
a) How many dB below P2 is the unwanted signal at port 3?
b) How much power (related to P2) is dissipated in the load at port 4?
2. What are the answers of questions 1 if the coupling is 40 dB and the
directivity 20 dB?
3. Assume the directivity to be measured is exactly 40 dB and that the
termination used had a SWR = 1.02. Show that the value of the
directivity obtained could be as low as 34 dB (Hint: the two waves
could add in or out of phase). What would the maximum value be?
4. Consider figure 2, if the power P1 is incident at port 3, what will be the
power at port 1 and port 2?
5. Explain how a return loss measurement would be made with the set up
as in question 4.
29
EXPERIMENT M – 3B
MATCHING WITH
THE SLIDING SCREW TUNER
1. Objective
To use the sliding screw tuner to match out the reflection from a
mismatched load.
2a
2b
Figure 1 Figure 2
2. Theory
Suppose we have a transmission line terminated with the normalized

admittance 0.5+j0.7 (impedance 0.7-j0.95). This gives a SWR of 3.2 (see figure
1).
If we move along the transmission line toward the generator we soon
arrive at B where the admittance is 1.0+j1.2. The distance A-B is 0.17-0.11
wavelengths = 0.06 wavelengths. If at point B we add the admittance -j1.2 (an
inductance) the admittance will be 1.0+j1.2-j1.2=1.0.
Thus, the admittance (or impedance) looking into the network in figure 2a
is unity, i.e. a matched load. An alternative is to choose point c in figure 1,
where the admittance is (1.0-j1.2) and here add a positive, shunt admittance (a
capacitance). See figure 2b. The achieved match is of course frequency
dependent since the distances 0.06g , or 0.22g , vary with the frequency.
30
Figure 3. Smith Chart
Crystal
Detector
Gunn Ferrite Rotary Vane Sliding

Oscillator Isolator attenuator Screw Tuner
Variable
Short
Termination
Figure 4. Set-up of the Experiment
31
3. Equipment
 Gunn- oscillator
 Crystal detector
 Termination
 Variable short
 Sliding screw tuner
 DC meter
 Waveguide support (s)
4. Procedure
4.1. General

4.1.2 Energize the oscillator.
4.2. Reflection from Open-End Waveguide
4.2.1 Completely unscrew the probe of the sliding screw tuner. The
microwave energy is now partly reflected and partly radiated from
the open end of the sliding screw tuner.
4.2.2 As described in section 4.3 of part “A” of the experiment, measure
the return loss, and calculate the reflection coefficient and SWR of
the open-end waveguide.
4.3. Matching
4.3.1 Screw the probe of the sliding screw tuner into the waveguide and
watch the DC-meter deflection. It will either increase or decrease.
4.3.2 Move the probe carriage to a position where the probe insertion
causes the deflection to decrease.
4.3.3 Find the probe position and probe depth that gives minimum
deflection on the meter.
Note: Use the most sensitive range of the meter. It is possible to get the
deflection down in the noise level.
32
4.4. Reflection from Matching Probe +Termination.
4.4.1 Connect the termination to the sliding screw tuner (with the probe position
as in 4.3.3).
4.4.2 Measure the return loss of the sliding screw tuner + termination.
Compare with the result obtained in section 4.2.
4.5. Calibration of the Tuner
4.5.1 Connect the termination to the sliding screw tuner with the probe at a
depth of 3 mm.
4.5.2 Set the rotary vane attenuator at 0 dB and take the meter reading as a
reference.
4.5.3 Increase the probe depth, say by a step of 1 mm and find each time the
the attenuation value that brings the meter reading to the reference one.
Record these values in table 1.
4.5.4 Remove the sliding screw tuner and replace it by the movable short.
Find the attenuation as in the previous step.
4.5.5 Calculate the return loss corresponding to each depth of the probe and
then calculate its corresponding normalized susceptance.
4.5.6 Plot the normalized susceptance versus the probe depth.
Probe Depth Attenuation Return Loss ||2 Normalized

(mm) (dB) Susceptance
Table 1
33
5. Questions
1. The matching admittance -j1.2 in figure 2a could be placed further

away from the load. Where? (Hint: Study figure 3.)
2. If you want your matching to be broadband, i.e. work satisfactory over
wide frequency range, would you place the matching impedance close
to or far away from the unmatched load?
3. Show how the sliding screw tuner can be used for impedance and
frequency measurements?
4. Did you obtain same result in step 4.2.2 as in 4.4.2?
Should the results be the same?
34
EXPERIMENT M-4
SIMULATION OF PLANAR TRANSMISSION LINE
STRUCTURES
Objective:
This experiment aims at:
1. Helping students to be familiar with planar transmission line structures.
2. Using CAD tools to study variation of main parameters of each line characteristics
such as impedance, effective dielectric constant and losses, with dimensions,
dielectric constant and frequency.
3. Designing a simple λ/4 microstrip matching section to match a real resistive load
to a 50 Ω microstrip transmission line using Microwave Circuit Simulator (Ansoft
Designer).
4. Using CAD tools to study microstrip discontinuities and their equivalent circuit
models.
Equipment:
PC, Ansoft Designer 6.0
1. Theory
1.1 Introduction
One of the principal requirements for a transmission line structure to be

suitable as a circuit element in microwave integrated circuits (MICs) is that the
structure should be "planar" in configuration. A planar configuration implies
that the characteristics of the element can be determined by the dimensions in a
single plane. For example, the width of a microstrip line on a dielectric substrate
can be adjusted to control its impedance. When the impedance can be controlled
by dimensions in a single plane, the circuit fabrication can be conveniently
carried out by techniques of photolithography and photoetching of thin films.
Use of these techniques at microwave and millimeter wave frequencies has led
to the development of hybrid and monolithic MICs.
There are several transmission line structures that satisfy the requirement of
being planar. The most common of these are (i) Microstrip, (ii) Coplanar
waveguide, (iii) Slotline, and (iv) Coplanar strips. Cross-sectional views of
these lines are shown in Figure 1. A microstrip line is the most popular of these
35
transmission structures, mainly due to the fact that the mode of propagation in a
microstrip is almost transverse electromagnetic (TEM). This allows an easy
approximate analysis and yields wide band circuits.
Typical thickness for the dielectric ranges from 0.005 Cm (0.002 in) to
0.635 cm (0.250 in) or greater. For microwave circuits substrate materials such
as alumina, quartz, and glass loaded PTFE are used. The copper thickness is
usually about 0.001778 cm (0.0007 in) to 0.003556 cm (0.0014 in).
There are several variations of the microstrip configuration that have also
been suggested for use in MICs. These include the inverted microstrip,
suspended microstrip, microstrip with overlay, strip dielectric waveguide, and
inverted strip dielectric waveguide. Cross-sectional views of these structures are
given in Figure 2.
Another very commonly used transmission line that resembles a
microstrip line is the stripline, shown in Figure 3. This is also called a triplate
line. Most of the basic circuit design ideas implemented in a stripline are a1so
applicable to microstrip line circuits,
Figure 1: Planar transmission lines used in microwave integrated circuits
36
Figure 2: Various transmission Lines derived from the microstrip configuration
Figure 3: Stripline configurations
37
1.2 Planar transmission line structures
1.2.1 Microstrip Line

