Allen Chemistry

CONTENTS
ADVANCE CHEMISTRY
T ARGET - NSO\NSTSE\OTHERS
Chapter Page
No.
Topic No.
1. Matter Around us 1
2. Classification of Materials 21
3. Atoms and Molecules 47
4. Atomic Structure 67
Chemistry
CHAPTER
1 Matter around us
1.1 Introduction
Chemistry is about what matter is like and how it behaves, and our explanations of its behavior.
What is matter? This word is used to cover all the substance and materials from which the physical universe
is composed of.
In chemistry we investigate,
(i) What changes take place in these materials, how do these changes occur and what can be done to carry
out these changes?
(ii) Why do these materials exist?
If we look around us then there are number of things in which, matter is displayed, with following particulars,
prominently.
1. The matter has mass
If we take two pieces of bricks of different size, we will find that one is lighter while the other is heavy. The
small sized brick is lighter because it contains less matter, while big sized brick is heavier because it contains
more matter. Hence, the amount of matter present in anything is called its mass.
The things may be invisible even then they will have some mass e.g., the air. Although air is invisible even
then it has some mass.
2. The matter occupies space
You must have experienced this phenomenon during your everyday life. If one stool is placed in the corner
of your drawing room, you know another stool cannot be placed in the same corner. If the space on your
bookshelf is completely filled with the books, you cannot keep more books on it. The two trucks coming from
the opposite directions in a narrow lane cannot cross each other as there is space only for one. If they will
try to cross each other they will collide. Therefore, it is clear that matter occupies space.
3. The matter has inertia
If anything is lying on any place, it will remain there until and unless some external force disturbs its position.
Similarly if anything is in motion, it will remain in motion till some external force stops it. This is known as
property of inertia. The matter itself cannot change its position. Suppose if a football is placed in the centre
of a playground, it will remain there till it is pushed by anybody. Similarly if the football is pushed by a player
it will move on till it is stopped by other players or by the friction of the play-ground.
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4. The matter is effected by the gravity

If anything is thrown upward with a certain force it will automatically come to the ground because of force
of attraction exerted by the earth. This attraction is called gravity.
When you throw a ball upward with a certain force, it will automatically come down on the earth because
of earth's gravity.
The fruits always fall downwards from the trees because of this gravity. Similarly water always flows from
higher level to lower level.
5. The matter cannot be destroyed
In all physical and chemical changes, total mass of the matter before and after the change remains the same.
This can be proved by a simple experiment performed by Lavoisier.
Lavoisier's experiment - Lavoisier took tin metal in an airtight flask. The flask (with tin) was weighed. It was
then heated. Tin metal reacted with the oxygen present in the air of the flask and was converted into tin
oxide. The flask was cooled and again weighed. It was found that the weight practically remains unchanged.
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Things that exist around us but do not have any mass or occupy space are not considered as matter. For example,
we do not consider heat or light or sound or electricity or even our shadow as matter for the simple reason that
they do not have mass or occupy space. So how would you know what is matter and what is not matter? Find
out if it has weight. If it does not have weight then it is not matter.
1.2 Composition of matter

Matter is categorized into two broad classes :
(i) Living : Matter which is obtained from living organisms.
(ii) Non-living : Matter which is obtained from non-living things.
Fig. 1 Living hand with non-living band.

Each of these is further classified into:
(a) Element , substance that cannot be made simpler by chemical means.
(b) Compound , substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements.
(c) Mixture , substance formed by mixing of two or more elements or compounds.
All matter is composed of extremely tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. The atom is the smallest
particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. It may or may not exist in a free state.
There are more than 118 kinds of elements known to man. Most of these elements are incapable of existing independently.
The atom or a group of atoms that is capable of independent existence is called a molecule.
For example, if a grain of sugar is divided into two and then further divided and this process is repeated
many times, then the tiniest particle which has the properties of sugar is known to be the molecule of sugar.
The molecules of a particular substance are all alike.
In order to understand it just pursue the activity described below.
ACTIVITY.1.1
Take sugar in different quantity in four different dishes (5gm, 2gm, 1gm and 0.5 gm) and four different
beakers (A, B, C, D) each having 10 ml of water. Now dissolve the sugar in these beakers. Now taste
each beaker, you will find that taste in each beaker will be sweet.
Inference is that nature of sugar is giving a sweet taste to water and the quantity does not have any
impact on it though sweetness will be different.
Beaker A containing Beaker B containing Beaker C containing Beaker D containing

5 gm sugar 2 gm sugar 1 gm sugar 0.5 gm sugar
Fig. 2
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Chemistry
1.3 Materials
The word 'material' is used to describe any kind of matter. It is further classified into two types.
(a) Homogeneous material
A homogeneous material (from the Greek word 'homo' means same) has the same composition and properties
throughout.
Examples of homogeneous matter in elements: Silver, gold, wood, aluminium etc.
Examples of homogeneous matter in compounds: Sugar, alcohol, water, glycerine.
(b) Heterogeneous material
A heterogeneous material (the word 'hetero' means different) has different properties, in different parts and is
not uniform.
Example of heterogeneous matter: soil, rocks, sand etc.
Matter may exist in any of the three physical forms.
(i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas
Solid
Particles only vibrate about fixed positions.
Regular structure.
(a)
(a)
Liquid
Particles have some freedom and can move
around each other. Collide often.
(b) (b)
(c)
Fig. 3 The three states of matter (a) solid, (b) liquid, (c) gas
These three forms are interconvertible which means they can be converted from one state of matter into another
and again back to the original state.
For the interconversion to take place there has to be certain change of conditions. What are these changes of conditions
? Let us discuss.
(i) Increase or decrease in temperature.
(ii) Increase or decrease in pressure.
For example
a) Ice, which is water in solid state, can be changed into a liquid state (water) by heating it. Above 0°C the ice
gradually changes into water. On further heating the water, when the temperature reaches up to 100°C the water
changes into a gaseous state called vapor or steam.
b) When a candle, formed of wax (solid form), is lit up, it starts melting. The molten or liquid wax rises up the
wick and is converted into (wax) vapor. It is this vapor which, when combined with the oxygen present in the
air, burns.
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(c) Similarly , gas can be changed into liquid and then into solid. This is done by cooling and/or by increasing the
pressure of gas. Gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and helium can be converted in liquid state.
You may have heard of liquid oxygen or liquid hydrogen or solid carbon dioxide.
It is important to remember that it is not essential that all substances can be changed from one
state to another. For e.g. Sugar in its solid state cannot be changed into liquid sugar because after heating, the
sugar changes into a decomposed substance. This substance is not sugar.
Kinetic molecular theory of matter
It explains why solids, liquids & gases have different properties.
The word 'Kinetic' comes from the Greek word "Kinos' meaning to move.
All substances whether solids, liquids or gases, are made up of molecules, atoms or ions which are constantly moving.
The physical behaviour of these substances is determined by their movement or motion.
This can be illustrated with the help of following evidence.
Movement of pollen grains in water
Pollen grains move rapidly throughout the water in a very irregular way (zig-zag way).
Pollen Grains
Fig. 4 Brownian motion.

The pollen grains move on the surface of water because they are constantly being hit by fast moving particles of
water. This type of zig-zag movement of the small particles suspended in a liquid (or gas) is called Brownian motion .
Brownian motion increases the temperature because of increase in kinetic energy of particles of matter.
The existence of Brownian motion given two conclusions.
(i) Matter is made up of tiny particles. (ii) Particles of matter are constantly moving.
1.1
CONCEPTUAL CHALLENGE 1.1
Why liquids diffuse slowly as compared to gases?
Explanation
In liquids, the molecules are less free than in a gas, i.e., the intermolecular forces (vander Waals forces) in a liquid
are greater than in a gas.
The theory that visualizes that any substance, whether solid, liquid or gas, is made up of atoms, molecules or ions
that are in constant motion is known as the kinetic molecular theory of matter .
This motion may be,
(i) Translatory: The motion of particles in a particular direction.
(ii) Rotational: Motion around the axis.
(iii) Vibratory: To and fro motion of particles about the mean position.
Solids change into liquids, and liquids into gases, when the particles gain more kinetic energy, like when being heated
and are able to move apart from one another. When the molecules vibrate more quickly upon heating, some of it
escapes from the matter.
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Chemistry
The main postulates of kinetic theory of matter are following:
(i) Matter consists of molecules. These are the smallest particles, which are capable of free existence and
retain all the chemical properties of the parent substance.
(ii) The molecules are always in a state of random continuous motion.
(iii) The molecules exert forces on one another. These forces depend upon intermolecular distance
(iv) All collision between the particles of matter are perfectly elastic.
Molecules are always in a state of motion. In solids, they vibrate about their average positions. In liquids particles
have enough free space to move about but they still attract each others. In gases particles move about randomly.
Due to their motion, molecules possess kinetic energy.
Collision of particles
The particles, especially in the gaseous or liquid state, are moving in a Helter-Skelter direction. They collide with
one another but these collisions are elastic. The total energy of the colliding particles remain the same. The
movement is caused by the force of attraction between the molecules of a given substance. This force is known
as intermolecular force. The magnitude of the force depends upon the state of the substance as well as upon
the magnitude of the intermolecular spaces.
1.1
What would have happened to the gas if the molecular collision were not elastic?
Explanation
On every collision, there would have been loss of energy. As a result, the molecules would have slowed down
and ultimately settle down in the vessel. Moreover, the pressure would have gradually reduced to zero.
Let us perform an experiment which will show whether the

particles are static or mobile. Take one glass test tube, place
a small piece of iodine in it and cork tightly. You will find the
violet vapors of iodine everywhere in the test tube. Now bring
a starch iodide paper near the mouth of the test tube. The starch
iodide paper becomes blue. The indicates the presence of iodine
at the mouth of the test tube. The iodine particles are mobile
and therefore, they move and spread in whole of the test tube.
1.1
Salt gets dissolved in water easily even it is not externally stirred. Why?
Explanation
This can be explained on the basis of kinetic molecular theory of matter. Salt molecules and water molecules
having there own K.E. when comes in contact starts mixing up on its own. It means they move that is why
we get the salty taste of water from the bottom or the top of the container.
Same reason can be given to the question that "State how dust particles get mixed up in air"
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1.4 States of matter on the basis of kinetic theory

The three states of matter exist and differ from one another on account of,
(i) The type of packing of their constituent particles.
(ii) Energy associated with these particles.
(iii) Inter molecular forces between them.
Characteristics of solids, liquids and gases
Characteristics Solids Liquids Gases
1 State of packing Particles are closely Particles, are loosely Packed. Particles are wide apart. Their
packed. Their Positions Their positions are not fixed. positions are not fixed.
are also fixed.
2 Energy Particles can vibrate only Particles can move about Particles move about freely
associated to and fro about their more freely and have and have maximum energy
mean position. Therefore, considerable energy due to due to their motion.
have small energy due to their motion.
their motion.
3 Intermolecular Particles are held together Forces are strong enough to Particles are held together by
forces by strong intermolecular keep them within the very weak intermolecular
forces. Therefore, have boundaries of the liquid. The forces. Gases have neither a
definite shape and liquids do not have a definite definite shape nor a definite
volume. shape but still have a definite volume.
volume.
4 Compressibility Solids cannot be Liquids cannot be compressed Gases can be compressed and
compressed and highly and not rigid. are not rigid at all.
rigid.
5 Density Solid has high density. A liquid has comparatively Very less density.
high density than gases and
less dense than solid.
6 Fluidity Does not flow. Liquid can flow from high level Gases can flow in any
to low level direction
Kinetic model of a solid

In a solid, for e.g., in a block of wood
(a) The molecules are closely packed. In other words the intermolecular space, which exists between the
molecules, is negligible.
(b) The molecules have fixed position. That is, there is no movement.
(c) The molecules are arranged in a definite manner.
(d) There is a strong force of attraction (or intermolecular force) between them.
Types of solids
Solids are classified into two groups based on the arrangement of constituent particles.
(a) Crystalline solids (b) Amorphous solids
Crystalline solid is the one in which the constituent particles are arranged in a regular manner throughout
the entire three dimensional network. A crystalline solid consists of a large number of repeating units termed
as unit cells. A crystal is defined as a solid figure having planar surfaces, sharp edges and a definite geometrical
shape.
Amorphous solids are those solids in which the constituent particles are arranged in haphazard manner
and not in a regular fashion. These resemble liquids as they flow very slow at room temperature and thus
termed as super cooled liquids.
The properties showing the difference between the crystalline and amorphous solids are listed in table.
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Chemistry
Table: Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids.
Properties Crysta lline solids Amorphous solids
1 Crystal These have a definite crystal These do not have a definite
geometry shap e due to orderly geometrical shape due to
arrangement of atoms, haphazard order of constituent
molecules or ions in three particles.
dimensional network.
2 M.P. These show sharp m .p. These do not have sharp m.p.
3 Physical These are hard and rigid solids. These are comp aratively soft
state and not very rigid.
4 Symmetry Crystalline solids have Amorphous solids do not have
(a) plane of symmetry any symmetry.
(b) centre of symmetry
(c) axis of symmetry.
5 Crystal Crystalline solids have a definite These do not have any crystal
system crystal system e.g., cubic, system i.e. these do not have a
tetragonal, hexagonal, etc. regular rep eating units.
6 Anisotropic Crystalline solids show physical Their physical properties are
or Isotropic properties different in different sam e in all directions. Thus
nature directions of the crystal e.g., these are termed as isotropic.
refractive index and electrical
conductivity. So these are
termed as anisotrop ic.
7 Examp les Crystals of NaCl, CsBr, CaF 2 and Rubber, p lastic, glass, etc.
ZnS.
Types of crystals
The molecules, atoms or ions are the constituent particles of crystals. Shape and appearance of the crystal depend
upon the arrangement of these constituent particles. There are three types of crystals.
(i) Covalent crystals: The structural units for this type of crystals are atoms. Forces of attraction are
comparatively weaker in these crystals. Organic compounds form such type of crystals. However, some
giant molecules are also known, e.g., diamond and graphite.
(ii) Ionic crystals: These crystals are formed by ions. Structural unit of these crystals is ion. There exists a
strong force of attraction between the particles (i.e., ions). Crystals of sodium chloride, copper sulphate,
potassium chloride etc. belong to this class.
The ionic solids are usually quite hard, having high melting point. In solid state these are non-conducting
but in fused or molten state these conduct electricity.
(iii) Metallic crystals: These crystals are formed by the atoms of metals.
(iv) Molecular crystals: The structural units for this type of crystal are molecule which do not carry any charge.
There exists a weak force of attraction between these particles.
1.1
Classify the following substances into ionic, covalent, molecular or metallic.
MgO, SO 2 , I2 , H 2 O (ice), SiO 2 (quartz), brass.
Solution
MgO = Ionic, SO 2 = Polar molecular, I 2 = non-polar, H 2O = Hydrogen bonded molecular,
SiO 2 = Covalent network, brass = metallic.
Kinetic model of a liquid
In a liquid, for e.g., water or milk:
(a) The molecules lie far apart from each other.
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(b) The intermolecular space is greater than that in a solid.
(c) The intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules is not strong enough to keep them binded
to one position and, therefore, the molecules can move about more freely.
(d) Molecular motion is irregular and random.
Some important properties of liquids
(1) Surface tension : It is an important property of liquids, which is due to inter molecular forces of liquid
particles. Liquid surface feel stretched due to surface tension.
The molecules in liquids are held closely and hence attract each other. A molecule in the bulk of the
liquid is attracted equally on all sides so that the net attractive pull on the molecule is zero. However,
a molecule which lies at the surface (known as surface molecule) is subjected only to the attractive forces
of the molecules below it. This is because there are no molecules above it. Therefore, surface molecules
experience a resultant downward attractive force within the liquid. This creates an imbalance of forces
at the surface. In other words, the liquid surface is under tension due to unbalanced forces. This effect
is called surface tension.
Effect of temperature
Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. The decrease of surface tension with increase of
temperature is because of the fact that the kinetic energy (or speed) of the molecules increases. As a
result, the intermolecular forces decrease and therefore, surface tension also decreases. For example,
the clothes are washed more efficiently in hot water than in cold water due to decreased surface tension
in hot water.
Surface tension and nature of liquid
Since, surface tension of a liquid is due to intermolecular attractive forces, therefore, the magnitude of
surface tension is a measure of intermolecular attractive forces. When the attractive forces between the
molecules are large, the surface tension is large.
Importance of surface tension
(i) Capillary action : When one end of a capillary tube is put into a liquid that wets glass, the liquid
rises into the capillary tube to a certain height and then stops. The rise of a liquid in capillary is called
capillary action. The rise of liquid in a capillary is due to the inward pull of surface tension acting
on the surface which pushes the liquid into the capillary tube. This phenomenon is very important.
For example, water below the surface of the earth rises to the plants through the roots, oil rises into
the wick of an oil lamp, ink rises in a blotting paper, are examples of capillary action.
(ii) Spherical shape of drops : The liquid drops have nearly spherical shapes. We have learned that
surface tension tries to decrease the surface area of a liquid to the minimum. Since the sphere has
minimum surface area for the given volume of liquid.
(2) Viscosity: When a liquid flows through a tube, the layer of liquid in contact with the wall of the tube
is stationary where as liquid is the centre has the highest velocity; intermediate layer move with a gradation
of velocities. The flowing liquid may, therefore, be regarded as composed of a number of concentric tubes
sliding past one another like the tubes of a telescope. Each layer exerts a drag on the next and the work
must be done to maintain the flow. Similarly in a liquid flowing over a glass plate, the layer in contact
with the plate remains stationary, the velocity of different layers increases continuously with the distance
from the fixed surface, being the highest in the free surface of the liquid, On account of relative motion
each layer experiences a frictional force and behaves as it is being dragged in backward direction. This
internal friction or resistance which resists the relative motion of its own, i.e. the flow of the liquid, is
known as viscosity.
Glycerine does not flow as easily as water or alcohol. Thus, glycerine is said to have more viscosity than
water or alcohol.
The reason of this internal resistance (viscosity) is molecular force working between the molecules of the
liquid. It depends on cohesive force between the molecules.
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Chemistry
Viscosity and nature of liquid
The viscosity is also related to the intermolecular forces in the liquid. If the intermolecular forces are large,
the viscosity will be high. For example, water has higher viscosity than methyl alcohol because intermolecular
forces in water are more than in methyl alcohol.
Effect of temperature
Viscosity of a liquid decreases with rise in temperature. With the increase in temperature, the average kinetic
energy increases and the intermolecular forces can be easily overcome. Therefore, the liquid starts moving
faster.
Importance of viscosity
Study of viscosity helps in many ways,
(i) The shape of ships, aeroplanes, rockets etc. is designed in such a manner, so that they may have least
effect on their velocity due to the friction of water, air, etc.
(ii) In order to decrease the friction in the various types of machines, suitable lubricants are selected on
the basis of viscosity.
(iii) Viscosity is very helpful in determining the pressure required for sending liquids like petrol, water, etc.
through pipe lines.
Kinetic model of a gas
In a gas, for e.g., nitrogen or oxygen,
(a) The molecules lie much farther apart than they do in a solid or a liquid.
(b) There is negligible force of attraction between the molecules so they are free to move within the space available
to them.
(c) The molecules in a gas move much faster than in liquids and therefore possess much more kinetic energy.
(d) During this movement the molecules constantly collide with each other or with the wall of the vessel they are contained
in. With every collision the direction and speed of molecules change.
(e) Because of constant collision and continuous bombardment by the molecules on the walls of the vessels, they exerts
pressure.
Exertion of pressure
Solid exert pressure only in downward direction. Liquids exert pressure downward as well as to the sides. But gases
exert pressure in all directions (a good example is a balloon). This pressure is due to bombardment or the particles
against the walls of the container.
Solid Liquid Gas

Fig. 6 Exertion of pressure.
Homogeneous nature
Gases have similar composition in all parts and are therefore homogeneous in nature.
Liquefaction
Gases can be liquefied by cooling and by applying pressure.
Diffusion
When a bottle of ammonia is opened in one corner of the laboratory, its pungent smell can be experienced
all over the laboratory.
Similarly, when a bottle of perfume is opened in the drawing room its smell spreads and can be detected all
over the room, In fact all gases possess this property of intermixing with one another without any mechanical
aid to form a homogeneous mixture called diffusion.
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Uses of gaseous diffusion
(i) Separation of gases : Gases can be separated from the mixture of gases by the use of process of
diffusion. When a mixture of gases is diffused, the lighter gases will diffuse quickly than the heavier gases.
In this way by repeating the process of diffusion, gases can be separated from the mixture.
(ii) Relative densities and molecular weights of the gases : Graham's Law of diffusion can be used
for the determination of relative densities and molecular weights of the gases.
1.5 Interconversion of the states of matter

If the temperature of a substance is changed, its physical state also changes. When a substance changes its
state it can be reverted to the original state by altering its temperature or, in case of a gas, the process
can be managed by changing its pressure.
1. Melting
When the substance in solid state is subjected to heating, the molecules absorb heat energy which increases
the kinetic energy of molecules. This result in increase of kinetic energy of the molecules which in turn leads
to increase in temperature, further supply of heat energy does not raise the temperature of molecules. Instead,
the heat energy is used up in decreasing the intermolecular forces of attraction which results in increase in
intermolecular spaces. The molecular arrangement of the solid changes to that of liquid. The temperature
at which a solid gets converted to liquid state at the atmospheric pressure is called melting point of the solid.
110
100
temperature/ °C
liquid and all

gas (liquid gas
water and
water
vapour)
all
liquid
(liquid
0 all water)
-15 Solid solid and liquid
(ice and liquid
(ice) water)
time/minutes
Fig. 7 Graph of temperature against time for the change from ice at –15°C to water and
further to steam. Ice is solid form of water and it melt at 0°C and at 100°, it changes to vapours.
Melting point
rubber tube
band
Melting (Fusion)
Freezing oil solid
Solid Liquid
Fig. 8 Interconversion of solid and liquid state. heat

Fig. 9 Apparatus shown here to find the
melting point of a substance such
as the solid in the melting point tube.
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Chemistry
ACTIVITY.1.4
Take two pieces of ice cubes and they are pressed together with application of pressure by hand. Now
see on applying pressure its melting point decreases and when this pressure is released it solidifies
to single piece. This principle is called regelation.
Different solids have different melting points.

E.g. Ice : Melting point is 0°C
Wax : Melting point is 63°C
Factors affecting melting point

(i) Effect of pressure
The effect of pressure on the melting point of solids depends upon the nature of solid. For solids which
expand on melting, increase in pressure increases the melting point. This is because increase in pressure
opposes expansion.
Examples : Paraffin wax, silver, gold and copper.
For solids which contract on melting, increase in pressure decreases the melting point. This is because
increase in pressure favors contraction.
Examples : Ice, cast iron, brass
(ii) Effect of addition of impurities

Addition of impurities to a solid decreases the melting point of solid thereby allowing substance to melt
at a lower temperature.
Example Rose's metal  Alloy of tin, lead and bismuth.
Melting point of this alloy  94.5°C
Melting point of Pb  327°C
Melting point of Sn  231.9°C Individual melting points
Melting point of Bi  271°C
2. Freezing
The process of conversion of liquid state to solid state is called freezing. It is opposite to the process of melting.
This is carried out by extracting heat from a liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid converts into solid at the atmospheric pressure is called freezing point
of the liquid and the factors which affect the melting point of a substance obviously affect freezing point.
A mixture of 3 parts of ice and 1 part of common salt is called freezing mixture which is used to produce
a lower temperature of (–21°C). Freezing mixtures are used for preservation of food especially perishables
such as fish, meats and other ready to eat frozen food.
Ice a unique solid
Because it is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid. Normally, a liquid becomes denser as it freezes and
its molecules pack closer together. However, as water freezes, its molecules form a latticework of hexagons
that contain empty space. These hexagons cause water to expand 11% in volume when it freezes. This expansion
means that ice has fewer molecules per cubic centimeter than water has, so it is less dense than water. To
be precise, ice's density is 0.917 g/cm 3 and water's maximum density is 1.00 g/cm 3 at 3.98°C.
The unique properties of ice can cause problems on land and sea. The expansion of ice is responsible of
the weathering of paved surfaces, such as roads and parking lots. Ice expands in crevices in these surfaces,
opening cracks that spread and eventually create potholes. When because of this ice floats on water, about 90 %
of it remains below the water's surface.
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3. Boiling
The process due to which a liquid changes into gaseous state by absorbing heat energy is called boiling.
Boiling point : The constant temperature at which a liquid rapidly changes into gaseous state by absorbing
heat energy at atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.
Boiling point can also be defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric
pressure under normal conditions.
Factors effecting boiling point
(1) Effect of pressure
The boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in external pressure. This is the reason why water
boils at a lower temperature than 100°C at higher altitudes. In a pressure cooker, water is subjected
to heating in a closed vessel in confined space. The steam generated in fixed volume increases the pressure
beyond the normal atmospheric pressure. Hence the food is cooked earlier in a short span of time.
(2) Effect of impurities
When any solid substance is dissolved or added in a liquid, then the boiling point of liquid raises beyond
the normal boiling point. For example, when common salt is dissolved in water, the solution boils at a
temperature greater than 100°C.
Evaporation
Evaporation process is conversion of liquid state to gaseous state which can also be brought about, even without
supplying heat energy to the liquid. In a liquid, the surface molecules possess higher kinetic energies than
the molecules in the bulk of the liquid. Due to this reason, the molecules break away from the forces of
attraction of the other molecules and go into vapor state.
So, we can say that the process of liquid changing into vapor state even below its boiling point is called evaporation.
Evaporation Boiling
Bubble cannot form since Bubbles can form and rise since
the vapor pressure is less the vapor pressure can overcome
than atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 10 Difference between evaporation and boiling.
Factors affecting the evaporation
(1) Temperature
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the temperature of the liquid.
E.g. wet clothes get dry faster in summer than in winter season.
(2) Surface area
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the surface area.
(3) Humidity of air
Humidity of air tells us the degree of dampness of air. Humidity of air lowers the rate of evaporation.
E.g. (a) In rainy season cloth needs more time to get dry than in summer season.
(b) Cereals are not getting dried in rainy seasons easily.
(4) Wind speed
The rate of evaporation of a liquid increases with increasing wind speed.
E.g. To dry the wet floor after cleaning, our maid servants put the ceiling fan on.
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Chemistry
(5) Pressure
The rate of evaporation can also increase with a decrease in
Evaporation
the gas pressure around a liquid. Molecules like to move
Rate of
from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure. The molecules
are basically sucked into the surrounding area to make the pressure
equal to the surrounding. If the vapor pressure of the surrounding Pressure
increases to a specific level, the rate of evaporation will slow Fig. 11 Relation of rate of
down. evaporation with pressure.
4. Condensation
The conversion of gaseous substance into liquid state is called condensation. This can be carried out by cooling the
gas below a particular temperature. When heat is extracted from the gas, the kinetic energy of molecules decreases
and hence temperature falls leading to condensation.
The conversion of gaseous state to liquid state can also be brought about by the application of pressure. The gases
have to be cooled below a certain temperature and then subjected to application of high pressure.
LPG : liquefied petroleum gas is good example of condensation of gas to liquid state.
Effects of condensation on climate
The formation of dew, fog and clouds are good examples of condensation. During day times when the temperature
is high, water in water bodies evaporates and this process goes on continuously till the air does not become
saturated with water vapor. When the temperature falls during night time, the air becomes saturated with
water vapor. The temperature at which the atmospheric air becomes saturated with water vapor is called
dew point .
On further lowering of temperature, some of the water vapor condenses and the water droplets condense
as dew . If the condensation of water vapor takes place on floating dust particles, it results in the formation
of fog or mist . Similarly in the upper part of atmosphere condensed water droplets appear as clouds .
Cooling produced due to evaporation
The liquid molecules absorb energy from the surroundings and overcome the forces of attraction thus changing
into vapor state. Since surroundings lose energy, it becomes cooler. This principle is made use in various
daily life activities.
(i) Cool sensation produced when alcohol is poured on palm.

(ii) Cotton clothes produce cooling effect during summer.
(iii) Formation of water droplets on the outer surface of glass containing ice cold water.
(iv) Cooling of water in earthen pots.
5. Sublimation
This is the phenomenon by which a certain substance on heating changes straight to the gaseous state without
undergoing the liquid state and on cooling changes back to the solid state. This is known as sublimation.
For example, iodine, naphthalene, solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), ammonium chloride, etc., exhibit sublimation
and change directly into gaseous form when heated. This can be explained with the help of the following
experiment.
13
Class IX
ACTIVITY.1.5
Aim
Heating of iodine for demonstrating sublimation
sta ls
e c ry
Method Io din
Take a few crystals of iodine in a test tube. Heat them

gently but take care that the upper portion of the test
Sublimate
tube is not heated. of iodine
Observation: The shiny grey crystals of iodine directly

changes into violet colored vapors, without first melting. Stand
The vapor of iodine gets deposited on the upper part
of the test tube and appears as grey powder and this Fig. 12 Experiment to
powder deposited on upper parts is known as sublimate. demonstrate sublimation.
Sublimation
heat heat
(melt) (boil)
cool cool
(freeze) (condense)
Solid Liquid Gas
Fig. 13 Summary of the change of state.
1.1
In woolen clothes naphthalene balls are consumed even though clothes are properly packed & not wetted.
Why?
Explanation
Because naphthalene balls directly changes into vapor state without changing into liquid. Thus we observe
that clothes are not wetted by use of naphthalene balls. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\01.Matters arround us.p65
Difference between vapour and gas

A substance, which under ordinary conditions is a solid or a liquid, but can exist in gaseous state under specific
conditions, is called vapor.
For example: Water can be water vapor under specific conditions or solid iodine, when heated, can turn
into iodine vapor.
A substance, which under ordinary circumstances exists as a gas, will still remain as a gas, at room temperature
and one atmospheric pressure. For example, oxygen remains oxygen, nitrogen remains nitrogen, and hydrogen
remains hydrogen as gas.
Latent heat
The heat energy which has to be supplied to change the state of a substance is called its latent heat. Latent
heat does not raise (or increase) the temperature. The word 'latent' means the heat which we supply is used
up in overcoming the forces of attraction between particles of a substance during the change of state.
14
Chemistry
Latent heat is of two types:
(i) Latent heat of fusion, and
(ii) Latent heat of vaporization
Latent heat of fusion (Solid to liquid change)
The latent heat of fusion (or melting) of a solid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert one kilogram
of the solid (at its melting point) to liquid, without any change in temperature. For e.g. Latent heat of fusion of ice
is 3.34 × 10 5 joules per kilogram, which is nothing but heat supplied to change 1 kg of ice (at its melting
point 0°C) to water at the same temperature i.e. 0°C.
Latent Heat of vaporisation (Liquid to gas change)
The latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert 1 kilogram of
the liquid (at its boiling point) to vapor or gas, without any change in temperature.
The latent heat of vaporization of water is 22.5 × 10 5 joules per kilogram (or 22.5 × 10 5 J/kg).
15
Class IX
EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. The quantity of matter present in an object is called its
(1) Weight (2) Gram (3) Mass (4) Density
2. The metal which is liquid at room temperature
(1) Sulphur (2) Sodium (3) Silver (4) Mercury
3. The force that binds the particles of matter together is known as
(1) intermolecular space (2) bond
(3) intermolecular force (4) nuclear force
4. When a teaspoon of solid sugar is dissolved in a glass of liquid water, what phase or phases are present
after mixing?
(1) liquid only (2) still solid and liquid
(3) solid only (4) None of these
5. K.E. of molecular motion appears as:-
(1) Pressure (2) P.E. (3) Temperature (4) All of the above
6. Based on the statements given here choose the correct answer.
P. Some sugar can be added to a full glass of water without causing overflow.
Q. A liquid is continuous even-though space is present between the molecules.
(1) P and Q are true and Q explains P (2) P and Q are true but Q does not explain P
(3) Only P is true (4) Only Q is true
7. In the solid state, the thermal agitation in the molecules is
(1) Maximum (2) Minimum
(3) Both maximum & minimum (4) None of these
8. Which of the following properties is different for solids, liquids and gases?
(1) Movement of molecules (2) Particle size of the substance
(3) Mass of the substance (4) Energy exchanges
9. Solids usually
(1) expand large amounts when the temperature rise
(2) change shape easily
(3) have a low density
(4) none of the Above
10. Which has the least energetic molecules?

(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases (4) Plasma
11. Of gases, liquids and solids, what is the densest state of matter?
(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases (4) Plasma
12. All liquids have same
(1) Density (2) Viscosity (3) Solubility (4) None of the above
13. Based on the statements given here choose the correct answer
P. If we increase the temperature of a gas inside a container, its pressure also increases.
Q. Upon heating, the rate of collisions of the gas molecules increase and increases the impact of force on
the walls of the container.
(1) Both P and Q are true and Q explains P (2) Both P and Q are true but Q does not explain P
16
Chemistry
14. According to kinetic theory of gases, molecules are
(1) perfectly inelastic particles in random motion (2) perfectly elastic particles in random motion
(3) perfectly inelastic particles at rest (4) perfectly elastic particles at rest
15. At a temperature less than critical temperature, to liquefy a gas
(1) lower the temperature, higher is the pressure required
(2) lower the temperature, lower is the pressure required
(3) higher the temperature, lower is the pressure required
(4) none of these
16. Based on the statements given here choose the correct answer
P. Aquatic animals breathe oxygen inside water
Q. Gases can diffuse into water.
(1) Both P and Q are true Q explains P (2) Both P and Q are true but Q does not explain P
17. Which of the following substance in the gaseous state may be called a vapour?
(1) Sulphur (2) CO 2 (3) Helium (4) Nitrogen
18. Which of these statement is true?
(1) Gases have high density (2) Gases can be compressed more than solids
(3) Gases have very specific shapes (4) All of the Above
19. The correct statement amongst the following is
(1) gases diffuse at different rates
(2) diffusion also takes place in liquids
(3) diffusion of liquid and a gas is known as intimate mixing
(4) all are correct
20. When we put some crystals of potassium permanganate in a beaker containing water, we observe that after
some time whole water has turned pink. This is due to
(1) boiling (2) melting of potassium permanganate crystals
(3) sublimation of crystals (4) diffusion
21. The boiling point of alcohol is 78°C. What is this temperature in Kelvin scale?
(1) 373 K (2) 351 K (3) 375 K (4) 78 K
22. The boiling point of water on celsius and Kelvin scale respectively is
(1) 373, 273 (2) 0, 273 (3) 273, 373 (4) 100, 373
23. Non-reacting gases have a tendency to mix with each other. This phenomenon is known as
(1) chemical reaction (2) diffusion (3) effusion (4) explosion

24. Which of these choices will not change the state of matter?
(1) Temperature (2) Crushing a crystal (3) Pressure (4) Electricity
25. What term is used to describe the phase change of a solid to a liquid?
(1) Freezing (2) Melting (3) Boiling (4) None of the above
26. What is the term used to describe the phase change as a liquid becomes a solid?
(1) Evaporation (2) Condensation (3) Freezing (4) None of the Above
27. The change of a liquid into vapour is called
(1) vaporization (2) solidification (3) sublimation (4) None of these
28. At higher altitudes
(1) boiling point of a liquid increases (2) boiling point of a liquid decreases
(3) no change in boiling point (4) melting point of solid increases
17
Class IX
29. What is the term used to describe the phase change of a liquid to a gas?
(1) Boiling (2) Condensation (3) Melting (4) None of the above
30. The boiling point of a liquid.
(1) increases with pressure (2) decreases with pressure
(3) is not affected by pressure. (4) is dependent on the mass of the liquid.
31. When the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to its atmospheric pressure, then it
(1) freezes (2) evaporates (3) boils (4) does not undergo any change
32. In an experiment of conversion of ice into water and water into vapour, observations were recorded and
a graph plotted for temperature against time as shown below. From the graph it can be concluded that
(1) ice takes time to heat up to 0°C Temp
r
ou
(2) during melting and boiling temperature does not rise Vaporisation
p
100°C
Va
Boiling
(3) process of boiling takes longer time than the process of melting
0°C Melting
(4) all of the above Time
33. In which phenomena water changes into water vapour below its B.P.?
(1) Evaporation (2) Condensation
(3) Boiling (4) No such phenomena exist
34. The process of evaporation causes:-
(1) heating (2) cooling
(3) increase in temperature (4) none of these
35. The liquid which has the highest rate of evaporation is
(1) petrol (2) nail-polish remover (3) water (4) alcohol
36. If you leave water in a glass and some molecules turn into a gas, it is called
(1) Egasoration (2) Evaporation (3) Extinction (4) Solidification
37. Water cycle is an example of which of the following
(1) change in the composition of matter.
(2) effect of pressure on the melting point of a solid.
(3) inter conversion of state of matter.
(4) effect of pressure on the boiling point of matter.
38. When water particles condenses on air on dust, it forms

(1) Mist (2) Cloud (3) Frost (4) Vapour
39. Match the following and choose the correct answer.
a. Evaporation i. Liquid to gas at a fixed temperature
b. Vaporisation ii. Solid to gas
c. Sublimation iii. Gas to solid
d. Hoar frost iv. Liquid into gas at any temperature
(1) a-iv, b-i, c-ii, d-iii (2) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv (3) a-ii, b-iii, c-iv, d-i (4) a-iv, b-i, c-iii, d-ii
40. The solid state of CO 2 is called
(1) Tear gas (2) Cooking gas (3) Dry. ice (4) Laughing gas
18
Chemistry
41. The substance that exist in solid state at room temperature but change to vapours on heating
(1) Napthalene balls (2) Dry ice (3) Iodine (4) All of the above
42. Which of the following substances can sublime?
(1) Camphor (2) Solid carbon dioxide (3) Ammonium chloride (4) All
43. Which is more effective in cooling?
(1) Water at 0°C (2) Water at 100°C (3) Ice at 0°C (4) All of these
44. Latent heat of fusion for ice is
(1) 80 gm cal –1 (2) 80 cal/gm (3) 19 J cal –1 (4) None of these
45. Match the following and choose the correct answer.
a. Solid i. Super energetic particles
b. Liquid ii. No shape nor fixed volume
at a given pressure
c. Gas iii. Has definite shape
d. Plasma iv. Definite volume with less
molecular forces than that
in solids.
(1) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv (2) a-iii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i (3) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-ii (4) a-i, b-iv, c-ii, d-iii
46. How many classical states of matter are there?
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) Five
47. The state of matter which consists of super energetic particles in the form of ionized gases is called
(1) Gaseous state (2) Liquid state
(3) Bose-Einstein condensate (4) Plasma state
48. What are I, II, III and IV ?
I II III IV
(1) Increase Increase Decrease Decrease
(2) Decrease Decrease Increase Increase

(3) Increase Decrease Decrease Increase
(4) Decrease Increase Decrease Increase
49. If we remove the glass plate, the process taking place is
(1) Condensation (2) Sublimation (3) Diffusion (4) Evaporation.
19
Class IX
50. The microscopic view of three different substances are shown in the given diagram.
Where T 1 , T 2 and T 3 are temperatures and F 1 , F 2 and F 3 are the forces of attraction of the particles of the
respective states. Choose the correct order among the following.
(1) T1 < T 2 < T 3 and F 1 < F 2 < F 3 (2) T1 > T 2 > T 3 and F 1 > F 2 > F 3
(3) T1 < T 2 < T 3 and F 1 > F 2 > F 3 (4) T1 > T 2 > T 3 and F 1 < F 2 < F 3
ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 3 1 3 1 2 1 4 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 3 4 1 2 2 2 3 1 1 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 4 4 3 2 2 4 4 3 3 4
20
Chemistry
Classification of
materials
The universe is made up of very large number of substances. If this vast array of substance is examined more
closely, it is found that they are made up of some basic substances which were given the name elements and
compounds .
As we all know that elements, compounds and mixtures are combinedly known as matter.
All the matter around us is not pure. In fact, matter around us is of two types :
(i) Pure substance and
(ii) Mixtures
Let us now discuss, pure substances and mixtures in little more detail.
A pure substance is made up of only one kind of particles. These particles may be either atoms or molecules.
Thus, A pure substance may also be defined as a material which contains only one kind of atoms or
molecules.
Based upon the nature of the constituent particle pure substance is of two types, i.e., elements and compounds.
A pure substance which is made up of only one kind of atom is called an element while that which is made up of
only one kind of molecule is called a compound.
A pure substance is uniform or homogenous throughout because it consists of only one kind of particles. These
particles are similar to one another and cannot be separated into simpler particles by any physical process.
For example, water is a pure substance because it has uniform composition throughout. It consists of only one
kind of particles called water molecules which cannot be separated into its constituents (hydrogen and oxygen)
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
by any simple physical process.
A mixture is a material which contains two or more different kinds of particles (atoms or molecules) which do not
react chemically but are physically mixed together in any proportion. Thus, mixture are impure substances. The
pure substances present in a mixture are called the components or the constituents of the mixture. For example,
if we dissolve some common salt (sodium chloride) in water, both of which are pure substances, the solution of
common salt in water is known as a mixture. It has been obtained by simple mixing of common salt and water
without any chemical reaction.
A mixture has a variable composition, i.e., does not have a fixed composition. Therefore, no definite formula
can be given to a mixture. Along with this, a mixture does not have a fixed melting point or a fixed boiling point.
21
Class IX
Why are composite materials often used instead of single material ?