A microstrip is a two-conductor transmission line that can be considered
to have evolved conceptually from a two-wire line as shown in Figure 4.
Transformation from (a) to (b) is essentially a change in the shape of the
conductors, whereas that from (b) to (c) involves placing a conductor sheet at
the phase of symmetry. The final configuration (d) is obtained by inserting a
thin dielectric slab between the two conductors. As a consequence of the last
step, the dielectric medium of the transmission line becomes inhomogeneous.
Microstrip lines differ considerably from other transmission lines. For

example, comparing it with a stripline, one observes that the microstrip
structure is open at the top. This open configuration makes a microstrip very
convenient for use in MICs where discrete lumped devices (active or passive)
must be mounted in the circuit. Also, small adjustments or tuning can possibly
be incorporated after the circuit has been fabricated. However, along with these
advantages, the open structure of microstrip causes some complications in
microstrip analysis and design. This is due to the fact that the presence of the
dielectric air interface modifies the mode of propagation in a microstrip to a non
TEM hybrid mode (as compared to a pure TEM in a stripline).
Figure 4:· Conceptual evolution of a microstrip from a two-wire line
38
Figure 5: Microstrip configuration
Design Equations
A complete set of design equations for a microstrip is presented in what
follows. This includes closed form expressions for the characteristic impedance
and effective dielectric constant and their variation with metal strip thickness,
enclosure size and dispersion. Expressions for microstrip loss and quality factor
Q are also described.
Characteristic impedance and effective dielectric constant

Closed form expressions for Zom and have been derived by wheeler
and schneider and are given by:
(W/h ≤1)
(W/h ≥1)
Where
And
(W/h ≤1)
(W/h ≥1)
39
Hammersted noted that the maximum relative error in and Zom is less
than 1 percent. The expressions for W/h in terms of zom and are as follows.
For > 89.91, that is, A> 1.52
For ≤ 89.91, that is, A≤ 1.52
Where
These expressions also provide accuracy better than one percent.

A more accurate expression for the characteristic impedance Zoma of a
microstrip.
For t = 0 and = 1 is given by
Where
And u= W/h.
The accuracy of this expression is better than 0.01 percent for u 1and
0.03 percent for u 1000. The effective dielectric constant epsilon may be
expressed as:
40
The accuracy of this model is better than 0.2 percent for 128 and
0.01 u 100. Finally, the characteristic impedance is
The results discussed above are based on the assumption that the
thickness of the strip conductor is negligible. But, in practice the strip has a
finite thickness t that affects the characteristics.
Effect of Strip Thickness

The effect of strip thickness on Zom and of microstrip lines has been
reported by a number of investigators. Simple and accurate formulas for Zom and
with finite strip thickness are
(W/h ≤1)
(W/h≥1)
Where
(W/h ≤1/2 )
(W/h ≥1/2 )
In which
It can be observed that the effect of thickness on Z om and is

insignificant for small values of t/h. This agrees with the experimental results
for t/h ≤ 0.005, 2≤ ≤10 and W/h≥0.1. However, the effect of strip thickness
is significant on conductor loss in the microstrip line
41
Effect of Dispersion
The effect of frequency (dispersion) on has been described accurately
by the dispersion models given by Getsinger, Edwards and Owens, Kirschning
and Jansen, and Kobayashi. The effect of frequency on Zom has been described
by several investigators. The accurate' expressions of Hammerstad and Jensen
for Zom(f) and Kobayashi for are
Where
for W/h ≤0.7
for W/h ≥0.7

Zom, are the quasi static values obtained earlier and c is the velocity of light.
Losses
Closed-form expressions for total loss have been reported in the
literature. An expression for loss, may be written as
The two components and are given by
dB/unit length (W/h ≤1)
dB/unit length (W/h ≥1)
42
And for the same conditions of W/h
dB/unit length
dB/unit length
Where
Rs= ; = resistivity of the strip conductor

. = conductivity of the dielectric substrate.
And
(W/h ≥1/2 )
(W/h ≥1/2 )
The dielectric loss is normally very small compared with the conductor
loss for dielectric substrates. The dielectric loss in silicon substrates (used for
monolithic MICs), however, is usually of the same order or even larger than the
conductor loss. This is because of the lower resistivity available in silicon
wafers. However, higher resistivity can be obtained in GaAs and therefore the
dielectric loss is lower for this material. Microstrip loss data require that the
conductor thickness be greater than about four times the skin depth
Quality factor
The quality factor, Q, of a microstrip can be related to the total loss in the
line by
where is the total quality factor of the resonator (quarter wavelength), is

the total loss in the resonator and When losses in a resonant line are
considered, another loss factor due to radiation at the open-end
discontinuities must also be taken into account. The corresponding radiation Q
factor is given by
43
Where
The total Q of the resonator can be expressed by
Here, Qc, Qd and QT are the quality factors corresponding to conductor,

dielectric and radiation losses, respectively. Finally, the circuit quality factor,
Qo is defined as
44
1.2.2 Slotlines
A slotline is a planar transmission line proposed for use in MICs by Cohn in 1968.
The basic slotline configuration is shown in Figure 6. It consists of a dielectric substrate with
a narrow slot etched in the metallization on one side of the substrate. The other side of the
substrate is without any metallization. The geometry is planar and is well suited for its usage
in microwave integrated circuits.
Slotlines can be included in microstrip circuits by etching the slotline circuit in the
ground plane of the substrate for microstrip circuits. This type of hybrid combination allows
flexibility in the design of microwave circuits and has led to some new types of circuits such
as hybrid branchline directionaial couplers. Also, some of the circuit elements which cannot
easily be achieved in microstrip configuration can be incorporated in the slotline part of the
circuit. These for example could be short circuits, high impedance line, series stubs and
baluns. Slotlines can also be employed as a resonant or nonresonant antenna.
In a slotline, the wave propagates along the slot with the major electric field
component oriented across the slot in the plane of metallization on the dielectric substrate.
The mode of propagation is non-TEM and almost transverse electric in nature. However,
unlike conventional waveguides, there is no low-frequency cutoff because slotline is a two-
conductor structure. The approximate field distribution in a slotline is shown in Figure 7.
Design equations can be found in the literature.
Figure 6: Slotline configuration
45
Figure 7: Field distribution in a slotline
1.2.3 Coplanar Lines: Coplanar Waveguide and Coplanar Strips

The term coplanar lines is used for those transmission lines where all the
conductors are in the same plane; namely, on the top surface of the dielectric
substrate. These transmission lines include slot line, coplanar waveguide
(CPW), and coplanar strips (CPS). Some of the advantage of these two lines
arises from the fact that the mounting of lumped (active or passive) components
in shunt or series configuration is much easier, drilling of holes through the
substrate is not needed to reach the ground plane, and transition to slotline is
less cumbersome, thereby allowing greater flexibility in the use of mixed
transmission media. The performance of coplanar lines is comparable to and
sometimes even better than microstrip line in terms of guide wavelength,
dispersion and losses. Active elements such as MESFETs can easily connected
to coplanar lines because they are also coplanar in nature. Consequently,
coplanar lines have some disadvantages also, such as parasitic modes, lower
power-handling capability and field nonconfinement.
The coplanar waveguide was proposed by Wen in 1969. As shown in