Explanation
Composite material are those that combine the properties of two constituents. In order to get the exact properties
needed for particular job. Example
(a) Steel: It is used to make rust free, unbreakable utensils.
(b) Bone is composite material.
(c) Wood consists of cellulose mixed with 'Lignin' which is largely responsible for the strength of the wood.
Robert Boyle was the first scientist who used the term element in 1661. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(1743-1794), a French chemist was the first to give a useful definition of an element as follows.
An element is defined as the simplest form or the basic form of a pure substance which can neither be broken
into nor built up from simpler substances by any physical or chemical method. For example, iron is an element
because we may break it into pieces, as small as possible, but the chemical formula of all pieces will be same as
that of iron.
This definition given above is not considered to be absolutely correct now a days. This is because after the
discovery of radioactivity, it has been found that elements can be broken into simpler substance. Furthermore,
a number of elements have been synthesized from simpler substances. Hence, the definition of an element has
been modified as follows.
An element is now defined as a pure substance that contains only one kind of atoms.
22
Chemistry
Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag
Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe
Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag
Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag
Fig.1 Elements (a) Iron (b) Silver.

An element is made up of only one kind of atoms which are identical in all respects, size, mass, composition etc.
However, atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and composition.
118 Elements have been discovered so far. Out of these 90 elements have been found to occur in nature
whereas the remaining 28 have been synthesized by the scientists in the laboratories by suitable chemical
reactions & nuclear reactions.
Further, elements are found to exist in all the three states of matter.
Solid elements
Majority of the elements are solids at room temperature. For example, iron, copper, aluminium, silver, gold,
sodium, potassium, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon (graphite or diamond), iodine, etc.
Liquid elements
Mercury and bromine are the only two elements which are known to exists in the liquid state at room temperature.
Gallium and caesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K).
Gaseous elements
Eleven elements are gaseous at room temperature. These are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine,
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.
Classification of elements based on physical and chemical properties

On the basis of physical properties, elements have been divided into the following three types:
(i) Metals (ii) Non-metals and (iii) Metalloids.
Physical properties of metals
Some important physical properties of metals are described below:
(1) Metals are malleable
This means that metals can be hammered or beaten to form thin sheets without breaking. However, all
metals are not equally malleable. Some are more malleable than others. For example, gold and silver are
the most malleable metals.
Uses
(i) Silver foil is used for decorating sweets.
(ii) Aluminum foils are used for wrapping medicines, cigarettes and food items like biscuits, chocolates,
etc. Milk bottle caps are also made up of aluminum foil.
(iii) Sheets of iron, copper, aluminum, etc. are used for making utensils, containers and bodies of automobiles.
(2) Metals are ductile
This means that metals can be drawn to stretched into thin wires. Like malleability, all the metals are not
equally ductile. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals. Gold is so ductile that 1 gram of it can be drawn
to form a wire of about 2 kilometer length.
(3) Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
Generally, metals are good conductors of heat, i.e., they have high thermal conductivity. After silver,
copper is the best conductor of heat. The cooking utensils and water boilers, etc. are usually made up of
copper or aluminum metals because they are very good conductors of heat. Among metals, lead is the
poorest conductor of heat.
Metals are good conductors of electricity also. That is metals offer very little resistance to the flow of
electric current and hence show high electrical conductivity. Silver is the best conductor of electricity
followed by copper, gold, aluminum and tungsten.
The metals like iron and mercury offer very high resistance to the flow of electric current and hence are
poor conductor of electricity.
23
Class IX
(4) Metals are lustrous
Due to their shining surface, metals are good reflectors. Silver metal is an excellent reflector of light and
hence is used for silvering of mirrors.
(5) Metals are generally hard
Metals are generally quite hard. For example, iron, aluminum, copper, etc. are very hard and hence
cannot be cut with a knife. However, metals like sodium and potassium are quite soft and hence can be
easily cut with a knife.
(6) Metals have high tensile strength
Metals have a high tensile strength. This means that metals can hold large weights without breaking. For
example, steel (which is an alloy of iron and carbon) is very strong and hence has a high tensile strength.
Due to this, it is used for construction of buildings, bridges, railway lines, chains, girders, machines, vehicles etc.
Although most of the metals are strong, yet some of the metals are not strong. For example, sodium and
potassium metals are not strong and hence have low tensile strength.
(7) Metals are solids at room temperature
Except mercury which is a liquid at room temperature.
(8) Metals generally have high melting and boiling points
However, sodium and potassium have low melting points ; sodium = 371 K, potassium = 336 K, gallium
and caesium become liquid at temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K).
(9) Metals generally have high densities
Except sodium and potassium which have low densities.
(10) Metals are sonorous
This means that metals make a ringing sound when hit. It is because of this property that metals are used
for making bells, cymbals (manjira – in Hindi) and wires of violin, guitar, sitar, tanpoora, etc.
Physical properties of non-metals
The physical properties of non-metals are just opposite to those of metals. Some of these properties are
described below :
(1) Non-metals are not malleable but are brittle (break easily)
This means that non-metals cannot be hammered or beaten to form thin sheet.
(2) Non-metals are not ductile:
This means that non-metals cannot be drawn or stretched into wires.
(3) Non-metals are non conductors of heat and electricity
This means that non-metals do not allow heat and electricity to pass through them. Therefore, non-metals
act as insulators . However, there are some exceptions.
For example, diamond is an allotropic form of carbon. It is a non-metal which is a good conductor of heat Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
but bad conductor of electricity. Graphite is another allotropic form of carbon. It is also a non-metal but is
a good conductor of heat and electricity. Therefore, graphite is used for making electrodes of batteries and
dry cells.
(4) Non-metals are not lustrous but actually have dull appearance
However, iodine and graphite are exceptions. They are non-metals which have shining surface like that of
metals.
(5) Non-metals are generally soft
Except diamond which is extremely hard. Diamond which is an allotropic form of carbon is the hardest
natural substance known.
(6) Non-metals are not strong
Non-metals have low tensile strength.
(7) Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gases at room temperature
Non-metals exist in all the three states of matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas. For example – boron, carbon,
sulphur and phosphorus are solid non-metals, bromine is a liquid non-metal while hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and chlorine are gaseous non-metals.
24
Chemistry
(8) Solid non-metals have comparatively low melting and boiling points
Except boron, graphite and diamond which have high melting and boiling points.
(9) Non-metals have low densities
Non-metals are generally light elements. That is why have low densities. For example – density of sulphur
is 2 g/cm 3 .
(10) Non-metals exist in different colours
For example – sulphur is yellow, phosphorus is white, yellow or red, graphite is black, chlorine is yellowish
green, bromine is reddish brown while hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen are colourless.
(11) Non-metals are not sonorous.
Metalloids
Elements which have properties in between those of metals and non-metals are called metalloids or semimetals .
For example – Boron(B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and Tellurium (Te), Astatine(At),
Polonium(Po).
These elements show some properties of metals and other properties of non-metals. For example – they may
look like metals but are brittle like non-metals. They are neither good conductors of electricity nor insulators like
non-metals. They are generally semi-conductors .
Most of the matter around us is not pure but is actually a mixture of two or more pure substances. e.g. air is not
a pure substance but is a mixture of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, inert gases (mainly argon), carbon dioxide,
water vapours etc. Milk is also not a pure substance because it is a mixture of water, fat and proteins.
Types of mixtures
Depending upon the nature of components that are mixed to form mixtures. Mixtures have been classified into
the following two types:
(1) Homogeneous mixtures (2) Heterogeneous mixtures
(1) Homogeneous mixtures
A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout. The components of a homogeneous mixture
are not visible to the naked eye nor even under a microscope. There are no visible boundaries of separation
between the components of a homogeneous mixture. In other words, a homogeneous mixture consists of
only one phase. The single phase of the homogeneous mixture may be a liquid, gas or solid. For example –
(i) A solution of sugar in water is a homogeneous mixture in the liquid phase.
(ii) A mixture of two or more miscible liquids is also a homogeneous mixture in the liquid phase. For
example – a solution of alcohol and water is a homogeneous mixture.
(iii) Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of two or more metals in the solid phase. For example– brass is an
alloy of zinc and copper and steel is an alloy of iron (98%), carbon (1.5%) and other metals (0.5%).
Note that all homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.
(2) Heterogeneous mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout. The components of a
heterogeneous mixture are either visible to the naked eye or under a microscope. Therefore, there are
visible boundaries of separation between the components of a heterogeneous mixture. In other words,
heterogeneous mixtures have two or more distinct phases. For example–
(i) A mixture of sugar and sand is a heterogeneous mixture because different parts of the mixture will
have different sugar-sand compositions.
(ii) Iodized salt
(iii) Gun powder
(iv) A suspension of solids in liquids is a heterogeneous mixture. For example– a suspension of chalk or
sand particles in water is a heterogeneous mixture.
25
Class IX
A compound is defined as a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together in
a fixed proportion by mass.
Water (H 2 O) is a compound made up of two elements, hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), chemically combined
together in a fixed proportion of 1 : 8 by mass.
Other examples of compounds are methane (CH 4
), silica or sand (SiO 2 ), ammonia (NH 3 ), ammonium chloride
(NH4 Cl), caustic soda (NaOH), washing soda (Na 2
CO 3 ), lime or quick lime or calcium oxide (CaO), slaked lime or
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ], potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ), copper sulphate (CuSO 4
), potassium sulphate (K 2 SO 4 ),
potassium permanganate (KMnO 4
), iron sulphide (FeS), hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric
acid (H 2 SO 4 ), nitric acid (HNO 3 ), glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), sugar or cane-sugar or sucrose (C 12
H 22 O 11 ), etc.
Properties of compounds
(1) A compound is made up of the different elements combined together in a fixed proportion by mass.
(2) A chemical compound is formed as a result of a chemical change (or reaction) and its properties are entirely
different from those of its constituents. A chemical compound cannot be formed simply by mixing constituent
elements. It is formed only when a chemical reaction takes place between them. For example, simply by
mixing iron filings and sulphur powder, we get a mixture whose properties are the same as those of its
constituents. However, when this mixture is heated strongly a chemical reaction occurs and a new compound
called iron sulphide is formed.
Strongly heat
8Fe + S 8
  8FeS
Iron Sulphur Iron sulphide
(Element) (Element) (Compound)
The properties of iron sulphide thus formed are altogether different from those of its constituents, i.e. iron
and sulphur. For example– when dilute sulphuric acid is added to iron sulphide, a foul smelling gas (having
the smell of rotten eggs) called hydrogen sulphide (H 2
S) is evolved.
However, when iron reacts with dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is formed which is a colourless, odourless
combustile gas. This means that iron sulphide does not show the properties of iron present in it.
Similarly, water is not formed when hydrogen and oxygen are simply mixed together. It is formed only when
an electric spark is passed through this mixture. The properties of water thus formed are altogether
different from those of its constituent elements. For example, hydrogen is a combustible gas while oxygen Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
is a supporter of combustion. Water on the other hand is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion,
it actually extinguishes the fire.
(3) A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by simple physical means.
For example, water cannot be separated into its constituents i.e. hydrogen and oxygen elements by simple
physical means such as filtration, evaporation, distillation, solvent extraction, or using a magnet. This
separation can however, be done by chemical means i.e. by electrolysis (or passing electricity)
(4) A compound has a definite molecular formula and fixed melting point and boiling point.
(5) Energy in form of heat or light is usually evolved or absorbed when a compound is formed.
For example, formation of carbon dioxide (CO 2
) by burning of coke in air or oxygen is always accompanied
by evolution of heat.
(6) A compound is a homogeneous substance.
For e.g. if we take water in a glass or a beaker, every drop of it looks alike i.e. it is homogeneous and will
show the same properties.
26
Chemistry
Important note
1. Compounds are homogeneous but mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Homogencity alone cannot be used to decide between a mixture and a compound. For example, solutions of
common salt, sugar, copper sulphate, etc. in water are homogeneous. But still they are regarded as mixtures
because of the following reasons:
(i) The common salt solution shows the properties of its constituents i.e. common salt and water.
(ii) The constituents of the salt solution i.e. common salt and water can be separated by the physical process of
distillation.
(iii) The composition of the salt solution is variable. In other words, different amounts of salt can be dissolved in
the same amount of water to get solutions having different compositions. Thus, a salt solution does not have
a define formula.
(iv) Salt solution does not have a fixed boiling point.
2. Non-stoichiometric compounds
Molecules (constituting units of compounds) which have definite atomic composition are referred as stoichiometric
compounds e.g. CH 4 , H 2 O, NH 3 etc.
Certain materials in which atomic composition is variable are called non-stoichiometric compounds e.g. the
composition of cuprous sulphide may vary from Cu 1.7 S to Cu 2 S.
Non-stoichiometry is common feature of sulphides and oxides of transition metals.
Types of compounds
All the compounds may be divided into the following two categories:
(1) Organic compounds
(2) Inorganic compounds
Organic compounds are the compounds containing carbon and a few other elements like hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, halogens etc. These were originally obtained only from animals and plants.
Inorganic compounds are the compounds containing any two or more elements out of more than 118 elements
known so far. These are usually obtained from minerals and rocks.
Criteria of purity of compounds
A solid compound is said to be pure if it has a sharp melting point i.e. whole of the solid melts within a range of
0.5°C or 0.5 K. Impure solids on the other hand have lower melting points than the pure solids because
impurities lower or depress the melting points.
A liquid compound is said to be pure if it has a fixed boiling point i.e. whole of the liquid distills at a fixed
temperature.
Impure liquids on the other hand have higher boiling points than the pure liquids. This is because impurities
0
always raise the boiling points. For example, pure water boils at 100 C (373K) at one atmosphere pressure.
However, sea water is impure because it contains a number of dissolved salts. Thus, the boiling point of sea
0
water is always higher than 100 C (373 K).
List the following ‘waters’ in order of increasing purity :

Ocean water, rainwater and drinking water.
Explanation
Ocean water is the least pure because it contains a large amount of dissolved compounds. That is why it is not
drinkable and cannot be used for crop irrigation. Drinking water also contains chlorine and some dissolved
compounds but not nearly as much as ocean water. Rain water is the purest of three but still contains some
dissolved gases from the air.
27
Class IX
A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances whose
composition can be varied within limits.
It may be noted that all mixtures are not solutions. If a mixture is to be called as solution, then it must satisfy the
following two conditions :
(i) The components of a mixture should be non-reacting.
(ii) Mixture should be homogeneous.
For e.g. homogeneous mixture from our daily life is vinegar which is a 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water.
Aqueous and non-aqueous solutions
Most of the substances are soluble in water. That is why water is sometimes called a universal solvent.
A solution in which water acts as the solvent is called an aqueous solution while the one in which any other liquid
acts as the solvent is called a non-aqueous solution. For example, the solution of common salt or sugar in water
is called an aqueous solution. However, solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride, sulphur in carbon disulphide,
iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) are called non-aqueous solutions.
Following are the various ways of expressing concentration of solutions.