Figure 8(a) it consists of two slots each of width W printed on a dielectric
substrate. The spacing between the denoted by S. the electric and magnetic field
configurations for quasi-static approximation are shown in Figure 8(b). At
higher frequencies, the mode of propagation in the CPW becomes a non-TEM
because a longitudinal component of the magnetic field exists. In such a case
has an elliptically polarized magnetic field in the slots at the air dielectric
interface and becomes suitable for nonreciprocal ferrite devices.
46
A configuration of coplanar strips, which is complementary to the CPW,
is shown in Figure 9(a). It consists of two strips, generally of equal width W on
a dielectric substrate. The spacing between the strips is denoted by S. The
electric and magnetic field configurations are shown in Figure 9(b). In the lower
range of microwave frequencies, the CPS is also useful for carrying signals for
high speed computer circuits.
The conventional coplanar waveguide, introduced by Wen, cannot be
used as such because of the requirement of infinitely thick substrate. For
practical applications substrate thickness has to be finite as in Figure 10(a). Also
the ground planes of actual CPW have finite widths as in Figure 10(b). The
width of the ground plane, should be kept as small as possible since it has a
direct bearing on the maximum line density and the circuit size achievable in
coplanar circuits. The fields of a CPW are less confined than those of microstrip
lines, thereby making them more sensitive to covers or shields placed above the
guide (see Figure 10(c)). It is very tempting to introduce a conductor backing
(sec Figure 10(d, e)), to improve both the mechanical strength and the power
handling capability. Moreover, it allows easy implementation of mixed CPW-
microstrip circuits. In
MMIC applications, the semiconductor substrates are usually thin and
fragile. Thcy are mounted on low permittivity materials such as quartz. Some
applications may require dielectric overlay or a mutilayered configuration as
shown in Figure 10(f). Sometimes, it is desirable to adjust the characteristic
impedance of a CPW by changing the width of one of the slots, keeping the rest
of the parameters unchanged. This configuration is called the asymmetric CPW
(see Figure 10 (g, h)). The effect of all these modifications (in conventional
CPW) on propagation can be found in the literature. The results exploit the
flexibility provided by the additional parameters such as the cover height, lateral
ground plane width asymmetry and multilayer configuration.
47
Figure 8: (a) Coplanar waveguide (CPW) geometry and (b) electric and magnetic field
distributions in CPW
Figure 9: (a) Coplanar strips (CPS) geometry and (b) electric and magnetic field distributions
in CPS
48
Figure 10: various types of coplanar waveguides :(a)-CE.-W with finite dielectric thickness;
(b) CPW with finite width ground planes; (c) CPW with a cover shield (d) conductor-backed
CPW with a cover shield; (e) conductor-backed CPW; (f) multilayered CPW; (g) asymmetric
CPW; and (h) asymmetric CPW with finite dielectric thickness
49
1.2.4 Comparison between different planar transmission lines
Four types of planar transmission lines suitable for microwave integrated
circuits have been discussed so far: (1) microstrip line, (2) slotline, (3) coplanar
waveguide and (4) Coplanar strips. In this section we compare the
characteristics of these lines. Various features considered include the range of
impedance achievable losses and effect of tolerances.
Range of Impedance
The range of characteristic impedance that can be practically realized
with any particular transmission line is limited by two factors. Technological
processes such as photoetching limit the minimum strip width and the spacing
between two adjacent strips. For comparison, this minimum dimension has been
taken as 5 μm (although smaller dimensions are possible with careful
processing). The other limitation comes from the possibility of excitation of
higher order modes. To avoid the excitation of higher order modes, the substrate
thickness and the lateral dimensions should be kept below a quarter wavelength.
The impedance limits calculated in this manner are shown in Table 1 for three
types of lines. In this table the letter "m" in parentheses indicates that the limit is
caused by higher order modes and the letter "d" indicates that the limit is due to
small dimensions. This comparison indicates that microstrip lines are capable of
providing low impedance whereas slotlines and coplanar waveguides may be
used for very high impedances.
Transmission line Lower limit for Zo Upper limit for Zo

(ohm) (ohm)
Microstrip 11(m) 110(d)

Slotline 35(d) 250(m)
Coplanar waveguide 20(m, d) 250(m,d)
Coplanar strips 20(m, d) 250(m,d)
Table 1: Comparison of Zo limits ( =13, h=100μm, and frequency = 30GHz)
Losses
Losses or attenuation constant is another important characteristic for the
comparison of these lines. Conductor loss in planar lines has been computed
and compared by Heinrich. The value of conductor loss for the microstrip,
slotline and CPW is compared in Figures 11 and 12 as a function of
characteristic impedance.
A comparison of the conductor loss in a microstrip line and a CPW (see
Figure 11) shows that for lower impedance lines the microstrip has lower loss
whereas for high impedances a CPW can be designed to have lower loss. For
50
medium impedance lines, the conductor loss in a microstrip and a CPW are
substantially similar. The conductor loss for a slotline and a CPW is plotted in
Figure 12. This comparison shows that high impedance lines are less lossy if
realized in slotline configuration and that a CPW configuration with wider strips
should be chosen for low impedance levels. Fabrication constraints are also less
stringent if wide slots and strips are used.
Figure 11: Comparison of conductor loss for microstrip and CPW on lOOl1rn GaAs substrate
( = 13) at f = 20GHz as a function of line impedance. A 3um thick copper metallization is
assumed.
'
Figure 12: Comparison of conductor loss for slotline and CPW on 100 um GaAs substrate
( = 12.8) at f = 20GHz as a function of line impedance. A 3um thick conductor with p =
1.7 μΩcm is assumed.
51
Effect of Tolerance
Impedance variations caused by tolerances are expressed in terms of the
maximum value of VSWR presented to an ideal line connected at the input. The
effects of tolerances on the impedance and effective dielectric constant for the
three types of lines are compared in Table 2. For this comparison, the
fabrication accuracy of strip width and gap width has been assumed to be 1μm.
The assumed tolerances in h and are 5 μm and 0.1, respectively. The table
shows that slotline impedance is less sensitive to variations in parameters as
compared to other lines.
Transmission Line Max. VSWR Max.

Microstrip ' 1.033 0.013
(W/h=0.731)
Slotline 1.015 0.0036
(W/h=0.l,h/λo=0.01)
Coplanar waveguide 1.07 0.044
(h/b=8,a/b=0.4)
Table 2: Comparison of the effect of tolerances on various lines ( =13.0±0.1, h = 100±5um,

∆W = ∆S= ±1um and Zo = 50Ω)
Figure 13: Effect of tolerances on the change in effective dielectric constant of CPW
( =13.0±0.1, h = 100±5um, ∆W = ∆S= ±1um).
52
Other parameters
Several other parameters of the four types of lines are compared
qualitatively in table 3. It can generally be seen that CPW and CPS combine
some advantageous features of microstrip lines and slotlines. Perhaps the best
feature of the coplanar lines is the ease of mounting components in series and
shunt configurations, whereas microstrip lines are convenient only for series
mounting and slotlines can accommodate only shunt-mounted components. A
coplanar waveguide has the advantage of easier fabrication, no via holes and
good grounding for active devices. It suffers from the disadvantages, of larger
size, parasitic odd mode and poor heat transfer for active devices.
53
Characteristic Microstrip Slotline Coplanar Coplanar
waveguide strips
Effective 8.6 5.07 7 7

dielectric
constant, =
13, h = l00μm
Power High Medium Medium Medium
handling
capability
Radiation loss Low Medium Medium Medium
Unloaded Q Medium Low Medium Low (lower

impedances)
high (higher
impedances)
Dispersion Small Large Small Small
Mounting of Difficult Easy Easy Easy

components in
shunt config.
Mounting of Easy Difficult Easy Easy

components in
series config.
Technological Ceramic - - -
difficulties Holes
Edge Plating
Elliptically Not available Available Available Available
polarized
magnetic field
config.
Enclosure Small Large Large Large
dimensions
Table 3: Qualitative comparison of various MIC lines
54
2. Calculation and Design Using Ansoft Designer
This part is divided in two sections:
Part 1: Study of the variation of main parameters of each line characteristics
(microstrip, slotline and CPW) such as impedance, effective dielectric constant
and losses, with dimensions, dielectric constant and frequency.
The objective of this section is to use one of the tools provided with Ansoft
Designer called “TRL Calculator” to study the dependence of the electrical
properties of different transmission lines (e.g. effective dielectric constant,
characteristic impedance …) with the geometrical properties of the line such as
the trace width, substrate thickness …etc.
Part 2: Using Ansfot Designer to design a microstrip λ/4 matching section.
But before we start, let us take a quick overview about Ansoft Designer.
2.1 Ansoft Designer: Introduction

Ansoft Designer is a microwave simulator that can be divided to two
main parts; circuit simulator and electromagnetic (EM) simulator. The circuit
simulator (called Nexxim) in Ansoft Designer is similar to OrCAD circuit
simulator. The difference between them is that OrCAD usually contains circuit
models for components like capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and
transistors that are important for the circuit designer. On the other hand, Ansoft
Designer contains the previous models as well as circuit models for
transmission lines, waveguides, couplers, power dividers and junctions that are
important in microwave design.
The EM simulator in Ansoft Designer is used to solve Maxwell’s
equations for planar multi-layer passive structures and calculate the network
parameters such as S-parameters, Z-parameters …. EM simulator is important
because it can take into consideration secondary effects not included in the
circuit simulator such as, for example, fringing fields between nearby
conductors. Also, in some cases the circuit simulator may not be of use as the
required structure may not have an equivalent circuit model such as antennas.
These advantages of EM simulator come at the expense of considerably larger
simulation time as the simulator needs to numerically solve Maxwell’s
equations at large number of points representing the structure. In this lab
experiment, we will focus on circuit simulation.
55
2.2 Ansoft Designer Interface
The Ansoft Designer window has several optional panels:
 A Property Window that displays and allows you to change model

parameters or attributes.
 A Project Manager which contains a design tree which lists the structure
of the project.
 A Message Manager that allows you to view any errors or warnings that
occur before you begin a simulation.
 A Progress Window that displays solution progress.
 A Modeler Window which changes according to the design type between
either a “Schematic editor” for circuit simulation or “Layout editor” for
EM simulation.
56
2.3 Using Ansoft Designer to Analyze the Properties of
Different Transmission Lines
In this part of the experiment, we will use “TRL calculator” provided by Ansoft
Designer to analyze the properties of different transmission lines.
The procedure
1. Open Ansfot Designer: A new project is listed in the project tree in the
Project Manager window and is named Projectn by default.
2. Add a circuit design: Right click on the project name in the Project
Manager window and choose Insert>Insert Circuit Design. A window
titled “Choose Technology” will appear that asks you to choose the
technology you want to use. By “Technology”, we mean the type of the
substrate that will be used (e.g. Microstrip (MS), Stripline (SL) or others)
and the properties of the substrate (the substrate thickness (h), and the
substrate relative dielectric constant (εr)). You can either choose one of
the technology files that are provided by Ansoft Designer or choose
Browse to select a specific technology file. For this part of the
experiment, choose “None”.
3. Open the TRL calculator: click Circuit> TRL> Microstrip > Single. A
window titled “Select Substrate” will appear that asks you to choose a
substrate. Since you did not choose a technology file from the previous
step, you will find the list of substrates empty. If you chose a technology
file in the previous step, you will find it in the list of substrates. Click
“New” and the window shown below will appear on your screen
57
Write “FR4” in the “Substrate Name” box and choose “Microstrip” in
the “Substrate Type”. Type (1.6) in the “H” box representing the
substrate thickness and (4.4) in the “Er” box representing the substrate
relative dielectric constant then click Ok to revert back to the “Select
Substrate” window. Choose “FR4” from the list of the substrates then
click “Ok”.
4. A window titled “Microstrip Single” will appear as shown below.
58
This is the actual transmission line calculator for single microstrip line.
Note that in this window you can still change the properties of the
substrate (H, εr). There are two modes to use the calculator; analysis
mode and synthesis mode. In the analysis mode, the user enters the
physical properties of the microstrip line (W, P, and the operating
frequency) and the program calculates the electrical properties of the
transmission line (characteristic impedance (Zo), electrical length (E),
effective dielectric constant (εeff), dielectric and conduction losses) (Note:
you should click “Details >>”, to see εeff, dielectric and conduction
losses). In the synthesis mode, the user provides the electrical properties
of the transmission line (Zo ,E and the operating frequency) and the
program calculates the required physical dimensions.
5. It is required to plot the variation in the following cases

- Zo versus W, H, εr, and frequency.
- εeff versus W, H, εr, and frequency.
6. Repeat the previous steps for the case of coplanar waveguie (CPW) and
slotline.
Remember that you need to provide a new substrate definition for each
transmission line and to choose the appropriate calculator type from the menu
Circuit> TRL.
59
2.4 Design of a λ/4 microstrip matching section:
A λ/4 matching technique is a very simple matching technique that is used to

match a resistive load with no imaginary part to a transmission line at a
particular frequency. It is demonstrated in the following figure
λ/4 Matching Section
Zo Z1  Z o RL RL
g c
l 
4 4 fo  eff
In this part, we want to match a 100 resistance (RL=100 ) at frequency (fo)

equals to 2.4 GHz on a FR4 microstrip substrate with relative dielectric constant
(εr = 4.4) and substrate thickness (h = 0.06 inch =1.6mm) to an input microstrip
transmission line of length 50 and length of 5mm.
The procedure
technology you want to use. For this project, choose MS – FR4 (Er=4.4)
0.060 inch, 0.5 oz copper.
3. Adding the circuit components: in the step, we need to add the
components of the circuit which are two microstrip transmission lines,
resistor, microwave port and ground as follow:
- Transmission line: From the Project Manager Window, choose
“Components” tab. From the tree, choose Nexxim Circuit
Elements> Distributed> Microstrip> Transmission Lines>
MS_TRL: MS Transmission Line, Physical Length then place
two instances in the Schematic Editor.
- Resistor: Choose Nexxim Circuit Elements> Resistors> RES_:
Resistor and place it in the Schematic Editor.
60
- Microwave Port: Choose Draw> Interface Port and place the port
in the Schematic Editor. Double click on the port and choose
“Microwave Port” from the “Symbol” box.
- Ground: Choose Draw> Ground and place the port in the
Schematic Editor.
Finally, connect between the components as shown in the following