1. Mass percent 2. Volume percent 3. Normality
4. Molarity 5. Molality 6. Mole fraction
7. Mass fraction 8. Formality 9. Mole percent
(1) Mass percent (% by weight)
The mass of solute in grams present in 100g of the solution is termed as the mass percent.
Mathematically,
Weight of the solute mass of the so lute

% by weight = ×100 or mass % =
Weight of the solution mass of solution 100
For example, a 15% solution of urea in water (by mass) means that 15 g of urea is present in 100 g of solution.
Similarly, a 10% solution of NaCl by weight means that 100g of solution contains 10 g of NaCl.
A syrup is prepared by dissolving 250 gram of sucrose in 150 gram of water. Calculate the mass percent
sucrose in the solution. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
Explanation
We know that
Mass of solute
Mass% = ×100
Mass of solution
However, Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent = 250 + 150 = 400 gm
250g×100
Mass% = = 62.5%
400g
(2) Volume percentage (% by volume)
It may be defined as the volume of solute in ml present in 100 ml of the solution.
Volume of the solute

% by volume = ×100
Volume of the solution
For example, a 20% solution of acetic acid (by volume) means 20 ml of acetic acid is present in 100 ml of
solution.
28
Chemistry
(3) Normality (N)
Normality of a solution may be defined as the number of gram equivalent of solute present per litre of the
solution. It is denoted by N,
Mathematically,
Gram equivalents of solute
N=
Volume of the solution in litres
Weight of solute in gm
N=
Eq. wt.of solute × volume of solution in litre
Strength of solution in gm/litre
N=
Equivalent weight of solute
The unit of normality is equivalent lit –1
Gram equivalent mass of the solute can be determined by using the formula,
Molar mass
Gram equivalent mass =
Z
where Z is a whole number and represents,
(i) the number of H + ions furnished by an acid molecule in solution i.e., basicity of an acid.
(ii) the number of OH – ions furnished by a molecule of base in solution i.e. acidity of base.
(iii) the number of electrons involved in oxidation of a reducing agent or reduction of an oxidising agent.
Some common representations of the normality of solution are shown below.
N = Normal solution
N
= 0.5 N = Seminormal
2
N
= 0.2 N = Pentanormal
5
N
= 0.1N = Decinormal
10
10N = Decanormal
Calculate the normality of NaOH solution containing 50.0 gm NaOH in 5.0 litre solution.
Explanation
M.W. of NaOH 40
Equivalent weight of NaOH = = = 40
Acidity of base 1
50
No. of equivalents in 50.0 g NaOH = = 1.25
40
Equivalents of solute 1.25

Normality of NaOH solution = = = 0.25N
Volume of solution in litres 5
(4) Molarity (M)
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of the solute per litre of solution. For example, a
molar (1 M) solution of sugar means a solution containing 1 mole of sugar (i.e., 342 gm) per litre of the
solution.
Thus mathematically,
Number of moles of solute mass of the so l ute
M= [No. of moles = ]
Voiume of solution in litres molar mass of solute
Wt.of solute in gms

or M =
Molecular wt. of solute × Volume of solu tion in litres
29
Class IX
Therefore, unit of molarity is moles lit –1 . It is the most common way of representing the concentration of the
solution.
Relationship between normality and molarity of a solution
Mol.wt.
Normality = Molarity × or Normality = Molarity ×Acidity of Base or Basicity of acid
Eq.wt.
–
where acidity of base = No. of replaceable OH ion
and basicity of acid = No. of replaceable H + ion.
Eq.wt.
Molarity = Normality ×
Mol.wt.
(5) Molality (m)
Molality of a solution may be defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved per 1000 g of the
solvent. For example, a 0.2 molal (0.2 rn) solution of glucose means a solution obtained by dissolving 0.2
gram mole of glucose in 1000 g (I kg) of water.
Mathematically,
Moles of solute
Molality (m) =
Mass or solvent in kilograms
No. of moles of solute

Molality (m) = ×1000
Wt. of solvent in gms
Mass of solute in grams 1000

m= ×
Molecular mass of solute Wt. of solvent in gms
–1
It is expressed in units of moles kg .
The value of normality and molarity varies with temperature as the volume of solution containing equivalents
or moles of the solute increases with rise in temperature. However, molality is temperature independent
because here volume term is not involved.
Following is the relationship between molarity and molality derived from the formulae of molarity & molality.
Molarity Mass of solvent in kg

=
Molality Volume of solution in litre
(6) Mole fraction (x)

It is defined us the ratio of the number of moles of one component (solute or solvent) to the total number of
moles of all the components (solute plus solvent) present in the solution. It is denoted by 'x'. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
Moles of solute
Thus, x Solute =
Moles of solute + Moles of solvent
For example, in a solution containing n 1
moles of solute and n 2
moles of solvent the mole fraction of solute
(xsolute ) and mole fraction of solvent (x solvent
) are
n1 n2
xsolute = n  n , x solvent = n  n
1 2 1 2
The sum of the mole fractions of all components present in the solution is always one and has no unit.
n1 n2
xsolute + x solvent = + =1
n1  n2 n1  n2
Mole fraction of the components is always temperature independent.

Thus, in a binary solution, if we know the mole fraction of one component, the mole fraction of the other
component can be calculated.
30
Chemistry
4.0 g of NaOH is contained in one decilitre of a solution. Calculate molality of solution and mole fraction of
3
NaOH. [At. wt. Na = 23 ; O = 16; Density of NaOH solution is 1.038 g/cm ]
Explanation
(a) Calculation of molality of solution
4
Moles of NaOH = = 0.1 mole
40
Volume of solution = 1 Decilitre = 100 ml
3
Weight Of 100 ml solution of density 1.038 g/cm = V ×d = 100 ×1.038 = 103.8 g
So, the mass of the solvent = mass of the solution - mass of solute = 103.8 – 4 = 99.8 g
Moles of solute
 Molality =
Kg. of the solvent
0.1 0.1×1000
= = = 1.02 m
99.8/1000 99.8
(b) Calculation of mole fraction of NaOH.
Moles of NaOH = 0.1 mole
99.8
Moles of water in 99.8 g water = = 5.55 mole
18
Moles of NaOH 0.1 0.1
X NaOH = = = = 0.017
Moles of NaOH + Moles of water 0.1+5.55 5.65
(7) Mass fraction
Similar to mole fraction, mass fraction is defined as the ratio of the mass of one component (solute or
solvent) to the total mass of the solution (both components). For a binary solution containing two components
A and B, the mass fractions are,
wA
Mass fraction of A = w A  wB
wB
Mass fraction of B =
w A  wB
Calculate mass fraction and mole fraction of ethyl alcohol and water containing 9.2 g alcohol in 18.0 g of water.
Explanation
Mass of ethyl alcohol = 9.2g
Molecular mass of alcohol (C 2 H 5 OH) = 46 g mol –1
9.2
Number of mole of alcohol in 9.2 g = = 0.2 mol
46
Mass of water = 18 g
18
So. number of moles of water = = 1.0 mole
18
9.2 9.2
Mass fraction of alcohol = = = 0.338
18 9.2 27.2
 Mass fraction of water = 1 – 0.338 = 0.672
0.2 0.2
Xethanol = = = 0.167
1.0 0.2 1.2
Xwater = 1 – 0.167 = 0.833
31
Class IX
(8) Formality (F)
The term formality was first of all used by Pauling to express the concentration of a solution. This is defined
as the number of gram formula weight of ionic solute present per litre of the solution.
Moles of the ionic solute Mass of the ionic solute in gram per lit re
Formality, F = =
Volume of solution in litres Formula mass of solute
For example, formality of a solution containing 5.85 grams of common salt per litre of solution is 0.1 or the
solution is 0.1 formal.
(9) Mole percent
Mole percent for a solution may be defined as the number of moles of a component (solute or solvent) in
100 moles of solute plus solvent.
Mathematically,
Mole percent = Mole fraction ×100
For example, mole percent of a solution containing 6 moles of ethanol in 14 moles of water is calculated as
follows,
6
Mole fraction of ethanol, XC 2H 5 OH = = 0.3
6  14
Therefore, Mole percent (ethanol) = 0.3 ×100 = 30 mole %
Solubility
The maximum amount of solute in grams which an be dissolved in 100 grams of the solvent at a given temperature
to form a saturated solution is called the solubility of the solute in that solvent at that particular temperature.
For example
0
A maximum of 36 grams of common salt (sodium chloride ) can be dissolved in 100 grams of water at 20 C (or
0
293 K) , therefore, the solubility of common salt in water at 20 C (or 293 K) is 36 grams.
Various factors that effect solubility
(i) Effect of temperature:
Most solids and liquids are more soluble in water at higher temperatures. Unlike solids, gases become less
soluble as the temperature increases. This can be witnessed by observing water being heated. As the temperature
increases, the water tends to fizz somewhat as the dissolved gases are expelled.
How high temperature in lakes could be a problem for aquatic life ?

Explanation
High temperature in lakes can be a danger for aquatic animals and may cause fish kills. The lower solubility of
oxygen at the higher temperatures can lead to an oxygen-depleted lake.
(ii) Effect of pressure
Solubility also depends on pressure. When you increase the pressure, you can usually dissolve more gases in
the liquid. Think about your soda can. They are able to keep the fizz inside because the contents of the can
are under higher pressure.
(iii) Nature of solvent
Solvents with high value of dielectric constant can dissolve polar ionic compounds to a larger extent than the
solvents with low value of dielectric constants.
(iv) Nature of solute
Ionic compounds (or polar compound) are more soluble in water (i.e., a polar solvent). Non-polar compounds
are more soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene. [Like dissolves like]
32
Chemistry
(v) Size of solute particles
Smaller the size of the particles greater is the solubility. Example, it is easier to dissolve powdered sugar
1
than granules of sugar. Size of solute particles  .
so lub ility
(vi) Mechanical stirring
Mechanical stirring increases solubility. Example, sugar dissolves faster on stirring with a spoon.
The solubility of solids in liquids, however, remains unaffected by changes in pressure
Solubility curves
The graphs which show the variation of solubility with temperature are called solubility curves. With its help,
solubility of any solute at a particular temperature can be find out.
150
3
KNO
140
130
120
Solubility in gm per 10 0 gm of water
110
100 NO
3
Na
90
80
70
60
50 l
KC
40 NaCl
30
SO
4
20
K2
10 CaSO 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 2 Graph between solubility and temperature.
Solubility of gases in liquids
The gases are usually soluble in water as well in other solvents to a certain extent. The solubility of a gas in liquid
depends on (i) nature of the gas, (ii) the pressure applied, (iii) temperature and (iv) the nature of the liquid can
also be taken as solvents.
The solubility of gas in liquid is defined as the mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of a liquid at constant
temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the liquid. This is known as
Henry's law .
So, if m be the mass of gas dissolved per unit volume of a solvent at pressure P then,
m P at constant temperature
m = KP where K is proportionality constant
In terms of mole fraction
x = K HP
x – mole fraction of gas
P – partial pressure of gas over the solvent
The solubility of gases in liquids increases on decreasing the temperature or decreases on increasing the
temperature. Fore example water contains dissolved oxygen, when water is boiled , the solubility of oxygen in
water decreases and the excess oxygen escapes in form of bubbles.
e.g. in sea. more water animal species are found in deep sea as dissolved oxygen is more.
The solubility of gases in liquids, however, increases on increasing the pressure and decreases on decreasing the
pressure. For example, during manufacture of cold drinks, carbon dioxide is dissolved in water under pressure.
33
Class IX
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium.
Please note that suspensions are formed by only those substances which are insoluble in water.
Note : Properties of suspensions are discussed in foundation module.
Solutions in which the size of the particles lies in between those of true solutions and suspensions are called
colloidal solutions or simply colloids.
Particle size < 1nm 10-100 nm > 100 nm
True solution Colloidal solution Suspension

Fig. 3 Particle size of a true solution, a colloidal solution and a suspension.
Due to relatively smaller size of particles, these mixtures appear to be homogeneous but actually they are
heterogeneous. Since the colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in nature, therefore, to distinguish them from
true solutions, the term “sol” is used in place of solution.
Classification on the basis of interaction between different phases
Depending upon the nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium, colloid are classified as,
(i) Lyophillic colloids: The dispersephase has great affinity for dispersion medium, in such cases the disperse
phase does not easily get precipitated and the colloids are quite stable. The solids obtained after evaporation
of the medium can be easily brought back to the colloidal state by shaking the solids with the dispersion
medium.
The colloids are thus reversible, e.g. gum, gelatin, starch, proteins and certain polymers in organic solvents.
If water is the dispersion medium then the colloid is called hydrophilic colloid.
(ii) Lyophobic colloids: The disperse phase has little affinity for the dispersion medium. These sols are
relatively less stable. They can be easily precipitated by addition of small amount of electrolyte. Once this is
precipitated, it cannot be easily brought back to the colloidal state.
They are thus irreversible, e.g. gold sol and sulphur sol. etc. if water is used as the dispersion medium. The Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
sol is called hydrolyophobic colloid.

Difference between Lyophillic and Lyophobic sols:
S. Property Lyophillic Sols Lyophobic Sols
No
1. Surface tension Lower than that of the medium Same as that of the medium
2. Viscosity Much higher than that of the medium Same as that of the medium
3. Reversibility Reversible Irreversible
4. Stability More Stable Less stable
5. Visibility Particles can’t be detected even under Particles c an be detected under uitra
ultra microscope microscope
6. Migration Particles may migrate in either Particles migrate either towards
direction or do not mirgrate in an catbode or anode in an electric field
electric field
7. Action of electrolyte Addition of smaller quantity of Coagulation takes place
electrolyte has little effect
8. Hydration Extensive hydration takes place No hydration takes place.
34
Chemistry
Classification on the basis of the particles of the dispersed phase
Sr. Multimolecular Colloids Macromolecular Colloids Associated Colloids
No
1. They are formed by the They are molecules of large They are formed by the
aggregation of a large number of size e.g. polymers like rubber, aggregation of large no. of ion
atoms or molecules generally nylon, starch proteins etc. in solution e.g. soap sol.
have diameters less than 1nm.
E.g. sols of gold, sulphur.
2. Their molecular masses are not They have high molecular Their molecular masses are
very high. masses. generally high.
3. Their atoms or molecules are held They usually have lyophobic Their molecules contain both
together by weak vander waal’s character. lyophillic and lyophobic
forces. groups.
Emulsions
Colloidal sols in which both the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are liquids are called emulsions.
(i) Oil-in-water emulsions : In these emulsions, oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion medium.
(ii) Water-in-oil emulsions : In these emulsions, water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion medium.
These emulsions are usually prepared by shaking oil and water vigorously. However, these emulsions of two
pure liquids all usually not stable.
The substances which are added to stabilize emulsions are called emulsifiers or emulsifying agents . These
stabilize the sols by reducing the surface tension of water. For example, milk is oil-in-water type emulsion, in
which liquid fat is dispersed in water and milk protein lactalbumin is the emulsifying agent
Applications of colloids in everyday life
Colloids play a very significant role in nature and in our daily life. Some of the important applications of colloids
are discussed below :
(i) Medicines: Most of the medicines used are in the colloidal form because in this form, they are more
easily assimilated due to large surface area and hence are more effective.
For example,
(a) Argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion,

(b) Colloidal antimony is used for curing kalazar.
(c) Colloidal gold is used as an intramuscular injection.
(d) Milk of magnesia, which is an emulsion, is used as an antacid for reducing acidity in the stomach.
(iii) Food articles: A number of food articles that we eat are colloidal in nature, e.g., milk, butter, ice
creams, fruit juices, halwa, etc.
(iii) Fog, mist and cloud: In winters, at night, the moisture of the air condenses on the surface of dust
particles forming fine droplets. These droplets are colloidal in size and hence continue to float in the air
in the form of fog or mist.
Clouds are aerosols consisting of small droplets of water suspended in the air. In the upper atmosphere
where the temperature is low, they condense together to form bigger drops which come down in the
form of rain. Rain is also caused when two oppositely charged clouds meet each other.
35
Class IX
(iv) Artificial rain: Artificial rain can be caused by spraying electrified or oppositely charged colloidal
dust, sand particles over a cloud. The colloidal water particles present in the cloud will get neutralized
and coagulate to form bigger water drops causing artificial rain. Artificial rain can also be caused by
throwing common salt on the clouds, as it is an electrolyte and brings about coagulation of water
particles.
(v) Formation of Delta: River water contains charged colloidal particles of clay, sand and many other
materials. Sea water is a very big store-house of a variety of electrolytes dissolved in it. As soon as river
water comes in contact with sea water, the electrolytes present in sea water coagulate the suspended
colloidal particles which ultimately settle down at the point of contact. Thus, the level of the river bed
rises. As a result, water adopts a different course and delta is formed in due course of time.
It is so called because the heap formed has a shape similar to the Greek letter  (delta). In other words,
() delta is formed due to silting of the estuary (i.e. deposit of sediment at the mouth of the river).
Sand & clay particles

coagulated by salts of
sea water
Fig. 4 Formation of Delta.
(vi) Blue colour of the sky: This is due to the scattering of light by colloidal dust particles present in air
(Tyndall effect). This is explained by Rayleigh scattering according to which if diameter of particles is
smaller than the wavelength of the incident radiation, scattering takes place. As blue colour of the white
sunlight has minimum wavelength, it shows more intense scattering. Hence, sky looks blue.
Similarly, sea water looks blue due to scattering of light by the colloidal impurities present in sea water. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
(vii) Tail of comets: It is seen as a Tyndall cone due to the scattering of light by the tiny solid particles left
by the comet in its path.
(vii) Blood: It is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid and the bleeding stops on applying ferric chloride
solution due to coagulation of blood forming a clot.
(ix) Cleansing action of soap: Soap solution is colloidal in nature. It removes the dirt particles either by
adsorption or by emulsifying the greasy matter sticking to the cloth.
(x) Smoke screen: In warfare, smoke screens are used which are nothing but colloidal dispersion of
certain substances (e.g, titanium oxide) in the air.
36
Chemistry
Many mixture contain useful substance mixed with unwanted material. In order to obtain these useful substance,
chemist often have to separate them from the impurities, chemists have developed many different methods of
separation. Use of method depends on what is in the mixture and the properties of substances. It also depends
on whether the substance to be separated are solid, liquid or gas.
Separation of solid – solid mixtures

(1) Solvent extraction
In this method of separation, solubility of one component in a solvent is used. For example a mixture of
sulphur and sand can be separated by this method. Here sulphur is soluble in carbon disulphide (CS 2
) and
sand is insoluble.
(2) Magnetic separation
In this method of separation, magnetic property of one component is used. For example mixture of iron
ore and sand can be separated by this method. Here iron ore is attracted by magnet and sand is left behind.
Mixture of iron Bar magnet

filings and sand Iron filings
Sand
Fig. 6 Separation of a mixture of iron filings and sand.
(3) Gravity method
In this method of separation, difference in densities of component is used. For example mixture of sand and
chalk powder can be separated by this method. Here sand being heavier than chalk powder sinks in water
whereas chalk powder floats on water.
(4) Fractional crystallisation

In this method of separation, difference in solubility of the components in the same solvent is used. For
example mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO 3
) and sodium chloride (NaCl) can be separated by this method.
Here potassium nitrate (KNO 3
) being more soluble than sodium chloride (NaCl) in water, when the aqueous
solution of this mixture is subjected to heating and subsequent cooling the more soluble potassium nitrate
(KNO3 ) remains in the solution, less soluble sodium chloride (NaCl) crystallizes out first.
A mixture contains two components A and B. The solubilities of A and B in water near their boiling point are 10
grams per 100 ml and 2g per 100 ml respectively. How will you separate A and B from this mixture?
Explanation
Fractional crystallization. When the saturated hot solution of this mixture is allowed to cool, the less soluble
component B crystallizes out first leaving the more soluble component A in the mother liquor.
37
Class IX
Separation of solid - liquid mixtures
(1) Sedimentation and decantation
In this method of separation, high density of insoluble solid component is used. For example mixture of sand
and water can be separated by this method. Here sand being heavier settles at the bottom and liquid is
slowly transferred into another container.
Sand + Water
Sediment
Clear water
Sand sediment
Fig. 7 (a) Sedimentation (b) Decantation.
(2) Filtration
The process of filtration is used to separate insoluble solid component of a mixture from the soluble component
in a given solvent.
For example
Liquid
A mixture containing naphthalene and urea can be separated by Filter
paper
this technique. Urea dissolves in water while naphthalene remains
insoluble. Urea is recovered from the filtrate by evaporating water. Perforation Buchner
funnel
Sometime for separation purposes the filtration of a hot solution is
required . For example a mixture of anthracene and benzoic acid is
separated by dissolving it in hot water and filtering the hot solution. To filter pump
Benzoic acid crystallizes on cooling while anthracene remains as an Filtrate
insoluble residue.
If the water soluble component of a mixture is apprecially soluble in

hot water but only sparingly soluble in cold water, then to separate Filter paper
the mixture, filtration of a hot solution is required. This is carried out
through a fluted filter paper to avoid crystallisation during filtration
and also to remove suspend impurities. If the solution to be filtered Hot water
funnel
is sufficiently large, then filtration is done through a ‘hot water funnel’
to avoid formation of crystals in the funnel and its stem. The jacket
Filtrate
of the hot water funnel keeps the solution hot in the glass funnel
placed in it.
For example, a mixture of anthracene and benzoic acid is separated Filtration of hot mixture
Fig. 8 (b) Filtration of hot mixture.
by dissolving the mixture in hot water and filtering the hot solution.
Benzoic acid dissolves in hot water but anthrance does not. Upon filtration, anthracene remains as a residue on
the filter paper while benzoic acid crystallises from the filtrate on cooling.
Sometimes, the filtration is very slow and takes a long time. In such cases, filtration is carried out under reduced
pressure using a Buchner funnel and water suction pump are shown in figure below.
38
Chemistry
Separation of liquid – liquid mixture
(1) Vacuum distillation or distillation under reduced pressure:
This technique of distillation is applied to liquids which decompose on heating to their boiling point. We know
that the boiling point of a liquid varies with atmospheric pressure i.e., at reduced pressure the boiling point
of liquid is also reduced and thus liquid distils at low temperature.
(2) Steam distillation
This is a convenient method for the separation and purification of organic compounds (solid or liquid) from
non-volatile organic or inorganic impurities. This method is applicable to only those compounds which are
volatile in steam, insoluble in water, possess a vapour pressure of about 10 - 15 mm of Hg at 373 K and
contain non-volatile impurities. Some of the compounds which can be purified by this process are essential
oils, oils, nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene, etc.
1.1
How will you separate a mixture of o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol ?
Explanation
Steam distillation, o-nitrophenol being volatile distils over along with water while p-nitrophenol being non-
volatile remains in the flask.
Separation of gas - gas mixtures
(1) Diffusion
In this method of separation, difference in densities of component gases is used. The gas with lower molecular
weight diffuses faster than the gas with higher molecular weight. For example hydrogen (H 2
) and methane
(CH 4 ) helium (He) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ).
(2) Dissolution in suitable solvents
In this method of separation, difference in solubility of component gases in a given solvent is used. For
example a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is soluble in potassium hydroxide (KOH) leaving behind carbon
monoxide (CO). Here in a mixture of ammonia (NH 3 ) and nitrogen (N 2 ) ammonia (NH 3 ) is soluble in water
and nitrogen (N 2 ) is insoluble.
(3) Preferential liquefaction
In this method of separation, difference in liquefaction of component gases in a given solvent is used. For
example a mixture of ammonia (NH 3 ) and hydrogen (H 2 ) can be separated by this method. Here, ammonia
gets liquefied under high pressure and hydrogen gas is left behind.
(4) Fractional evaporation
In this method of separation difference in boiling points of the component gases is used. For example when
air is liquefied, the major components of air, nitrogen (N 2
) and oxygen (O 2 ) can be separated by subjecting
the liquid to evaporation. Here, nitrogen (N 2 ) has a lower boiling point and hence boils off, oxygen (O 2
) has
a higher boiling point and remains behind.