figure
4. Editing the circuit components: First, we will edit the input microstrip
transmission line to have 50 characteristic impedance and length of
5mm. To do this, Right click on the first transmission line then choose
“Properties”. From the “Parameter Values” tab, click on the TRL
button to open the microstrip transmission line calculator. We will use the
Synthesis mode as follow: enter 50 in the “Zo” box and 2.4 in the
“Frequency” box then click “Synthesis”. The calculator will calculate
the required trace width “W”. Press “Place” to transfer the calculated
values to the component. The value of “W” should be calculated as
2.888mm. Make sure to change the value of “P” to 5mm. Next, we want
to edit the λ/4 matching section in the same manner. Right click on the
second transmission line then choose “Properties”. From the
“Parameter Values” tab, click on the TRL button to open the microstrip
transmission line calculator. Again, we will use the Synthesis mode as
before: enter in the “Zo” box, 90 in the “E” box and
2.4 in the “Frequency” box then click “Synthesis”. The calculator will
calculate the required trace width “W” and “P”. Press “Place” to transfer
the calculated values to the component. The value of “W” and “P” should
be calculated as 1.51mm and 17.52mm respectively. Finally, change the
value of the resistor to be 100 instead of 50
5. Adding the simulation setup: Now, we want to define the parameters of
the solution setup like the start, stop frequencies and the frequency step.
In the “Project” tab in the “Project Manager” window, right click on
“Analysis” and choose Add Nexxim Solution Setup> Linear Network
61
Analysis. A window titled “Linear Network analysis, Frequency
Domain” will appear. In the “Sweep Variables” tab choose “New”.
Then, in the new window titled “Add/Edit Sweep”, choose “Linear
step” then enter 0.1GHz,5 GHz and 0.01GHz in the start, stop and step
boxes respectively then click “Ok”.
6. Run the simulation: choose Circuit> Analyze to start the simulation
engine.
7. Drawing the results: To view the simulation results, right click on
“Results” in the “Project Manager” window. Then, choose Create
Standard Report> Rectangular Report. A new window appears that
asks you about the type of results you want to plot. From the “Category”
tab, choose “S parameter” then choose “S(Port1,Port1)” from the
“Quantity” tab and choose “dB” from the “Function” tab then click
“New Report”.
The following report should appear on the screen

XY Plot 1 Circuit4 ANSOFT
-5.00
-10.00
-15.00
-20.00
dB(S(Port1,Port1))
-25.00
-30.00
-35.00
-40.00
Curve Info
dB(S(Port1,Port1))
LinearFrequency
-45.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
F [GHz]
As expected, the S11 curve is minimum at 2.4GHz which indicates that most of
the power is transferred to the load and no power is reflected back to the source.
62
Report
1- Compare in table format between the three types of transmission line
studied in this experiment, namely, microstrip, slotline and coplanar
waveguide.
2- Plot in neat sketches the following curves
- Zo versus W for microstrip.
- Zo versus S (the slot width) for slotline.
- εeff versus W for CPW.
3- Design a single open circuit shun stub matching section on FR4
microstrip substrate with (h) equals to 1.6mm and (εr) equals to 4.4 to
match the following load at 2 GHz.
CL
The T.A. will give you
the exact values
RL
Your design should include the following:

- A Smith chart showing the design steps.
- A schematic showing the designed circuit with physical
dimensions.
- Simulation of S11 in dB versus frequency.
63
3. Microstrip Discontinuities
3.1 Introduction
Virtually all practical distributed circuits. Whether in waveguide, coaxial
lines or any other propagation structure must inherently contain discontinuities.
A straight uninterrupted length of any transmission structure (strictly speaking,
with perfectly invariant cross-section) would be genuinely continuous (i.e. it
would not contain any discontinuities). In fact such straight lines, taken alone,
are of little engineering use, and in any case junctions are essential. In the
region of bends, abruptly stopped open circuits. With changes and transitions
discontinuous occur in the transmission line.
Although such discontinuities give rise to only very small capacitances
and inductances (often < 0.1pF and < 0.1 nH), the reactances of these become
particularly significant at the high microwave and into millimeter-wave
frequencies. The performance of amplifiers, for example, has been shown to be
considerably affected by the microstrip discontinuities. As with dispersion, we
can very often neglect these discontinuities when the frequencies involved do
not exceed a few gigahertzes. Above approximately 10GHz they are definitely
very significant.
Several forms of discontinuities emerge from circuit requirements:
a) Foreshortened open-circuits
b) Series coupling gaps
c) Short-circuits through to the ground plane.
d) Right-angled comers or "bends" (unmitred and mitred).
e) Step width changes.
f) Transverse slit.
g) T-Junction.
h) Cross-junctions.
Figure 1 shows various types of microstrip discontinuities & their

applications. An example of a microwave transistor amplifier layout is shown in
figure 2 and at least three of the discontinuities can be readily identified. Some
of them are numbered on the diagram, in accordance with the quoted list. Many
other circuits, such as filters, mixers and oscillators, involve several
discontinuities. All technologies, whether hybrid, MIC or MMIC, inherently
involve transmission discontinuities.
64
Figure 1 various types of microstrip discontinuities and their typical applications
65
Figure 2 layout of simple hybrid-MIC microwave amplifier using GaAs MESFET
A discontinuity in a microstrip is caused by an abrupt change in the

geometry of the strip conductor. Therefore, electric and magnetic field
distribution are modified near the discontinuity. The--altered electric field
distribution gives rise to a change in capacitance, and the changed magnetic
field distribution can be expressed in terms of an equivalent inductance. The
analysis of microstrip discontinuities involves the evaluation of these
capacitances and inductances and can either be based on quasi-static
considerations or carried out more rigorously by full-wave analysis.
Quasi-static involves calculations, of static capacitances and low-
frequency inductances. Equivalent circuits for discontinuities may be derived
from these results. Alternatively, a waveguide type dynamic analysis taking
dispersion (and possibly higher order modes) into account may be carried out.
This can be based on planar waveguide model of the microstrip line or one of
the more rigorous full-wave electromagnetic analyses,
The programs that calculate the equivalent circuit elements representing
the discontinuity are based on the quasi-static analysis. The equivalent, circuit
elements may then be transformed to the scattering parameters. The reflection
and transmission characteristics of such discontinuities may be determined from
the derived scattering parameters.
66
3.2 Microstrip discontinuities types
3.2.1 The Right Angled Bend or Corner

In many cases where quite complex circuits are required on a single
substrate it is necessary to feed, between circuits, using lengths of microstrip
that include bends. Another important comprises hairpin lines such as
resonators that embody double bends. These bends usually pass through an
angle of 90°. Most often the line does not change width and such a bend,
together with its equivalent circuit, is shown in the diagrams of figure 3.
The capacitance arises through additional charge accumulation at the
comers particularly around the outer point of the bend where electric field
concentrates. The inductances arise because of current flow interruption. This is
considerable, especially bearing in mind that most of the current flows in the
outer edges of the microstrip.
Figure 3 Right-angled microstrip bend (a) structure and nomenclature (b) equivalent circuit
The program (MICBEND) calculates the parasitic inductances and

capacitance associated with a right angle microstrip bend. It uses closed form
expressions based upon results from quasi-static analyses of the bend. Such
analyses do not account for higher order mode excitation at the discontinuity.
The results are therefore accurate up to about 5 GHz or so. Again the upper
frequency limit depends upon the substrate height (thinner substrates give better
results to higher frequencies) and the dielectric constant (a higher frequency
limit for lower values). While not accurate at higher frequencies, the model can
still provide some information on the effect of the discontinuity and certainly is
better than using no model at all. Model results are accurate to within 5%.
MICBEND can calculate the bend parasitics for a range of line widths (up to
100).
There are some model validity limits. For the dielectric constant 2.5
≤ ≤15 and the line width to substrate height should satisfy 0.1 ≤w/h ≤ 5. The
program flags the user if these limits are exceeded. The user has the option to
67
change any values that exceeds the limits. To avoid division by zero, the
substrate height and line width (s) must be greater than zero. Otherwise, there
should be no numerical problems with the program.
A sample program run is given below:

Calculates equivalent circuit elements for an un-chamfered microstrip bend.
input substrate height (cm) and relative dielectric constant 0.160, 4.00
input smallest and largest line widths (cm) for calculations 0.254,0.381
(MICBEND doesn't explicitly allow for calculations to be performed for one
line width. If results for only one line width are wanted, simply input the line
width twice, once for the smallest and once for the largest width.)
input number of line widths to calculate 5

(The number of line widths, in conjunction with the smallest and largest line
widths, determines the increment in line width used to step through the range of
widths. In this case, the step size between line widths is (0.381-0.254)/5 =
0.0254 cm. Always input a number greater than zero even if only one width is
desired.)
The program displays:

Unchamfered miscrostrip bend equivalent circuit elements
Substrate relative dielectric constant 4.00
Substrate height (cm) 0.16
Width Series ind. Shunt cap. Series ind.
(cm) (nH) (pF) (nH)
0.254 0.066 0.229 0.066
0.279 0.086 0.269 0.086
0.305 0.105 0.313 0.105
0.330 0.123 0.356 0.123
0.356 0.140 0.409 0.140
0.381 0.157 0.462 0.157
(The discontinuity model is symmetrical, so the two inductances are always
equal.)
68
3.2.2 Microstrip Open End
There are essentially three phenomena associated with the open-circuit
a) There will be fringing fields extending beyond the abrupt physical end of
the metallic strip.
b) Surface waves will be launched from the end of the strip.
c) Energy will be radiated from the open end.
Item (a) may be accounted for by assuming some equivalent capacitance to be

connected at the open end. And this feature nearly dominates the end - effect.
Item (b) and (c) require equivalent shunt conductance at the open end of the
line. In most cases, in this work it will not be necessary to quantify these last
two phenomena, but their minimization may be carried out on a practical basis
in circuits involving microstrip.
Figure 4 Microstrip open circuit (a) layout and electric fields (b) lumped capacitance network
The physical appearance of both a foreshortened open circuit and a series

gap which will be studied in the next section are shown in figure 4, where
equivalent lumped capacitance networks are also given. In many aspects of
circuit design it is very useful to pretend that the microstrip line length is longer
than its actual physical length. This is to account for the end effect.
69
Figure 5 Development of the equivalent end-effect length concept (a) physical transmission
line; (b) transmission line with equivalent end fringing capacitance cl and (c) transmission
line with equivalent extra transmission line of length leo
Then we can deal with fully distributed microstrip structure, therefore we

don't need to work separately in terms of lumped capacitance. The concept is
illustrated in Figure 5.
The program (MICENDEF) determines the electrical extension of an
open circuited microstrip line. Full wave analysis results have been curve fit to
closed form expressions. The calculations of MICENDEF are accurate to better
than 3% (compared to the full wave calculations). The full wave calculations
were performed at a frequency of 1 GHz. Although the analysis is full wave
fitted. The results may not be accurate for very wide lines at higher frequencies
because more higher-order modes may be present as compared to the 1 GHz
case. The expressions used here are probably valid up to about 10 GHz. For
thicker substrates, e.g., the height exceeding about 0.02λo, radiation from the
open end becomes significant. This is not accounted for in the model. The
model limits are 0.01 W/h 100 for the line width to substrate height ratio and
50 for the dielectric constant. Inputs are checked by the program.
MICENDEF calculates the line extension for a range of line widths. Up
to 1 00 widths may he entered. Both the substrate height and line width must be
non-zero otherwise division by zero will occur. There should be no other
numerical problems unless the line width to substrate height ratio becomes
extremely large (well beyond any practical value).
70
3.2.3 Microstrip Gap Discontinuity
The physical appearance of the microstrip series gap is also given in
figure 4. This discontinuity is important in some forms of end-coupled filters,
coupling to resonators and other circuits. For convenience here the
nomenclature is repeated in figure 6.
For energy to be coupled across the gap, the open circuit microstrip ends
have to be equally and oppositely charged. Significant capacitance therefore
exists across the gap and is denoted C2. Grounded capacitors C1 represent the
fields fringing directly down to ground from each end of the line at a
symmetrical gap.
The program (MICGAP) calculates the capacitances associated with a gap

(completely across the width of the line) in a microstrip line. The results are
based upon a quasi-static analysis and ignore radiation. The model is useful into
the lower microwave region. MICGAP accepts arrange of gap widths (up to
100) for a fixed line width, substrate height, etc... The model is valid for
dielectric constants 2.5 ≤ ≤15, line width to substrate height ratios 0.5≤W/h≤
2 and gap width to line widths, 0.1≤S/W≤1.0. If an input exceeds these ranges,
the program issues a warning and an option to change the value is given. Model
accuracy is about 7%. A non-zero value for substrate height is required. The
program uses closed form expressions which should pose no numerical
difficulties.
Figure 6: Microstrip Gap and its Equivalent circuit
71
3.2.4 Microstrip Notch
The program (MICNOTCH) finds the inductance associated with a notch
cut into a microstrip line. The notch-is essentially a transverse slit introduced on
the line which does not go completely across the width of the line. It may be
used to compensate for excess capacitance at discontinuities or to fine' tune a
length of microstrip such as stubs. The method used in the analysis does not
account for dispersion or capacitive effects. It is useful for notch depth to line
widths of 0 ≤L/W≤0.9 (in other words, the notch mustn't completely cut across
the line width) and for notch widths less than or equal to the substrate height, a
≤ h. The program checks these inputs and gives the user a chance to change
them if they exceed the model bounds. Very narrow notch widths may have
non-negligible capacitance. This capacitance may be approximated by
calculating the series capacitance for a gap of the same width (using for
example MICGAP) then doing a straight weighting, e.g. the notch capacitance
is (L/W) Cs, with Cs being the gap series capacitance. For very large notch
widths, the notch begins to look like a microstrip line of width (W-b), hence the
limitation on notch width. Results appear to be in good agreement with
experimental measurements. The frequency range of the model is similar to the
other quasi-static based models.
MICNOTCH does a range of notch depths up to 100. A non-zero
substrate height is required. No numerical problems should occur as the
equations used are quite simple.
Figure 7: Microstrip Notch and its Equivalent Circuit

A simple formula can be used to determine the equivalent inductance
Where
72
The design procedure is as follows
1- Calculate which is the characteristic impedance of the air filled
microstrip line of width W.
2- Calculate which is the characteristic impedance of the air filled
microstrip line of width (W- a).
3- Evaluate with the results in step 1 & 2 and hence calculate
3.2.5 Microstrip Step Discontinuity