Separation of liquid - gas mixtures
(1) Heating : In this method of separation, decrease in solubility of a gas with increase in temperature is used.
For example when a solution containing a gas is subjected to slight heating below the boiling point of the
liquid, the gas escapes out leaving behind the liquid component. For example, separation of dissolved
oxygen (O 2 ) in water by heating water.
(2) Lowering the pressure: In this method of separation, difference in solubility of gas in the liquid at different
pressures is used. For example soda water can be separated by this method. Here when soda water bottle
is opened, the pressure inside the bottle decreases and carbondioxide (CO 2
) gas fizzes out of the bottle.
A special method applicable for all types of mixture is
Chromatography :
The name chromatography is based on the Greek word chroma, for colour since the method was first used for
the separation of coloured substances found in plants.
Types of chromatography : The stationary phase can be either a solid or tightly bound liquid on a solid support
while the mobile phase can be either a liquid or a gas. Depending upon the nature of the stationary and the
mobile phases, the different types of chromatographic techniques commonly used are given in.
39
Class IX
Some common types of chromatography
S.No. Type of chromatography Mobile/Station Uses
ary
phase
1. Adsorption or Column Liquid / Solid Large scale separations
chromatography
2 Thin layer chromatography (TLC) Liquid / Solid Qualitative analysis (identification and
characterization of organic compound
3 High performance liquid Liquid / Solid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
chromatography (HPLC)
4 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC) Gas / Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
5 Paper or partition chromatography Liquid / Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
of polar organic compounds (sugars, a
amino acids) and inorganic compounds.
Depending upon the principle involved, chromatography can be divided into the following two categaries :
(a) Adsorptoin chromatography (b) Partition chromatography
Adsorptoin chromatography :
Principle. This method is based upon the differential adsorption of the various components of a mixture on a
suitable adsorbent such as silica gel or alumina. Since some compounds are more strongly absorbed tan the
other, thy will travel through the column at different rates and thus get separated.
Types of adsorption chromatography
Adsorption chromatography is of the following two types :
(i) Column chromatography (ii) Thin layer chromatography
Distance travelled by the compound(X)

R f values - It is defined as R f =
Distance travelled by the solvent from (Y)
Since the solvent front always moves faster on the TLC plate than the compounds, Rf values are usually
expressed as a decimal fraction.
Partition chromatography :
Principle: paper chromatography works on the principle of partition that is it is based upon continious differential
partitioning of the various components of the mixture between the stationary and the mobile phases.
1.1
Name the method which is most suitable for separation the following:
(a) Oxygen from liquid air Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\02_Classification of materials.p65
(b) Red blood cell from plasma

(c) Petrol and kerosene from crude oil
(d) Coffee grains from coffee solution
(e) Pieces of steel from engine oil
(f) Amino acids from fruit juice solution
(g) Ethanol and either
Explanation
(a) Oxygen from liquid air = Fractional distillation
(b) Red blood cell from plasma = Centrifugation
(c) Petrol & Kerosene from crude oil = Fractional distillation
(d) Coffee grain from coffee solution = filtration
(e) Pieces of steel from engine oil = magnetic separation
(f) Amino acids from fruit juice solution = chromatography
(g) Ethanol and ether = fractional distillation
40
Chemistry
EXERCISE
1. The most abundant metal in the earth's crust is
(1) Fe (2) Cu (3) Al (4) Au
2. The most abundant element in the earth's is
(1) Si (2) C (3) O (4) Ca
3. Air is regarded as a mixture because
(1) its pressure may very (2) its temperature may change
(3) its volume changes under different conditions (4) its composition may vary
4. Which of the following is not true about mixtures?
(1) Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
(2) Components in a mixture are present in a fixed ratio.
(3) Properties of a mixture are the average of its components.
(4) Components of a mixture can be separated easily by simple physical methods.
5. Which of these is not a mixture?
(1) Oil and water (2) Sand and water (3) Diet Soda (4) All are mixtures.
6. A sample contains two substances and has not uniform properties. The sample is,
(1) a compound (2) a heterogeneous mixture
(3) an element (4) a homogeneous mixture
7. Which of the following is a homogeneous system?
(1) Muddy water (2) Bread (3) Concrete (4) A solution of sugar in water
8. Select the odd one out.
(1) Hydrogen (2) Oxygen (3) Steam (4) Chlorine
9. A homogeneous system among the following is
(1) Milk (2) Sand in water (3) Urea in water (4) Benzene in water
10. Which of the following is insoluble in water ?
(1) Benzene (2) Alcohol (3) Acetic acid (4) Sugar

11. Which of the following is a compound?
(1) Stainless steel (2) Bronze (3) Graphite (4) Hydrogen sulphide
12. Two substances A and B when brought together form a substance C with the evolution of heat. The properties
of C are entirely different from those of A and B. The substance C is
(1) A compound (2) An element (3) A mixture (4) None of these
13. Which of the following is a characteristic of both mixtures and compounds?
(1) They contain components in fixed proportions.
(2) Their properties are the same as those of their components.
(3) Their weight equal the sum of the weights of their components.
(4) Energy is given out when they are being prepared.
41
Class IX
14. Which of the following is true solution?
(1) Milk (2) Chalk powder in water
(3) Salt solution (4) Blood
15. Solutions with low concentration of solutes are,
(1) Concentrated (2) Dilute (3) Solvents (4) None of the above
16. A liquid and a solid together consisting a single phase is known as
(1) solution (2) solute (3) solvent (4) emulsion
17. Amalgam is a solution of
(1) solid in solid (2) solid in liquid (3) liquid in solid (4) liquid in liquid
18. Which of the following is a true solution?
(1) NaCl in sulphur dioxide (2) Copper in silver
(3) Salt in petrol (4) Mud in water
19. A solution of iodine in alcohol is known as
(1) Aqueous solution (2) Alcoholic solution
(3) Heterogeneous solution (4) Tincture of iodine
20. Solution consists of
(1) Solvent (2) Solute (3) Solutes (4) All of these
21. Solution is a
(1) Homogeneous mixture
(2) Heterogeneous mixture
(3) Compound formed between solute and solvent
(4) Homo as well as heterogeneous mixture
22. Solid solution is
(1) Solid in solid (2) Solid in liquid (3) Solid in gas (4) Liquid in solid
23. The solution of sugar in water contains
(1) Free atoms (2) Free ions
(3) Free molecules (4) Free atoms and molecules
24. Gun powder is a _____.
(1) solid-liquid homogeneous mixture (2) solid-liquid heterogeneous mixture
(3) solid-solid homogeneous mixture (4) solid-solid heterogeneous mixture
25. Which of the following is not a solution?
(1) Smoke (2) Air (3) Salt (4) A gold ring
26. When raisin is placed in aq solution it
(1) shrinks (2) swells (3) burns (4) remains same
27. Out of formality (F), molality(m), molarity(M) and mole fraction(x), which is/are independent in temperature
(1) M, m (2) F, x (3) m, x (4) M, x
42
Chemistry
28. If 100 ml of 1M NaOH is diluted to one litre, the resulting solution has molarity
(1) M/100 (2) 0.1 M (3) 1 M (4) 10 M
29. What is the volume of water to be added to 200 ml of 18 M H 2 SO 4 solution to get 1.8 M H 2 SO 4 solution?
(1) 1800 litres (2) 2000 litres (3) 2000 ml (4) 1800 ml
30. The molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 7.1 gm of Na 2 SO 4 in 100 ml water is
(1) 2 M (2) 1 M (3) 0.5 M (4) 0.05 M
31. One molal solution contains
(1) One mole of solute in one litre of solution. (2) One mole of solute in 1000 gm of the solvent.
(3) One gram-equivalent in 1000 ml of solutions. (4) One gram-equivalent in 1000 gm if solvent.
32. The number of moles of NaOH present in 10 litres of 1 molar solution is
(1) 10 (2) 1 (3) 0.1 (4) 0.01
33. How many moles are represented by 24.5 gm of H 2 SO 4 ?
(1) 2.5 (2) 2.05 (3) 0.25 (4) 25
34. Which of the following acid has the same molecular weight and equivalent weight ?
(1) H3 PO 2 (2) H3 PO 3 (3) H3 PO 4 (4) H2 SO 4
35. Find the number of equivalents of solute present in 123 ml of 1 N KOH solution.
(1) 123 (2) 12.3 (3) 1.23 (4) 0.123
36. 1000 ml of water is added to 250 ml of 0.05 N HCl solution. Find the normality of dilute solution
(1) 1 N (2) 0.05 N (3) 0.0125 N (4) 5 N
37. The molarity of H 3 PO 4 solution is 0.05 M. Find its normality.
(1) 0.15 N (2) 1.5 N (3) 0.03 N (4) 0.3 N
38. A one molar solution is one that contains
(1) 1 g of the solute in 1000 g of solvent. (2) 1 g mole of solute in 1000 ml of solution.
(3) 1 g mole of solute in 22.4 litres of solution. (4) 1 g mole of solute in 1000 g of solvent.
39. 4 gm of NaOH are dissolved in 500 ml of water. Active mass of NaOH is
(1) 0.1 (2) 0.2 (3) 0.3 (4) 0.4

40. Which is dimensionless quantity?
(1) Molarity (2) Mole fraction (3) Normality (4) None of these
41. Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid is 36.5% by weight. What is the molality of the solution ?
(1) 1.575 molal (2) 15.75 molal (3) 157.5 molal (4) 1575 molal
42. The concentration unit which changes with temperature is
(1) Molarity (2) Molality
(3) Mole Fraction (4) Both Molality and Mole Fraction
43. To change the molal concentration to one half which one of the following should be adopted ?
(1) Weight of solute should be doubled (2) Weight of solvent should be doubled
(3) Volume of solvent should be doubled (4) Weight of the solution should be doubled
43
Class IX
44. The concentration method applicable to solutes with macro molecules, polymers and ionic solid is
(1) Molarity (2) Formality (3) Normality (4) Molality
45. 3.65 grams of HCl is dissolved in 180 grams of water. What is the Mole Fraction of water and HCl ?
(1) and 9 (2) 9 and 1 (3) .99 and .009 (4) 0.9 and 0.1
46. Molarity is expressed in
(1) moles/kg (2) gm/lit (3) moles/lit (4) lit/mole
47. The ratio between the number of moles of a compound and total number of moles present in a mixture is
called
(1) Normality (2) Molarity (3) Mole fraction (4) Formality
48. The unit of mole fraction of a component of a solution is
(1) Moles/litre (2) Moles/Kg (3) NO units (4) Grams/litre
49. 9.8 gm of H 2 SO 4 is present in 2 litres of a solution. The molarity of the solution is
(1) 0.1 M (2) 0.05 M (3) 0.01 M (4) 0.5 M
50. Molarity of a solution that contains 49 gm H 3 PO 4 in 2 litres of solution is
(1) 0.25 (2) 0.5 (3) 0.75 (4) 1.0
51. How much water is added to 10 ml of 10 N HNO 3 to make its conc. 0.1 N?
(1) 100 ml (2) 1010 ml (3) 990 ml (4) 1000 ml
52. What is the solubility of sucrose sugar, C 12
H 22 O 11 , at 20°C?
(1) 55g/100 g water (2) 75 g/100 g water
(3) 90 g/100 g water (4) 204 g/100 g water
53. What is the mass of a 10.0% blood plasma solution that contains 2.50 g of dissolved solute?
(1) 0.250 g (2) 0.278 g (3) 25.0 g (4) 250 g
54. What is the mass of water needed to prepare 5.00 kg of a 40.0% antifreeze solution?
(1) 2.00 kg (2) 3.00 kg (3) 3.33 kg (4) 12.5 kg
55. When salt is dissolved in water, there is
(1) an increase of boiling point (2) no change in boiling point
(3) a decrease of boiling point (4) none of the above
56. Solubility of deliquescent substances in water generally
(1) High (2) Modulate (3) Low (4) Cannot be said
57. Coca-Cola is carbonated by injecting the liquid with carbon dioxide gas. Under what conditions is the solubility of
carbon dioxide the greatest?
(1) Low temperature, low pressure (2) Low temperature, high pressure
(3) Low temperature, pressure is not a factor (4) High pressure, temperature is not a factor
58. Which of the following illustrates the like dissolves like rule for two liquids?
(1) A polar solvent is insoluble in a polar solvent
(2) A polar solvent is soluble in a nonpolar solvent
(3) A nonpolar solvent is soluble in a nonpolar solvent
(4) All of the above
44
Chemistry
59. Apply the like dissolves like rule to predict which of the following liquids is miscible with water.
(1) chloroform,CHCl 3
(2) glycerin,C 3 H 5 (OH)3
(3) toluene,C 6 H 5 CH 3 (4) All of the above

60. Grease spots from garments can be separated by a method of
(1) chromatography (2) solvent extraction

(3) sublimation (4) dissolution in suitable solvents
61. When solid potassium fluoride dissolves in water, which of the following is one of the aqueous ions formed?
+ +
(1) K---H–O (2) K---O–H (3) F---O–H (4) all of the above
–
H H
H
—
62. Which of the following increases the rate of dissolving for a solid solute in a solvent?
(1) Grinding the solute (2) Heating the solution
(3) Stirring the solution (4) All of the above
63. The type of emulsion is mentioned against the emulsion in each of the following. Which is not correctly matched?
(1) Milk : o/w (2) Shampoo : w/o
(3) Butter : w/o (4) Cold cream : w/o
64. The emulsifying agent present in milk that makes it stable is
(1) Lactose (2) Maltose (3) Casein (4) Lactalbumin
65. Which of the following is Aerosols?
(1) Alloy (2) Fog (3) Milk (4) Butter
66. Which of the following is lyophobic colloids?
(1) Gold sol (2) As 2 S 3 sol (3) Starch sol (4) Fe(OH) 3 sol
67. Which of the following is in correctly matched?

(1) Butter-sol (2) Milk-emulsion (3) Fog emulsion (4) Pearls-Solid sol
68. Which of the following does not form a lyophilic colloid?

(1) Rubber dissolved in benzene

(2) White of the egg dissolved into water
(3) Common salt added into benzene
(4) Stannous chloride solution added to gold chloride solution
69. Which one of the following is correctly matched?
(1) Emulsion-curd (2) Foam-mist (3) Aerosol-smoke (4) Solid sol-cake

70. The zig-zag movement of dispersed phase particle in a colloidal system is known as
(1) Transitional motion (2) Circular motion (3) Linear motion (4) Brownian motion
71. Scattering of light takes place in

(1) Electrolytic solutions (2) Colloidal solutions (3) Suspension (4) Electroplating
45
Class IX
72. Which of the following forms a colloidal solution in water?
(1) Salt (2) Glucose (3) Starch (4) Barium nitrate
73. Ice cream is an example of
(1) True solution (2) Compound (3) Colloid (4) Suspension
74. Adsorption property is applied in
(1) sewage disposal (2) ultramicroscope (3) smoke precipitator (4) medicine
75. Solid foam is
(1) Solid dispersed in solid (2) Liquid dispersed in solid
(3) Gas dispersed in solid (4) Solid dispersed in liquid
76. The dispersed phase constitutes
(1) Solvent (2) Solute (3) Solution (4) Mixture of solvent
77. Mixture of ZnCl 2 & PbCl 2 can be separated by
(1) Distillation (2) Crystallisation (3) Sublimation (4) Adding acetic acid
78. The process used to separate oil and water is
(1) Distillation (2) Sublimation
(3) Separating funnel (4) Chromatography
79. A mixture of ethanol and water can be separated by
(1) filtration (2) decantation
(3) fractional distillation (4) sublimation
80. After crystallization takes place, the solution in contact with the crystal is
(1) Concentrated (2) Unsaturated (3) Saturated (4) Supersaturated
ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 4 2 4 2 4 3 3 1 4 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 4 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 3 4 3 2 3 2 4 3 2 1 3 1 4 3 1 2 2 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 2
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 4 2 4 2 1 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3
46
Chemistry
Atoms and
molecules
The smallest unit of any element is called an atom. The atoms of different elements combine with one another
to form new substances called compounds. The compounds so formed are neutral in character, i.e., they have
no electric charges on them. All matter is made by the combination of atoms of different elements combined
together in some fixed ratio. In a way, atoms are the basic building blocks of the matter.
There is a beautiful description of atomic theory in the treaties , “Vaisheshik Darshan” written by Kanad, in
which he has proposed that the whole universe is made up of atoms.
By scientific study substance is classified into pure substance and mixture. Then substance is viewed as element
and compound. Why one element differ from another? Similarly why one compound is different from
another? How new compounds are formed by the mutual action of elements or compounds?
By the late 1700s, scientists began to realize that the concept of atoms provided an explanation for many ex-
perimental observations.
One of the most important aspects of the subject of chemistry is the study of chemical reactions. These chemical
reactions take place according to the certain laws, called the 'laws of chemical combination'.
(A) Law of conservation of mass (B) Law of constant proportion
(C) Law of multiple proportion (D) Law of reciprocal proportion
(E) Law of combining volumes (Gay Lussac's law of gaseous volume)
The laws of chemical combination are the experimental laws which led to the idea of atoms being the smallest unit
of matter. The laws of chemical combination played a significant role in the development of Dalton's atomic theory
of matter.
The first four laws deal with the mass relationships whereas the fifth law deals with the volumes of the reacting gases.
(1) Law of conservation of mass
This law is given by Antoine Lavoisier .
According to this law, matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of chemical reaction although it
may change from one form to other.
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\03_Atoms and molecules.p65
The total mass of materials present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass before reaction.
The law was tested by Heydweiller and Landolt (1901-1906) who performed fifteen different reactions in a
closed H-tube so that nothing was allowed to escape. It was noticed that there was hardly any change in the
weights of the tube.
Consider any reaction, say combination of AgNO 3
and KI in H-tube (see figure). Let AgNO 3

and KI are
filled in limb A & B, respectively and then tube is
tilted to allow these reactants to react as
AgNO 3 + KI  AgI + KNO 3 . The mass of tube A B
before and after the reaction comes out to be same. Fig. 1 H-tube
47
Class IX
Example: 6.3 g of sodium bicarbonate was added to 15.0 g of acetic acid solution. Carbon dioxide gas was
produced which was allowed to escape while the residue (of sodium acetate and water) was found to weigh 18.0
g. What is the mass of carbon dioxide which escaped out into the atmosphere?
Solution:
NaHCO 3 + CH 3 COOH  CH 3 COONa + H 2 O + CO 2
According to law of conservation of mass,
Total mass before reaction = Total mass after reaction
Mass of NaHCO 3 + Mass of CH 3 COOH = Mass of CH 3 COONa + Mass of H 2 O + Mass of CO 2
6.3 + 15.0 18.0 + mass of CO 2
Mass of CO 2 = 21.3 – 18.0 = 3.3 g

(2) Law of constant (or definite) proportion : [Proust, 1799]
According to this law, a chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass.
This law was proved within the limits of experimental error by the work of Stas, who prepared the compounds
in several different ways and showed that their composition was the same.
For example CO 2
can be prepared by following ways:

(i) by heating CaCO 3
: CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2

(ii) by heating NaHCO 3
: 2NaHCO 3
 Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2

(iii) by burning carbon in O 2
: C+O 2
 CO 2

(iv) by CaCO3 and HCl : CaCO 3
+ 2HCl  CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
CO 2 is collected separately as a product of each reaction and the analysis of CO 2

of each collection /reveals
that it has the combination ratio of carbon and oxygen as 12 : 32 or 3 : 8.
Important aspects of law of constant proportion
(i) The discovery of isotopes, however, led to slight modification in this law. Since the isotopes of an element
have different atomic weights, it is possible to have the same chemical compound with different compo-
sition according to the isotope used in its formation.
e.g. CO 2 using C 12 isotope has C : O :: 12 : 32
CO 2 using C 14 isotope has C : O :: 14 : 32
(ii) Also the elements combining in the same ratio of their masses may give different compounds under dif-
ferent experimental conditions e.g. combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 12:3:8 may
give C 2 H 5 OH or CH 3 OCH 3 under different experimental conditions.
Copper oxide was prepared by the following methods:

(a) In one case, 1.75 g of the metal were dissolved in nitric acid and igniting the residual copper nitrate yielded
2.19 g of copper oxide.
(b) In the second case, 1.14 g of metal dissolved in nitric acid were precipitated as copper hydroxide by adding
caustic alkali solution. The precipitated copper hydroxide after washing, drying and heating yielded 1.43
g of copper oxide.
(c) In the third case, 1.45 g of copper when strongly heated in a current of air yielded 1.83 g of copper oxide.
Show that the given data illustrate the law of constant composition.
48
Chemistry
Explanation
In the first experiment.
2.19 g of copper oxide contain 1.75 g of Cu.
 100 g of copper oxide contain
1.75
= × 100 = 79.91 %
2.19
In the second experiment.

1 .43 g of copper oxide contain 1.14 g of copper
1.14
= × 100 = 79.72 %
1.43
In the third experiment.

1.83 g of copper oxide contain 1.46 g of copper
1.46
= × 100 = 79.78 %
1.83
Thus, the percentage of copper in copper oxide derived from all the three experiments is nearly the same.
Hence, the above data illustrate the law of constant composition.
(3) Law of multiple proportions (constant John Dalton 1804)
According to this law, when two elements A and B combine together to form more than one chemical compound
then different weights of A, which combine with a fixed weight of B, are in a proportion of simple whole numbers.
The law is fully illustrated by the following example.
Nitrogen forms as many as five stable oxides.
That combines are in the ratio 16 : 32 : 48 : 64 : 90 : i.e. 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5 in N2 O, NO, N 2 O 3 , N 2 O 4 and
N2 O 5 respectively
Example: Tin combines with oxygen to form two compounds having the following composition:
% of Tin % of oxygen
Compound A 78.77 21.23

Compound B 88.12 11:88
Show that the above data illustrate the law of multiple proportion.
Solution: In compound A:
21.23 part of oxygen combines with 78.77 part of tin
1 part of oxygen combines with 78.77/21.23 part of tin = 3.7
In compound B:
11.88 part of oxygen combines with 88.12 parts of tin
1 part of oxygen combines with 88.12/11.88 part of tin = 7.4
Thus weight ratio of tin for its combination with one part of oxygen are 3.7 : 7.4 i.e. 1 : 2. This is a simple
ratio and this data illustrate the law of multiple proportion.
49
Class IX
Carbon, combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Show
that law of multiple proportion is followed.
Explanation
Carbon combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. In carbon
dioxide, 12 parts by mass of carbon combine with 32 parts by mass of oxygen while in carbon monoxide, 12
parts by mass of carbon combine with 16 parts by mass of oxygen. Therefore, the masses of oxygen which
combine with a fixed mass of carbon (12 parts) in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are 16 and 32
respectively. These masses of oxygen bear a simple ratio of 16 : 32 or 1 : 2 to each other.
(4) Law of equivalent proportion or law of reciprocal proportion: [Richter 1792-94]
The weights of the two or more substances which separately react with same weight of a third substance are
also the weights of these substances which react with each other or simple multiple of them. The law can be
illustrated as below:
(a) Hydrogen combines with sulphur forming hydrogen sulphide (H 2
S); 2 gm of hydrogen reacts with 32 gm
of sulphur.
(b) Hydrogen combines with oxygen forming wat er (H 2 O); 2 gm of h ydrogen react s with
16 gm of oxygen.
(c) Sulphur combines with oxygen to form SO 2; 32 gm of sulphur reacts with 32 gm of oxygen i.e. in the ratio
32 : 32. This ratio is double of the ratio of weights of these elements which combine with 2 gm of hydrogen.
32/16: 32/32 = 2 : 1
2g
H
H 2S H 2O
S O
32g SO 2 16g
(5) Law of gaseous volumes: [Gay Lussac 1808]

According to this law, when gases combine, they do so in volume which bear a simple ratio to each other and
also to the product formed provided all gases are measured under similar conditions.
The law can be illustrated as,
1
(a) H2 (g) + O (g)  H 2 O(g)
2 2
One volume of H 2 reacts with half volume of O 2 to give one volume of H 2 O vapours.
(b) N2 + 3H 2  2NH 3
One volume of N 2 reacts with three volume of H 2 to give two volume of NH 3 .
1
(c) CO + O  CO 2
2 2
One volume of CO combines with half volume of O 2
to give one volume of CO 2
.
(d) H2 + Cl 2  2HCl
One volume of H 2 combines with one volume of Cl 2 to give two volumes of HCl.
Example: 8 litre of H 2 and 6 litre of Cl 2 are allowed to react to maximum possible extent. Find out the final
volume of reaction mixture. Suppose P and T remains constant throughout the course of reaction.
Solution: H2 + Cl 2  2HCl
Volume before reaction 8 litre 6 litre
Volume after reaction 2 0 12 litre
Volume after reaction = Volume of H 2 left + volume of HCl formed = 2 + 12 = 14 litre.
50
Chemistry
Keeping in view of the laws of chemical combinations and the work of Greek philosophers, a meaningful atomic
theory was finally proposed by an English school teacher John Dalton in 1803. The basic postulates of Dalton’s
theory are as follows:
(i) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
(ii) All atoms of a given element are identical i.e. atoms of a particular element are all alike but differ from
atoms of other elements.
(iii) Atoms of different elements possess different properties (including different masses).
(iv) Atoms are indestructible i.e. atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
(v) Atoms of elements take part to form molecules i.e. compounds are formed when atoms of more than one
element combine.
(vi) In a given compound, the relative number and kind of atoms are constant.
Advantages of Dalton’s atomic theory
(i) Dalton’s theory provides us a conceptual picture of matter. One can visualize an element as being
comprised of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. They are the small-
est units of an element that can combine with other elements in a chemical reaction. In compounds, the
atoms of two or more elements combine in definite arrangements. Mixtures do not involve the intimate
interaction between atoms that are found in compounds.
(ii) It is thus evident that Dalton’s theory embodies several simple laws of chemical combinations that were
known at that time. Postulate (iv) indicates for the law of conservation of mass. Postulate (vi) indicates the
law of definite proportion.
(iii) Dalton’s theory also explains the law of multiple proportion. It also explains that what makes an element
to differ from each other.
Limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory
(i) Distinction between atoms and molecules: According to Dalton, the smallest particle of an element
as well as of compound was atom, however, he called ‘atoms’ to the smallest particle of compound. Later
on Avogadro used the term molecule for the ‘compound atom’ i.e. molecule is the smallest particle of com-
pound.
(ii) It could not justify Berzelius hypothesis: Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, proposed that under similar
conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volume of gases contain equal number of atoms. But Dalton’s
atomic theory could not explain this.

(iii) It could not explain why do atoms combine to form a molecule.
(iv) It could not explain the nature of forces which hold the atoms and molecules in solids, liquid and gaseous
state.
(v) It could not explain the Gay Lussac’s law of combining volume.
(vi) It could not explain that why atoms of an element differ in their masses.
Before 1600 AD alchemists tried to represent the substances that they used to their experiments by various
kinds of pictorial symbols such as a triangle representing the earth for silver and so on.
Dalton used some other types of symbols to represent the elements. For instance, he drew a circle for oxygen
or a circle with a dot for hydrogen.
51
Class IX
Later, Johann Berzelius, a Swiss chemist suggested that the initial capital letter should represent a particular
element such as O for oxygen, H for hydrogen and C for carbon and so on. But in some cases, the symbols
or the alphabet he had suggested did not agree with the English names of elements. This was because some
of his symbols were based on the Latin names of the elements as well as certain other elements on their Greek
names. But the method suggested by him forms the basis on which the modern system of chemical symbols
and formulae are taken into account.
Symbols obtained from other languages:
Common name La tin (L) or

Symbol
(of the element) Greek (G) name
Gold Au Aurum (L)
Silver Ag Argentum (L)
Cop per Cu Cup rum (L)
Lead Pb Plumbum (L)
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum (L)
Iron Fe Ferrum (L)
Potassium K Kalium (L)
Tin Sn Stannum (L)
Nitrogen N Nitrogenium (L)
Carbon C Carbonium (L)
Oxygen O Oxygenium (L)
Silicon Si Silex (L)
Calcium Ca Clax (L)
Hydrogen H Hydrogenium (L)
Antimony Sb Stibium (L)
Sodium Na Natrium (L)
Chromium Cr Chromos (G)
Krypton Kr Kryp tos (G)
A symbol is a short form that stands for the atom of an element. Each element is denoted by a symbol. This
is usually the first letter of its name in English or Latin or Greek. For example, the symbol O represents the
element oxygen, Latin name for copper is Cuprum, so the letters Cu represents copper. The symbol of an element
also represents the mass of the element which contains one Avogadro’s number of atoms of that element.
Thus,
H 2 , represents one molecule of hydrogen.
H 2 O represents one molecule of water.
Na 2 CO 3 denotes one formula unit of sodium carbonate.

CH 3 COOH denotes one molecule of acetic acid.
CuSO 4 .5H 2 O denotes one formula unit of hydrated copper sulphate.
Importance of molecular formula
The molecular formula of a compound has quantitative significance. It represents:
(1) The representative numbers of different atoms in one molecule of the compound.
(2) The ratios of the respective masses of the elements present in the compound.
(3) The molecular formula represents one molecule of the substance, e.g., CO 2
represents one molecule of
carbon dioxide.
(4) Molecular formula gives the name and the actual number of atoms of all kinds present is one molecule
of the substance. Thus, the formula CO 2 , indicates that one molecule of carbon dioxide contains one atom
of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
52
Chemistry
Let us illustrate. The formulae CO 2
(a) This means that the molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO 2
.
(b) Each molecule contains one carbon atom joined by chemical bonds with two oxygen atoms.
(c) The molecular mass of carbon dioxide is 44 given that the atomic mass of carbon is 12 and that of oxygen
is 16. (12+ 16+16 = 44)
Similarly,
1. H 2 is the molecular formula of hydrogen. This formula shows that one molecule of hydrogen contains two
atoms of hydrogen.
2. H 2 O is the molecular formula of water. This formula shows that one molecule of water contains two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
The molecular formula of a compound is electrically neutral, that is, the positive and the negative valencies
of the ions or the radicals present in the compounds add up to zero.
The following steps should be taken while attempting to write a formula:
(a) Write the symbols side by side, usually the one with the positive valency first.
The ion containing more than one atom should be written within brackets.
(b) Write the valency of each ion on the top of its symbol.
(c) Divide the valency numbers by their Highest Common Factor to get the simple ratio. Ignore the (+) or (–)
signs of the radicals. If the valency number is one, it need not be written.
(d) Write the interchanged valency numbers to the lower right of the radicals, if the radical is a group of atoms
and receives a valency number of more than one then enclose it within brackets.
Take the case of aluminium sulphate and barium carbonate.
Step 1: Al 3+ (SO 4 )2– Ba 2+ (CO 3 )2–
3 2 2 2
Al (SO 4 ) Ba (CO 3)
Step 2:
2 3 2 2
Step 3: Dividing the numbers by their HCF

Al2 (SO 4 )3, Ba 1 (CO 3 )1
Step 4: Valency number 1 is not written
Al2 (SO 4 )3 BaCO 3
Hence, we can see that in Al 2 (SO 4 )3 molecule, 3 × 2 = + 6 charges on two Al 3+
ions are balanced by
–2 ×3 = –6 charges on three SO 4
2–
ions. Similarly, in BaCO 3
, molecule, 2 × 1 = +2 charges on one Ba +2
ion balanced by –2 charges on one CO 3 2– ion.

Name of Symbols with valencies Exchanges of valency Formula
compound
Magnesium Mg2+ Cl 1– Mg Cl MgCl 2

Chloride 2 1
Mg1 Cl 2
Calcium Oxide Ca 2+
O 2–
Ca O CaO
2 2 [cancelling
common factor]
Ca 2 O 2
3+ 1–
Aluminium Al (OH) Al (OH) Al (OH)3
Hydroxide 3 1
Al1 (OH) 3
Phosphorus trioxide P 3+
O 2–
P O P2 O 3
3 2
P2 O 3
53
Class IX
Naming of salts
Acids from which the salt is produced Suffix and name of the salt
1. 'ous' acid ‘ite’
Example:
Sulphurous acid (H 2 SO 3 ) CaSO 3 Calcium sulphite
Nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) Zn(NO2 ) 2 Zinc nitrite
Phosphorous acid (H 3 PO 3 ) Mg3(PO 3 )2 Magnesium Phosphite
2. 'ic' acid ‘ate’

Example:
Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) ZnSO 4 Zinc sulphate
Nitric acid (HNO 3 ) NaNO 3 Sodium nitrate
Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ) AlPO 4 A luminium phosphate
The positive radical present in the salt comes from the corresponding base and the negative radical comes from
the corresponding acid.
The name of the salts starts with the name of the metal present as positive radical which is followed by the name
of the negative radical. The name of the negative radical is determined by the name of the acid from which the
salt is produced.
Anions
(1) Monoatomic anions are named by adding ‘ide’ to the stem name of the element.
Examples are H –
hydride; F – fluoride; Se 2– selenide; N 3– nitride; P 3– phosphide.
(2) Certain polyatomic anions have their names ending in ‘ide’:
– –
OH Hydroxide CN Cyanide N 3– Azide
O2 2–
Peroxide S2 2–
Disulphide I3 –
Triiodide
– 2– 2–
O2 Superoxide C2 Acetylide NH Imide
O3 –
Ozonide NH 2 – Amide
Ions such as HS – and HF 2

–
are named hydrogensulphide and hydrogendifluoride.
(3) Oxyacid anions: Oxyanions are named using the name characteristic of the central atom ending in 'ate',
with the oxidation number of the central atom being shown in roman numerals put in parentheses after the
name of the anion. Examples,
SO 4 2– Tetraoxosulphate (VI) SO 3
2–
Trioxosulphate(IV)
PO 33– Trioxophosphate (III) S 2 O 3 2– Trioxothiosulphate (VI)
(4) Certain anions have well established trivial names in which prefixed such as per, hypo, etc. are used. This
is in conformity with the name of the corresponding acids: the 'ous' acids give 'ite' anions and the 'ic' acids
give the 'ate' anions. Examples are:
NO 3– Nitrate N 2 O 2 2– Hyponitrite
SO 3 2- Sulphite ClO 2– Chlorite

SeO 3 2-
Selenite S 2O 5 2–
Bisulphite
PO 3 3-
Phosphite AsO 3
3–
Arsenite
NOO 2– Peroxonitrite ClO 4
Perchlorate
S2 O 2 2–
Thiosulphite
54
Chemistry
(5) Polyatomic cations derived from the addition of protons to mono-atomic anions are named by adding-onium
to the root name of the anion, e.g. phosphonium, arsonium, iodonium ions. Exceptions are ammonium,
hydroxyl, hydrazinium, anilinium, pyridinium, etc.
The following trivial names are acceptable:
H 2O Water NH 3
Ammonia BH 3
Borane
AsH 3 Arsine SiH 4 Silane SbH 3 Stibine
PH 3 Phosphine Si 2 H 6 Disilane N 2H 4 Hydrazine
3.6 Empirical and molecular formula

The chemical formula of the compound that can be calculated from the element analysis data (percentage by
mass of each element in the compound) is called the emporical formula.
Emporical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of different constituent elements
present in one molecule of the compound.
Steps taken to arrive at the emperical formula
(i) Determine the percentage of each element: Percentage of each element is determined quantitatively.
However, the percentage of oxygen is obtained by subtracting the sum of all other percentages from 100
i.e.. % of O = [100 – sum of % of all other constituent elements].
(ii) Divide the percentage of each element by its atomic mass to obtain the relative numbers of atoms (or
atomic ratio).
Percentage of an element
Atomic ratio =
Atomic mass of the same element
(iii) Divide the atomic ratio by smallest quotient to get the simplest ratio of various elements.
(iv) Convert the simplest ratio to the whole number ratio either by,
(1) Rounding them off to whole number, if the value is quite close to whole number e.g., 1.98, 2.99, 3.95
are rounded off as 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
(2) Multiply the figures by suitable integer (2, 3 or 4 etc.)
(v) Write the empirical formula of the compound by writing the symbols of the various elements side by side.
Now insert the whole number ratio of each element as the subscripts to the lower right hand corner of each
symbol.
An inorganic salt gave the following percentage composition Na = 29.11, S =40.51 and O = 30.38. Calculate
the empirical formula of the salt.