It is necessary for microstrip to experience width change in many circuits
e.g. the quarter wave transformer. Several such changes are also demanded in
transistor amplifier such as that in figure 1. Couplers, fitters, mixers and
oscillators provide further examples.
Like the microstrip bend, the shunt capacitance due to corners is the
dominant equivalent circuit parameter & edge current disturbances are again
what give rise to equivalent inductances
The program (MICSTEP) calculates the parasitic inductances and
capacitance found when two different width microstrip lines are connected.
Quasi-static techniques were used to derive the formulas in the program. As
with the other models, the results are valid into the lower microwave region up
to about 5 to 10 GHz. For best results, the dielectric constant should be ≤10,
and the wide to narrow line width ratio, 1.5≤W1/W2≤35. The latter is a fairly
severe restriction. Again it is probably belter to use the parasitic values
calculated by the program than none at all even if the line width ratio is outside
the above bounds. The program flags any inputs that extend beyond the validity
limits. The error in calculated capacitance is less than 10% while that for the
inductance is less than 5%. The substrate height, dielectric constant, and the
narrower line width must be entered as non-zero values. No other mathematical
difficulties should be encountered. MICSTEP does the calculations for one step.
Figure 8: Microstrip Step and its Equivalent Circuit.
73
3.2.6 Microstrip T Junctions
The T junction is perhaps the most important discontinuities in a
microstrip circuits. It is found in most circuits such as impedance networks, stub
filters and branch line couplers. A microstrip T-junction and its equivalent
circuit are shown in figure 9.
Figure 9 (a) A microstrip T-junction and (b) its equivalent circuit

For a non symmetrical T-junction, an equivalent circuit like that shown in figure
10 has been proposed.
Figure 10: Equivalent Circuit for modeling a non-symmetric T-junction in microstip lines
The program (MICTEE) finds the junction reactance, equivalent circuit

transformers, and reference plane extensions for a microstrip T-junction. The
quasi-static analysis is useful into the lower ranges of the microwave region. No
accuracy figures are known to the author. MICTEE handles both symmetric and
asymmetric junctions. For a symmetric junction, the main line width is the same
on both sides. MICTEE calculates the junction parasitics as a function of
frequency. To avoid numerical errors, the impedance of the left-side line
entering the junction must be non-zero as must be the dielectric constant,
substrate height, and frequency. No validity limits on the inputs have been
given.
74
MICTEE can accept two types of inputs. In one, the widths of each line
entering the junction are required. In the other, the characteristic impedance and
effective dielectric constant of the lines is needed. (Examples of both are now
given. The first is for the case where the impedances and dielectric constants are
known).
75
3.3 Simulating Microstrip Discontinuity Using Ansoft
Designer
In this part, we will use Ansoft Designer to simulate microstrip
discontinuities. The simulation results will be compared to the equivalent circuit
model calculated from the previous part.
The procedure:
technology you want to use. For this project, choose MS – FR4 (εr=4.4)
0.060 inch, 0.5 oz copper.
3. Adding the circuit components: in the step, we need to add the
components of the circuit which are microstrip gap and two microwave
ports as follow:
- Microstrip gap: From the Project Manager Window, choose
“Components” tab. From the tree, choose Nexxim Circuit
Elements> Distributed> Microstrip> Gaps> MS_Gap: MS
Gap, Symmetric then place it in the Schematic Editor.
- Microwave Port: Choose Draw> Interface Port and place the port
two times in the Schematic Editor. Double click on the port and
choose “Microwave Port” from the “Symbol” box.
Finally, connect the components as shown in the following figure.
W = 1 mm
G= 0.4 mm
Port 1 Port 2
76
4. Editing the circuit components: Put the line width of the gap, W=1mm
and put the gap spacing, G=0.4mm.
5. Adding the simulation setup: Now, we want to define the parameters of
the solution setup like the start, stop frequencies and the frequency step.
In the “Project” tab in the “Project Manager” window, right click on
“Analysis” and choose Add Nexxim Solution Setup> Linear Network
Analysis. A window titled “Linear Network analysis, Frequency
Domain” will appear. In the “Sweep Variables” tab choose “New”.
Then, in the new window titled “Add/Edit Sweep”, choose “Linear
step” then enter 0.1GHz, 5 GHz and 0.01GHz in the start, stop and step
boxes respectively then click “Ok”.
6. Run the simulation: choose Circuit> Analyze to start the simulation
engine.
7. Plotting the results: To view the simulation results, right click on
“Results” in the “Project Manager” window. Then, choose Create
Standard Report> Rectangular Report. A new window appears that
asks you about the type of results you want to plot. From the “Category”
tab, choose “S parameter” then choose “S(Port1,Port1)” from the
“Quantity” tab and choose “dB” from the “Function” tab then click
“New Report”. Then choose “S(Port2,Port1)” from the “Quantity” tab
and choose “dB” from the “Function” tab then click “New Report”.
8. The equivalent circuit model: repeat steps from 2 to 7 on the equivalent
circuit model obtained by MICGAP and shown in the following figure to
compare its results with the results obtained from the previous step.
C1 = 0.03 pF
C3 = 0.001 pF
C2 = 0.001 pF
Port 1 Port 2
Different Microstrip discontinuities: Repeat steps from 2 to 8 for different types

of Microstrip discontinuities.
77
Experiment M - 5
MICROWAVE CAVITIES
Objective:
To be familiar with the measurements, typically made on a resonator

cavity of the transmission type.
Introduction:
An important component of a microwave system may be a

microwave resonator. Such resonators like their counterparts in RF circuits
are useful as tank circuits in oscillators (to control the frequency of
oscillation), as frequency meters, elements in band pass or band stop
filters…etc.
Many resonators consist simply of a length of waveguide shorted at
both ends, taking the appearance of a hollow cavity, as shown in figure 1.
Coupling holes or loops are usually used to couple the energy in and out
the resonators. The name microwave cavity is also used to denote a
resonant circuit at microwave frequencies.
The fields inside a microwave cavity are given by Maxwell’s
equation subjected to the boundary conditions. Unlike low frequency
resonant circuits that have one resonance frequency, a microwave cavity is
resonant at several discrete frequencies, where a solution of Maxwell’s
equations subjected to all boundary conditions can be found.
l
Coupling hole
Coupling hole
b a
Figure 1: Transmission cavity
78
The Quality factors:
1. Unloaded Quality factor Qo:
It characterizes the quality of the resonant cavity only. It’s defined

by:
Ws
Qo  2f r
Po
where Ws is the average energy stored in the cavity, fr is the resonant
frequency, and Po is the average power dissipated in the cavity.
The losses in a completely closed cavity is due to dielectric filling
the cavity (Pd) and the wall losses (Pw)
Po  Pd  Pw
The dielectric losses are usually neglected w.r.t. losses to walls and
Qo is given by:
  H 2dv
Qo  2f r
 H
2
Rs ds
walls
where H is the magnetic field, Rs is the surface resistance, “dv” is the

element volume, and “ds” is the element of surface enclosing the volume.
Qo can be easily found to be in the following form for the TEmop modes:
2abl
Qo 
 p 2 ab m 2 bl al  p 2 m 2 
R s   2  2   2  2 
3
 l a 2  l a 
where    /  : the medium impedance of the dielectric filling the
cavity
λ: resonant wavelength in the wave-guide of the cavity
a, b, l : dimension of the cavity as shown in figure 1
m, n, and p : number of half sinusoidal cycles of variations of fields
along x, y, and z dimensions of the cavity, respectively.
79
2. External Quality factor Qe:
The cavity must be coupled to the measuring system which behaves

as a load where certain power is dissipated. The external quality factor is
defined as:
Ws
Qe  2f r
Pe
where Pe represents the power dissipated in the load and generator circuits
seen by the cavity.
3. Loaded Quality factor Ql:
These losses are due to radiation due to coupling with external

circuits, which lower the quality factor of the cavity.
The loaded quality factor is given by:
Ws
Ql  2f r
Pl
where Pl is the total power dissipated
4. Relation between Qo, Ql and Qe:
1 1 1
 