Explanation
Calculation of empirical formula
Moles of the element = Simp lest
Percentage At. mass of Simp lest m olar
Element Symbol Percentage At. mass whole no.
of elem ent elements ratio
(Relative no. of moles) molar ratio
29.11 1.266
Sodium Na 29.11 23 = 1.266 =1 2
23 1.266
40.51 1.266
Sulp hur S 40.51 32 = 1.266 =1 2
32 1.266
30.38 1.89
Oxygen O 30.38 16 = 1.897 = 1.5 3
16 1.266
Thus, the Empirical formula is Na 2
S2O 3.
55
Class IX
Molecular formula
It is that formula of the compound which gives the actual number of atoms of various elements in a molecule
of that compound. For example, molecular formula of glucose is C H O 6 . Molecular formula of a compound
6 12
is related to empirical formula as being a simple whole number multiple of empirical formula.
The molecular and empirical formula of any chemical compound are related as n ×Empirical formula = Molecular
formula, where ‘n’ is positive integer.
Molecular mass of compound

n=
Empirical formula mass
e.g. Let us consider hydrogen peroxide whose empirical formula is HO and its molecular formula mass is 34.
Molecular formula mass of hydrogen perox ide 34 34

N= = = =2
Empirical formula mass of hydrogen perox ide 1+16 17
Thus, the molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide = (empirical formula) n
= (HO) 2 = H 2 O 2 .
When n = 1. Molecular formula = Empirical formula
The molecular mass of a volatile compound can be determined by Victor Meyer's method (based on the prin-
ciple that 22.4L of vapours of a substance at STP have mass equal to gram molecular mass) or by employing
the relation.
Molecular mass = 2 × Vapour density.
Empirical formula mass can however, be obtained from its empirical formula simply by adding the atomic masses
of the various atoms present in it. Thus, for glucose (E.F. = CH 2
O) the emperical formula mass can be calculated
as follows:
Empirical formula mass = At. mass of carbon + 2 × At. mass of hydrogen + At. mass of oxygen
= 12.0 u + 2 × 1.0 u + 16.0 u = 30.0 u.
Hence following steps have to be carried out to arrive at the molecular formula of the compound.
1. Determine the empirical formula mass by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms represented in the
empirical formula e.g., empirical formula of glucose is CH 2 O.
 Emperical formula mass = 12 + 2 × 1 + 16 = 30
2. Determine the molecular mass from the data obtained by a suitable experiment.
3. Divide the molecular mass by the emperical formula mass and find out the value of n.
4. Multiply empirical formula by n to get the molecular formula.
An organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gave the following percentage composition.
C = 40.68%; H = 5.085% and O = 54.228%
The vapour density of the compound is 59. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Explanation
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Moles of the element = Simp lest
Percentage At. mass of Simp lest m olar
Element Symbol Percentage At. mass whole no.
of elem ent elements ratio
(Relative no. of moles) molar ratio
40.6 87 3. 390
Carbon C 40.687 12 = 3.39 =1 2
12 3.3 89
5.0 85 5.0 85
Hydrogen H 5.085 1 = 5.085 = 1.5 3
1 3.3 89
5 4.22 8 3.3 89
Oxygen O 54.228 16 = 3.389 =1 2
16 3.3 89
Empirical formula is C 2 H 3 O 2
56
Chemistry
Calculate the empirical formula mass.
Empirical formula mass = (2 ×12) + (3 ×1) + (2 ×16) = 59.
To calculate the molecular mass of the salt. The vapour density of the compound = 59. (Given)
Using the relation between vapour density and molecular mass,
Molecular mass = 2 × vapour density = 2 ×59 = 118.
To calculate the value of 'n'
Molecular mass
n= =2
Empirical formula mass
To calculate the molecular formula of the salt we use the following formula.
Molecular formula = n ×Empirical formula = 2 ×C 2

H 3O 2 = C 4H 6O 4
Thus, the molecular formula is C 4

H 6 O 4.
There are many ways of measuring the amount of a substance, weight and volume being the most common. But
the basic unit of chemistry is the atom or a molecule and to measure the number of atoms or molecules is,
therefore, of foremost importance.
Mole in Latin means heap or mass or pile. A mole of atoms is a collection of atoms whose total weight is the
number of grams equal to the atomic weight. As equal number of moles of different elements contain equal
number of atoms, it is convenient to express amounts of the elements in terms of moles. Just as a dozen means
twelve objects, a score means twenty objects, chemists have defined a mole as a ‘definite number’ of particles,
viz., atoms, molecules, ions or electrons, etc. This ‘definite number’ is called the Avogadro constant , equal to
6023 ×10 , in honour of Amedeo Avogadro.
23
The value of the Avogadro constant depends on the atomic-mass scale. At present the mole is defined as the
amount of a substance containing as many atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or other elementary entities as
there are carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of 12
C.
The following are the definitions of ‘mole’ represented in the form of equations:
Weight in gm
(i) Number of moles of molecules =
Molecular mass
Weight in gm
(ii) Number of moles of atoms =
Atomic mass
Volume at NTP
(iii) Number of moles of gases =
Standard molar volume
(Standard molar volume is the volume occupied by 1 mole of any gas at NTP, which is equal to 22.4 litres.)
Number of atoms / molecules / ions / ele ctrons

(iv) Number of moles of atoms / molecules / ions / electrons =
Avogadro constant
(iv) Number of moles of solute = Molarity × Volume of solution in litres.
At same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules. Thus, for
homogeneous gaseous reactions, the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation also signify the relative
volumes of each reactant and product under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
57
Class IX
e.g. H 2 (g) + I2 (g)  2HI (g)
1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules
Or 1 mole 1 mole 2 moles
Or 1 volume 1 volume 2 volumes
(T & P constant)
Or 1 pressure 1 pressure 2 pressures
(T & V constant)
1 mole is a fixed number of particles but not a fixed weight.
If conservation of mass, is expressed in the concepts of atoms means the concept of moles then if atoms are
conserved, moles of atoms shall also be conserved. This is known as the principle of atom conservation .
This principle is in fact the basis of the mole concept.
Examples:
Q.1 Calculate the weight of 6.023 × 10 23
molecules of CaCO 3 .
Number of molecules
Sol. No. of moles of CaCO =
3 Avogadro constant
6.023 × 10 23
=1
6.023 × 10 23
Weight of CaCO 3 = no. of moles x molecular wt. = 1 × 100 = 100 g.
Q.2 What will be the number of oxygen atoms in 1 mole of O 2
?
Sol. 1 mole of O 2 contains 6.023 × 10 molecules of oxygen, and since the oxygen molecule is diatomic, i.e., 1
23
molecule contains 2 atoms, the no. of oxygen atoms in 1 mole of O 2

is equal to 2 × 6.023 × 10 23 .
Q.3 A piece of Cu weighs 0.635 g. How many atoms of Cu does it contain?
Sol. No of moles of Cu = wt. of Cu
0.635
at wt. of Cu = = 0.01
63.5
No. of atoms of Cu= no. of moles of atoms × Av. Const.
0.01 × 6.023 × 10 23
= 6.023 × 10 21
Q.4 Calculate the number of molecules in 11.2 litres of SO 2

gas at NTP.
Volume at NTP (Litres) 11.2

Sol. No. of moles of SO = = = 0.5
2 Standard molar volume (litres) 22.4
No. of molecules of SO = No. of moles × Av. Const.

= 0.5 × 6.022 × 10 23
= 3.011 × 10 3
Q.5 From 200 mg of CO 2

, 10 21 molecules are removed. How many moles of CO 2
are left?
wt. in g 0.2
Sol. Total no. of moles of CO = = = 0.004545
2 Mol. wt. 44
10 21
No. of moles removed = = 0.00166.
6.022 10 23
No. of moles of CO 2
left = 0.004545–0.00166 = 0.00288
Q.6 Calculate the volume of 20 g of hydrogen gas at NTP.
20
Sol. Moles of hydrogen gas = 10
2
Volume of the gas at NTP = No. of moles ×22.4
= 10 × 22.4 = 224 litres
58
Chemistry
Q.7 Calculate the number of moles and the number of atoms of H, S and O in 5 moles of H 2
SO 4 .
Sol. 1 molecule of H 2 SO 4 contains 2 atoms of H
Or 1 mole of H 2 SO 4 contains 2 moles of H.
Or 5 moles of H 2 SO 4 contains 10 moles of H.
1 moles of H 2 SO 4 contains 1 mole of S
or 5 moles of H 2 SO 4 contains 5 moles of S
and again,
1 mole of H 2 SO 4 contains 4 moles of O.
Or 5 moles of H 2 SO 4 contains 20 moles of O.
No. of atoms of H = 10 ×6.022 ×10 23
No. of atoms of S = 5 ×6.022 ×10 23
No. of atoms of O = 20 ×6.022 ×10 23
Q.8 Calculate the volume occupied by 1 mole of He, H and O atoms at NTP.
Sol. As He is monoatomic, 1 mole of it will occupy 22.4 litres at NTP.
But hydrogen and oxygen being diatomic gases, 1 mole of their respective atoms will occupy a volume of 11.2
litres at NTP.
Salient features of Avogadro’s hypothesis
Avogadro’s law has played a very important role in the development of physical chemistry. The salient features
of Avogadro’s hypothesis are summarised below :
(i) It has removed the anomaly between Dalton’s atomic theory and Gay Lussac’s law of volume by making a
clear distinction in between atoms and molecules.
(ii) It reveals that common elementary gases like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine etc. are diatomic.
(iii) It provides a method to determine the atomic weights of gaseous elements,
(iv) It provides a relationship between vapour density and molecular weight of substances.
The vapour density of a gas is defined as the ratio of the weights of a certain volume of the gas to the weights of
the same volume of hydrogen at same temperature and pressure. Thus,
Volume of definite amount of gas

Vapor density =
Volume of same amount of hydrogen
Weight of n molecules of gas

Vapor density =
Weight of n molecules of hydrogen
Weight of one molecule of gas

Vapor density =
Weight of one molecule of hydrogen

Vapor density =
Weight of one atom of hydrogen ×2

Molecular weight of a gas =
Weight of one atom of gas
Molecular weight
Vapor density = or Molecular weight = 2 ×Vapor Density.
2
59
Class IX
A chemical equation is a short and quick way of representing a chemical reaction with the help of symbols and
formulae of the reactants and products involved.
It tells us what substances entered into a given reaction (reactants) and what products were formed as a result of
the reaction.
An arrow pointing towards the right as shown (i.e., towards the products) is placed between the reactants and
the products.
Reactants  Products
This arrow shows that the substances written on the left (i.e., reactants) react together and produce the
substances written on the right (i.e., products) of the arrow.
Example: When an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is added to that of copper sulphate, copper
hydroxide is precipitated and sodium sulphate is formed in solution. The equation may be written like this:
2NaOH + CuSO 4  Cu(OH) 2 + Na 2 SO 4
Reactants Products
Chemical reactions may involve any of these combinations:
(a) One reactant and two or more products (b) Two reactants and one product
(c) Two reactants and two products (d) Two reactants and three or more products.
(a) One reactant and two or more products:
(i) CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2
(ii) 2Pb(NO3 )2  2PbO+ 4NO 2 + O 2
(b) Two reactants and one product:
(i) NH3 + HCI  NH 4 Cl
(ii) N2 + 3H 2  2NH 3
(c) Two reactants and two products:
(i) AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO 3
(ii) Na2 SO 4 + BaCl 2  BaSO 4 +2NaCl
(d) Two reactants and three or more products :
(i) Cu + 2H 2 SO 4  CuSO 4 +2H 2 O + SO 2
(ii) 2KMnO4 + 16 HCl  2KCl + 2MnCl 2 + 8H 2 O + 5Cl 2
Skeletal equation
This is an equation which represents a chemical change but is unbalanced. In other words, the total number of
atoms of each element of the two sides is not equal.
For example, KNO 3  KNO 2 + O 2
In the above example of the chemical equation, the number of oxygen atoms in the reactant (KNO 3
) on the left
is not equal to the number of atoms in the products formed (KNO 2

+ O 2
) on the right.
Balanced equation
In this equation the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants, on the left of the equation, is the
same as the number of atoms in the products formed which is on the right of the equation.
For example, CaCO 3  CaO +CO 2
In this equation, the number of atoms of Ca, C and O on both sides is the same i.e., the equation is balanced.
KNO 3  KNO 2 + O 2
In this equation, since the number of atoms of oxygen on both sides is not the same, so the equation is not
balanced. The balanced form of the equation is:
2KNO 3  2KNO 2 + O 2
Why should an equation be balanced?
An equation must be balanced in order to follow the Law of conservation of matter . This law states that
matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of a chemical reaction. An unbalanced equation would
imply that atoms have been created or destroyed.
60
Chemistry
Information conveyed by a balanced chemical equation
Look at the following equation: 2NaOH + H 2 SO 4  Na 2 SO 4 +2H 2O
This is a balanced chemical equation that gives us both qualitative and quantitative information.
(a) Qualitative information
A balanced qualitative chemical equation tells us the names, symbols and formulae of the reactant molecules
taking part in the reaction and those of the product molecules formed in the reaction. In other words, a balanced
qualitative chemical reaction tells us about the actual result of the chemical change (as in the above equation).
(b) Quantitative information
A balanced quantitative chemical equation tells us:
(a) Which substances take part in the reaction (i.e., the reactants) and which substances are formed (i.e., the
products) as a result of it.
(b) The number of molecules of each substance taking part. Here the two molecules of sodium hydroxide and
one molecule of sulphuric acid react to give one molecule of sodium sulphate and two molecules of water.
(c) About the chemical composition of the respective molecules (about one molecule of sodium hydroxide
contains one atom of sodium, one atom of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen).
(d) The mass of each substance involved in the reaction. In the above equation, sodium hydroxide reacts with
sulphuric acid to produce sodium sulphate and water.
2NaOH + H 2 SO 4  Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O
How can a chemical equation be made more informative?
(a) By writing s, l, g or aq to indicate the physical states of the reactants and the products involved in the
chemical reaction. Solid, liquid, gaseous and aqueous solution states of the reactants and the products are
indicated by writing s for solid, l for liquid, g for gaseous and aq for aqueous at the end of the symbol or
formula of the reactants and the products.
For example, when solid zinc reacts with an aqueous solution of diluted sulphuric acid, zinc sulphate is
obtained in solution and hydrogen gas is liberated. This reaction may be represented as:
Zn(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq)  ZnSO 4 (aq) + H 2 (g)
The formation of a gaseous substance in a chemical reaction is indicated by putting an arrow pointing
upwards with its formula ( ). Thus, the above reaction should be written as:
Zn(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq)  ZnSO 4 + H 2 (g) 
The formation of a precipitate (insoluble product) in a chemical reaction is indicated by putting an arrow
facing downwards with its formula ( ).
Lim e water
For example, Ca(OH) 2
(aq) + CO 2 (g)   H 2 O(l) + CaCO 3 
(b) By writing the heat term “+ heat” in the equation in which heat is either absorbed (endothermic reaction)
or evolved (exothermic reaction). Chemical equations in which “+ heat” is included are known as
‘thermochemical equations’ .
The term “+ heat” is written on the reactant side in the chemical equation in which heat energy is absorbed.
For example, when carbon and sulphur are heated, carbon disulphide (CS 2
) is formed. In this reaction, the
heat is absorbed (endothermic reaction). The above reaction is thus represented by the chemical equation:
C (s) + 2S (g) + heat (= 92 kJ)  CS 2 (g)
The term “+ heat” is written on the product side in the chemical equation in which heat energy is evolved
(exothermic reaction). For example, when carbon is burnt in air or O 2
, CO 2 is formed and heat is
evolved. Thus, the above reaction is represented by the chemical equation.
C (s) + O 2 (g)  CO 2 (g) + heat (= 393 kJ)
(c) By indicating the conditions under which the reaction takes place. If heat is required for a reaction to take
place, delta ( ) is written above the arrow ( ) and if the reaction takes place in the presence of a catalyst,
the symbol or formula of the catalyst is written above or below the arrow.
For example, when KClO 3 is heated in presence of MnO 2 (which is used as a catalyst), KCl and O 2 are
obtained.

2KClO 3 (s) 
MnO 2
 2KCl(s) + 3O 2 (g)
61
Class IX
EXERCISE
1. Two containers P and Q of equal volume (1 litre each) contain 6g of O 2 and SO 2 respectively at 300 K and
1 atmosphere. Then
(1) No. of molecules in P is less than that in Q
(2) No. of the molecules in Q is less than that in P
(3) No. of molecules in P and Q are same
(4) Either (1) or (2)
2. If nitrogen and ethylene are in the ratio 1 : 2 by weight then their molecules are in the ratio of :
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 1 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 4 : 1
3. The abbreviation used for the lengthy name of an element is termed as :
(1) formulae (2) symbol
(3) equation (4) none of these
4. The number of atoms present in a molecule of a substance is called
(1) Molecularity (2) Atomicity (3) Valency (4) Reactivity
5. Co stands for _____ while CO stands for ______ .
(1) the atoms of the element cobalt; carbon monoxide
(2) the atoms of the element carbon monoxide
(3) the atom of the element cobalt; the molecules of the compound carbon monoxide
(4) the molecules and atoms of element carbon
6. Which of the following is the formula of the compound nickel bisulphate?
(1) Ni HSO 4 (2) Ni2 HSO 4 (3) Ni2 SO 4 (4) Ni(HSO 4 )2
7. What is the chemical name of the substance whose formulae is Na(NH 4 )HPO 4 ?
(1) Sodium hydrogen phosphate (2) Ammonium hydrogen phosphate

(3) Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate (4) None of these
8. Which of the following is the formula of the compound stannic phosphate?
(1) Sn 3 PO 4 4 (2) Sn 2 PO 3 2 (3) Sn 3 PO 3 2 (4) Sn 2 PO 3 4

9. Which of the following is the formula of the compound magnesium phosphite?
(1) Mg2 PO 3 (2) Mg2  PO 3 4 (3) MgHPO 3 (4) Mg3 (PO 3 )2
10. Which of the following is the chemical name of Ba ClO 3 2 ?
(1) Barium chloride (2) Barium chlorate

(3) Barium chlorite (4) Barium hypochlorite
11. Which of the following is the formula of barium peroxide ?
(1) Ba 2 O (2) Ba 2 O 2 (3) BaO 2 (4) BaO 3
12. The molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C 2 H 4 O 2 . Its empirical formula is
(1) C 4 H 8 O 2 (2) CH 2O (3) CHO (4) CHO 2
62
Chemistry
1 1
13. If we consider that , in place of , mass of carbon atom is taken to be relative atomic mass unit, the mass
6 12
of one mole of a substance will
(1) increase two fold (2) decrease twice
(3) be a function of molecular mass of the substance (4) remain unchanged.
14. Chemical analysis of a carbon compound gave the following percentage composition by weight of the elements
present in it. Carbon = 10.06%, hydrogen = 0.84%, chlorine = 89.10%. Calculate the empirical formula of
the compound.
(1) C2 H 2 Cl2 (2) CHCl 2 (3) CHCl 3 (4) C4 H 4 Cl4
15. 0.202 g of a carbon compound, on combustion, gave 0.361 g of carbon dioxide and 0.47 g of water. Calculate
the percentage composition of carbon.
(1) 48.51% (2) 8.07% (3) 43.17% (4) 42.17%
16. The percentage of nitrogen in ammonia is given by the expression :
14 100 3 14 100 3
(1) (2)  100 (3) (4)  100
17 17 34 34
17. The empirical formula of a compound is CH 2 O. Its molecular weight is 90. Calculate the molecular formula
of the compound. (Atomic weight C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
(1) C3 H 7 O 3 (2) C4 H 6 O 3 (3) C3 H 6 O 3 (4) C4 H 2 O 3
18. A compound contains 38.8% C, 16% H and 45.2% N. The empirical formula of the compound is :
(1) CH 3 NH 2 (2) CH 2 CN (3) C 2 H 5 CN (4) CH 2 (NH2 )2
19. A hydrocarbon contains 90% of carbon and 10% hydrogen. The empirical formula of the compound is :
(1) C2 H 5 (2) C3 H 2 (3) C3 H 4 (4) CH 3
20. 64 g of an organic compound contains 24 g of carbon, 8 g of hydrogen and the rest oxygen. The empirical
formula of the compound is :
(1) CH 2 O (2) C 2 H 4 O (3) CH 4 O (4) C 2 H 4 O 2
21. Percentage of carbon is highest in
(1) CH 4 (2) C3 H 4 (3) C6 H 6 (4) C3 H 8
22. Find out the percentage of carbon in aluminium carbonate Al 2 (CO 3 )3 [Al = 27, C = 12, O = 16].
(1) 15.38% (2) 14.38% (3) 27.2% (4) 12.16%
23. How many litres of steam will be formed from 2L of H 2 and 1 L of O 2 , if all volumes are measured at the
same temperature and pressure?