Ql Qo Qe
Only Ql can be measured, Qo can then be calculated by measuring the
coupling coefficient β, which characterizes the coupling between the cavity
and the measuring circuit.
Coupling coefficient β:
We define the coupling coefficient as
Q Power dissipated in the external circuit of the cavity

 o
Qc Power dissipated in the cavity
As the cavity is coupled to the generator and measuring system by

two holes, we must define two coefficients β1, and β2 for the input and the
output. We can easily show that:
80
Qo  Ql 1  1   2 
If the two holes are identical so:
1   2  
and
Qo  Ql (1  2  )
Insertion loss coefficient:
For a transmission cavity, we define the insertion loss coefficient as:
T= Power measured at the output

Power measured at the input
If the coupling coefficients of the two holes are identical we obtain:
2
T
1  2
And hence:
Ql
Q0 
1 T
Resonant frequencies:
The resonant frequencies of a rectangular resonator is given by:
2 2 2
c m n p
fr       
2  a  b  l 
where c is the velocity of light in the medium.
81
Procedure:
Master DC meter
Oscillator
Transition Isolator Rotary Vane Cavity under Isolator Crystal Movable

Attenuator test Detector short
Figure 2 Measurements setup
1. Set the equipment as shown in figure 2.

2. Energize the oscillator for 15 minutes at least before starting the
experiment. Set the “start” frequency at 8.6 GHz, the “ stop” one at
12.4 GHz, and the “sweep” at the “manual” mode.
3. Set the rotary vane attenuator at a suitable value (Not less than 3
dB).
4. Set the sensitivity of the DC meter at maximum.
5. Sweep the oscillator manually to obtain the resonant frequencies of
the cavity under test
6. Adjust the oscillator at the first lowest resonant frequency of the
cavity.
7. Maximize the o/p by tuning the detector (or thermistor mount).
8. Sweep the oscillator very delicately to locate the resonance
accurately.
9. Take the meter reading at resonance as a reference and change the
frequency around resonance to determine the half power
frequencies.
10.Remove the cavity under test after adjusting the frequency of the
generator to the resonant frequency of the cavity, and measure the
i/p power to the cavity.
11.Calculate the insertion loss T, the coupling coefficient β, Ql, and Qo
from the obtained data.
12.Find theoretically fr and Qo.

13.Find the proper nomenclature for each of the mode.
14. Repeat steps 6-13 for each mode of the cavity under test.
82
fr (GHz) fr (GHz) Qo Qo
Mode T β Ql
experimentally theoretically experimentally theoretically
Test your retention :

1. Prove all the given formulas.
2. Explain the reasons for deviation of measured resonant frequency
and theoretical resonant frequency.
3. Explain why the Qo obtained from measurement is lower than the
calculated value.
4. The thickness of the cavity walls containing the coupling hole is
preferred to be large or small or has no effect? Why?
5. When a master oscillator is not available and poor source is to be
used, a modification to the setup is to be made as follows:
DC meter
1
Signal Matched DC meter

generator Detector 1 2
Isolator Frequency Variable Rotary van Cavity under Matched

meter Attenuator 1 attenuator 2 test Detector 2
Figure 3 Measurements setup
Explain the function of this setup.
References:
1. R.E. Collin, “ Foundations for Microwave Engineering”, McGraw-
Hill.
2. P.Gandhi, “Microwave Engineering and Applications”, Pergamon
Press, 1981.
3. T.S. Laverghetta, “ Microwave Measurements and techniques”,
second edition, Artech House, 1978.
4. A.L. Lance, “ Introduction to Microwave Theory and
Measurements”, McGraw-Hill, 1964.
83

4th Waves Lab Experiments First Semester 2021

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AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY

To become familiar with the operation of the reflex klystron and to

The klystron is a microwave tube that makes use of velocity

A schematic diagram of a reflex klystron is given in figure 1.

Figure 1 :Schematic Diagram of a Klystron

Figure 2 shows the relationship between output power, oscillation

The klystron can be modulated by applying a signal to the reflector.

Figure 3 : Sine wave modulation of the klystron

If the klystron output power is to be indicated by a detector followed

The same result may be obtained if the modulation voltage is applied

Figure 5 : The effect of incorrect modulation voltage

5.1.1 Setup the equipment as shown in figure (6).

Klystron Isolator Frequency Attenuator Detector

Figure 6 : Set up for square wave operation of the klystron.

5.1.2 Set the variable attenuator at about 20dB.

5.1.3 Turn on the klystron power supply as follows:

5.1.4 Connect the internal modulation of the power supply.

5.1.7 Readjust the attenuator to get a suitable output power.

5.2.1 Replace the CRO by a dc micro-ammeter and disconnect the

5.2.2 Determine the values of Vr at the zones maxima.

where Vo is the resonator voltage, Vr is the repeller voltage, K is a constant

5.3 Zone Studies on CRO

5.3.1 Use an external sweep generator to modulate the repeller voltage Vr

Figure 7: Set up for oscilloscope studies of the klystron.

5.3.3 Determine the relative

5.3.4 Calibrate the x- axis of

Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11

5.5. Q-measurement of the frequency meter

5.5.2 Expand the x- and y- sensitivities of the obtained pattern.

5.5.3 Determine the frequency sensitivity of the horizontal scale of the

5.5.4 Calculate the frequency meter cavity bandwidth f by multiplying the

5.6.5 Determine the frequency pulling of the klystron oscillations due to

1. Discuss the modulation techniques in the reflex klystron showing the

[1] R. E. Collin “Foundation for Microwave Engineering” McGraw Hill.

2.1. Transit-time mode

A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to a high field region, which

Figure 1: Voltage-Current Characteristics of a Gunn Diode

2.2. Cavity-controlled oscillator

In a Gunn oscillator the diode is placed in a resonant cavity

2.3. Gunn Oscillator

In that oscillator as shown in figure (2), the cavity consists of a

2.4. Square wave modulation

Although the Gunn-oscillator in this experiment is amplitude-

 Matching the probe in the power measurement is essential for correct

5.1.1 Set up the equipment as shown in figure 3.

Gunn Rotary Vane Frequency Thermistor

Figure 3: Experiment set-Up

5.1.3 Turn on the power supply with its main switch.

5.2. The voltage vs. Current Characteristic

5.3. Output Power and Frequency as a Function of Voltage

5.3.2 Set the Gunn voltage on the power supply to 9 volts.

5.3.3 Decrease the attenuation to get a minimum deflection on the power

5.3.4 Tune the thermistor mount in the following way:

5.3.6 Tune the frequency meter to obtain minimum deflection on the

5.3.7 De-tune the frequency meter at least 50 MHz.

Note: A measure of frequency sensitivity against variation in voltage

5.4.1 Set up the equipment as shown in figure 4.

Gunn Rotary Vane

Figure 4: Measurement Set-Up for Gunn Oscillator

5.4.3 Set the rotary vane attenuator to zero dB.

5.4.4 Set the Gunn voltage to 8 V.

5.4.5 Adjust the vertical sensitivity and position of the oscilloscope to a