(1) 1 L (2) 2 L (3) 3 L (4) 4 L
24. The number of molecules in 35.5 g of chlorine gas is
(1) 3.011 × 10 23 (2) 6.022 × 10 23 (3) 9.033 × 10 23 (4) 1.2044 × 10 24
25. Which of the following has the largest number of atoms? [Cu = 63.5 u]
(1) 0.5 g atoms of Cu (2) 0.635 g of Cu
(3) 0.25 moles of Cu atoms (4) 1 g of Cu
26. Total number of electrons present in 18 ml of water (density of water is 1 g mL –1 )
(1) 6.02 × 10 23 (2) 6.02 × 10 22 (3) 6.02 × 10 24 (4) 6.02 × 10 25
27. The number of moles of sodium oxide in 620 g of it is

(1) 1 mole (2) 10 moles (3) 18 moles (4) 100 moles
63
Class IX
28. Volume of gas at STP is 1.12 × 10 –7 cc. Calculate the no. of molecules in it
(1) 3.01 × 10 20 (2) 3.01 × 10 12 (3) 3.01 × 10 23 (4) 3.01 × 10 24
29. How many moles of electron weigh one kilogram?
1 6.023 1
(1) 6.023 × 10 23 (2)  10 31 (3)  10 54 (4)  10 8
9.108 9.108 9.108 6.023
30. Arrange the following in order of increasing mass (atomic mass : O = 16, Cu = 63, N = 14)
I. One atom of oxygen II. One atom of nitrogen
III. 1 × 10 –10 mole of oxygen IV. 1 × 10 –10 mole of copper
(1) II < I < III < IV (2) I < II < III < IV
(3) III < II < IV < I (4) IV < II < III < I
31. 25.3 g of sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3 is dissolved in enough water to make 250 mL of solution. If sodium
carbonate dissociates completely, molar concentration of sodium ions, Na + and carbonate ions, CO 23  are
respectively (Molar mass of Na 2 CO 3 = 106 g mol –1 )
(1) 0.477 M and 0.477 M (2) 0.955 M and 1.910 M

(3) 1.910 M and 0.955 M (4) 1.90 M and 1.910 M
32. The crystalline salt Na 2 SO 4 . x H 2O on heating loses 55.9% of its weight. The formula of the crystalline salt is
(1) Na 2 SO 4 . 5 H 2O (2) Na 2 SO 4 . 7 H 2O
(3) Na 2 SO 4 . 2 H 2O (4) Na 2 SO 4 . 10 H 2O
33. What is the weight of 3 gram atoms of sulphur?

(1) 96 gm (2) 99 gm (3) 100 gm (4) 3 gm
34. How many moles of oxygen atoms are present in one mole of acetic acid?
(1) 1 mole (2) 3 moles (3) 2 moles (4) 6 moles
35. Calculate the weight of 0.1 mole of sodium carbonate.
(1) 1.06 g (2) 11.06 g (3) 10.6 g (4) 1.106 g
36. How much of lime can be obtained by burning 400 g of lime stone?
(1) 224 g (2) 220 g (3) 400 g (4) 320 g
37. 3.6 grams of a sample, on combustion, gave 3.3 grams of CO 2. The percentage of carbon in the sample is
(1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 25% (4) 40%
38. The number of moles present in 20 grams of CaCO 3 is
(1) 0.1 (2) 0.2 (3) 0.3 (4) 0.25
39. Calculate the number of iron atoms in a piece of iron weighing 2.8 g. (Atomic mass of iron = 56)
(1) 30.11 × 10 23 atoms (2) 3.11 × 10 23 atoms
(3) 3.011 × 10 22 atoms (4) 301.1 × 10 23 atoms
40. Sulphur molecule exists as S 8. How many moles of sulphur are present in 25.6 grams of sulphur?
(1) 0.01 (2) 0.1 (3) 0.02 (4) 0.2
41. How many grams of sodium oxalate are to be weighed to get 0.1 mole of sodium oxalate (Na 2 C 2 O 4 )?
(1) 13.4 g (2) 1.34 g (3) 134 g (4) 0.134 g

64
Chemistry
42. Calculate the number of gram atoms and gram molecules present in 12.4 g of phosphorus.
(1) 0.1 gram atoms, 0.1 gram molecules (2) 0.2 gram atoms, 0.1 gram molecules
(3) 0.1 gram atoms, 0.4 gram molecules (4) 0.4 gram atoms, 0.1 gram molecules
43. Calculate the number of moles present in 4.9 g of H 2 SO 4 .
(1) 0.01 (2) 0.02 (3) 0.05 (4) 0.03

44. How many atoms and gram atoms are present in 20 g of calcium?
(1) 3.1 × 10 23 and 0.05 (2) 3.01 × 10 23 and 0.5
(3) 0.5 and 3.1 × 10 23 (4) 0.2 and 3.1 × 10 23
45. Calculate the weight of nitrogen present in 0.5 moles of NH 3.
(1) 8 g (2) 9 g (3) 1 g (4) 7 g

46. Calculate the mass of one molecule of H 2 O.
(1) 29.88 × 10 23 g (2) 2.988 × 10 23 g (3) 0.2988 × 10 23 g (4) 2.988 × 10 –23 g

47. Calculate the weight of carbon which contains the same number of atoms as those present in 15 grams of oxygen.
(1) 13 g (2) 11.25 g (3) 10 g (4) 14 g
48. What weight of sodium contains the same number of atoms as those in 8 grams of oxygen?
(1) 10.5 g (2) 13.5 g (3) 11.5 g (4) 14.2 g
49. How many atoms are present in 0.25 mole of SO 3?
(1) 1.505 × 10 23 atoms of sulphur and 4.515 × 10 23 atoms of oxygen

(2) 4.15 × 10 23 atoms of oxygen and 2.505 × 10 22 atoms of sulphur
50. How many molecules are present in 0.50 moles of KCI?
(1) 4.01 × 10 23 (2) 3.01 × 10 22 (3) 3.01 (4) 3.01 × 10 23
51. Calculate the number of gram atoms present in 103 g of barium. [Ba = 1374]
(1) 103 (2) 0.4 (3) 0.75 (4) 0.3
52. Calculate the weight in gram present in 0.7 moles of sodium.
(1) 16.1 gram (2) 16.2 gram (3) 16.3 gram (4) 0.161 gram
53. Calculate the weight of 0.8 moles of magnesium.

(1) 20 g (2) 19.2 g (3) 30 g (4) 31.2 g
54. Calculate the weight of 10 24 molecules of nitric oxide [NO].
(1) 49.8 g (2) 50 g
(3) 50.1 g (4) 39.4 g
55. Calculate the total number of atoms present in 0.8 moles of H 2 S.
(1) 14.4 (2) 14.4 × 10 22 (3) 14.452 × 10 23 (4) 14.4 × 10 –23
56. Calculate the number of oxygen atoms present in 0.75 moles of SO 2.
(1) 9.03 × 10 23 (2) 9.03 × 10 22 (3) 9.03 (4) 9.03 × 10 –23
57. If a mole of oxygen contains 1.00 × 10 24 particles calculate the mass of a single oxygen molecule.
(1) 32 × 10 –24 g (2) 32 × 10 –23 g (3) 32 g (4) 32 × 10 24 g
65
Class IX
58. Calculate the number of moles and molecules present in 4 grams of methane.
(1) 0.25 moles, 1.505 × 10 23 molecules
(2) 0.3 moles, 1.505 molecules
(3) 0.25 moles, 1.505 × 10 –23 molecules
(4) 0.3 moles, 2.0 molecules
59. Given is the graphical representation of number of molecules of different gases.
Which is/are placed at correct position ?
(1) H 2 , He (2) N 2 , CH 4 (3) He, CH 4

(4) H 2 , CH 4
60. Observe the given figure carefully and select the correct option.
(1) W = 55.8, X = 16, Y = 2.016, Z = 58.5

(2) W = 55.8, X = 32, Y = 1.008, Z = 58.5
(3) W = 55.8, X = 16, Y = 1.008, Z = 58.5
(4) W = 55.8, X = 32, Y = 2.016, Z = 58.5
ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 2 3 4 3 1 4 2 3 2 4 3 1 1 3 1 3 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 4 1 3 4 1 3 3 1 3 2 3 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 4 3 2 4 4 2 3 1 4 3 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 2
66
Chemistry
Atomic structure
Indians to be proud of that in 600B.C. Kanad Indian philosopher and saint conceived of matter as being
composed of smallest individual discrete particles. He called them "parmanu".
The concept that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter dates back to very ancient times. However,
the ideas regarding atoms of those times had no experimental evidence and remained as mere speculation.
Therefore, these ideas had to lay dormant for a long period until John Dalton (1810) proposed his atomic theory
on the basis of certain observations and experimental results.
According to the postulates of this theory, atoms are indivisible and can neither be created nor destroyed. All
atoms of an element are alike. They all have a similar basic structure. The atom is the smallest unit of matter
which takes part in chemical reaction.
Dalton's atomic theory has been successful in giving a convincing explanation for the various laws of chemical
combination such as the law of conservation of mass, the law of definite proportions and the law of multiple
proportions.
Laws of chemical combination
Law of conservation of mass or matter
This law was given by Antoine Lavoisier. The law of conservation of mass means that in a chemical reaction,
the total mass of products is equal to the total mass of the reactants.
Example
1
(a) H2 + O  H 2O
2 2
2gm 16gm 18gm
(b) N2 + 3H 2  2NH 3
28gm 6gm 34gm.
Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\04_Atomic structure.p65
Law of constant (definite) proportion

Element composition of a pure compound is always the same is known as the law of constant composition (or
the laws of definite proportion). It was first put forth by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust
(17541826) in about 1800. Although this law has been known for 200 years the general belief persists among
some people that a fundamental difference exists between compounds prepared in the laboratory and the
corresponding compounds found in nature. However, a pure compound has the same composition and properties
regardless of its source. Both chemists and nature must use the same elements and operate under the name
natural laws. When two materials differ in composition and properties, we know that they are composed of
different compounds or that they differ in purity.
For example: Either H 2 O is collected from tap or from sea the properties of water remains the same.
e.g. HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H 2 O
The hydrogen & oxygen are in 1 : 8 by mass ratio.
67
Class IX
Law of multiple proportions
Whenever two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine
with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
Examples
1. Hydrogen and oxygen
1
(i) H2 + O H 2 O When amount of hydrogen is fixed, then mass of
2 2
(ii) H2 + O 2  H 2 O 2 oxygen in H 2 O and H 2 O 2 are in 1 : 2 ratio.
2. Sulphur and oxygen
(i) S + O 2  SO 2 When amount of sulphur is fixed then oxygen in
3 SO 2 & SO 3 are in 2 : 3 ratio.
(ii) S + O 2  SO 3
2
However, Dalton's idea that the atom is an indivisible particle of matter has been disproved by later discovery of
radioactivity. Several series of experiments on radioactivity which were carried out in later years proved the presence
of various subatomic particles in an atom. Atoms are found to be mainly composed of three types of fundamental
particles, namely, positively charged protons, neutral particles neutrons and negatively charged electrons. The
discovery of these fundamental particles paved the way for further research on the internal structure of an atom
which obviously explains the enormous diversity of chemistry involved in a wide range of chemical reaction.
Started gaining prominence in 1887 when another scientist named Sir J. J. Thomson, discovered that electrons
are found in all the atoms of matter. Then, in 1902, Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus. In 1913, Neil
Bohr explained the arrangement of orbiting electrons. In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutrons. And
thus was born the modern atomic theory which suggested that an atom consists of a number of subatomic particles.
According to Modern Atomic Theory, atoms are made up of three types of subparticles electrons, protons
and neutrons. Each of these particles has different properties.
Electrons, the tiniest and lightest of the particles have a negative () electric charge and are found outside the
nucleus (the center of the atom).
Protons, larger and heavier than the electrons, have the opposite charge, that is, a positive charge (+).
Neutrons are large and heavy particles like the protons but have no electrical charge.
An atom is a combination of these three particles.
Although 70 subatomic particles have now have been discovered but important three from the bunch of 70
are electrons, protons and neutrons.
Inside atom
The three subatomic particles are found in distinct and separate regions. The protons and neutrons are found
in the centre of the atom, which is called the nucleus . The neutrons have no charge and protons are positively
charged. The nucleus occupies only a very small volume of the atom but it’s very dense.
The rest of the atom surrounding the nucleus is where electrons are most likely to be found. The electrons are negatively
charged and move around very quickly in electron shells or energy levels. The electrons are held within the atom
by an electrostatic force of attraction between themselves and the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus.
1e
5e
8e
8e
8e
2e 2e
19 p 15 p
20 n 16 n
K
K
L
L
M
M
N
Potassium atom: Phosphrous atom:
A = 39; Z = 19 A = 31; Z = 15
Fig. 1 Pictorial representation of atom.
68
Chemistry
About 1837 electrons are equal in mass to the mass of one proton.
Because of their identical charges, electrons repel each other. The repulsions between the electrons keep them
spread throughout the volume of the atom, and it is the balance between the attractions that the electrons feel
toward the nucleus and the repulsions they feel toward each other which controls the size of atoms.
Protons also repel each other, but they are able to stay together in the small volume of the nucleus because
their repulsions are apparently offset by powerful nuclear forces.
It is interesting to note that the diameter of the atom is approx 10,000 times the diameter of its nucleus, so
almost all the volume of an atom is occupied by its electrons, which fill the space around the nucleus.
The dimension of an atom is of the order of 10 –10
m. This unit of measurement is called an Angstrom and is
written as 1 Å = 10 –10
m = 1 Å. It has to be noted here that both the nucleus as well as the atom is not a
point like particle, but has a certain size or dimensions.
In 1878, an English physicist named William Crookes showed that when a high voltage charge of 10,000 or
more volts is applied from an induction coil to tubes filled with air or any other gases at very low pressure of
about 0.0001 mm of Hg, the gases (which are ordinarily poor conductors of electricity) become good conductors
of electricity which begin to flow in the form of rays. A greenish glow is observed on the walls of the discharge
tube behind the anode. This is because of the electrons produced by the electrical energy after knocking off
some electrons from the atoms of the gases. These rays of electrons which travel from the cathode to the anode
are called cathode rays.
Determination of charge and mass of electron
(i) Determination of charge to mass ratio (e/m) of electron (i.e., J. J. Thomson experiment):
e
The apparatus used by J.J.Thomson (1897) for the determination of ratio of electron is shown in figure.
m
Fluorescent
screen
Electric plate
+ N
Cathode rays
Cathode
–
+
Anode S
– Electric and magnetic
fields perpendicular to
each other
Fig. 2 The apparatus used for determining the ratio of electric charge (e) to mass (m) of electrons.
He studied the deflection of cathode rays under the simultaneous influence of electrical and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other. By adjusting the two fields in such a way so that the cathode rays strike the
fluorescent screen at the same place as they do in the absence of either field. From the magnitude of the
applied magnetic and electric fields, Thomson calculated the e/m ratio of the electrons.
J. J. Thomson found the ratio of charge to mass (e/m) constant by using different discharge tubes fitted
with electrodes of different metals. He also used different gases in the discharge tube. The value of
e/m was found to be 1.76 × 10 8
coulombs/g.
69
Class IX
Two important conclusions can be drawn from this experiment.
(i) The electrons are universal constituents of all matter.
(ii) For an electron e/m value is 1.76 × 10 8
coulomb/g or 1.76 × 10 11 C kg –1 .
J.J. Thomson calculated the charge and mass ratio (e/m) of the negatively charged particles of cathode
rays. This ratio does not depend upon substance of electrodes of discharge tube or the nature of gas filled
in the tube instead it remains constant in all conditions (1.76 ×10 8
coulomb per gram). It can be concluded
that the cathode rays produced from different substances are same and negatively charged particles present
in it are also same.
The name 'electron' was given by Stoney and name of J J. Thomson is credited with the discovery of electron.
Electrons are present in all the atoms. So this is a fundamental particle of atom. Unit negative charge on
electron is (1.602 × 10 –19 ) coulomb and its mass is (5.487 × 10 –4 ) amu = 9.1 × 10 –28 gm = 1/1837 of
the mass of hydrogen atom. Negative charge to electron is assign conventionally.
(ii) Determination of charge of the electron - Millikan's oil drop method:
The first accurate determination of the charge of an electron (e) was made by R.A. Millikan (1909) by his
famous oil drop experiment. The apparatus used by him is shown in figure. Small oil droplets are formed
by sprayer and these droplets are allowed to fall under gravitational force between two charged metal plates.
The movement of a single droplet is observed by means of a microscope. He irradiated the space between
two metal plates with Xrays. These Xrays ionised electrons from some of the air molecules which in turn
were caught by oil droplets. By applying the electrical field on the droplet under study, which balances
the downward gravitational force, the droplet becomes stationary. From the magnitude of the charge applied
on the plate and the mass of the droplet the charge on the droplet was determined.
+
Oil spray
Microscope
Slit
Xray beam
Electrically charged plates

Oil drop under observation
Fig. 3 Millikan's oil drop method.

After gaining electrons from ionised air the oil droplets becomes negatively charged. Thus, it is necessary
that upper plate should be positively charged and lower plate negative.
The mass of the droplet was determined by its fall freely under gravity. The charge on the electron is
determined to be 1.6 ×10 –19 coulombs. Since this is the smallest charge carried by any charged particle,
it is referred to as one unit charge.

(iii) Determination of mass of electron:
e
By knowing the value of ratio (by J. J. Thomson's experiment) and charge on the electron (by Millikan's
m
oil drop method), it is possible to calculate the exact mass of an electron.
e
= 1.76 x 10 8 coulombs/g
m
e = 1.60 × 10 –19 coulombs
e 1.60×10 19coulombs
 Mass of the electron, m = = 8
e/m 1.76×10 coulombs /g
= 9.1 × 10 –28 g
= 9.1 × 10 –31 kg
Thus, an electron is that subatomic fundamental particle which carries one unit negative charge
(1.6 × 10 –19 coulombs) and has a mass of 9 1 × 10 –28
g.
70
Chemistry
Mass of electron relative to hydrogen atom
1
The mass of the electron (9.1 ×10 –28
g) is approximately th the mass of a hydrogen atom as shown
1837
below. However, the mass of the electron is so small that for all practical purposes, its value is considered
negligible.
Mass of 1 gm atoms of hydrogen = 1.008 g
 Mass of 6.02 × 10 23
atoms of hydrogen =1.008 g
1.008
So, mass of one atom of hydrogen = 23 = 1.67 × 10 –24
g
6.02 10
Now, mass of electron = 9.1 × 10 –28

g.
–24
Mass of one atom of hydrogen 1.67×10 g
= –28 = 0.1837 × 10 4
= 1837
Mass of an electron 9.1 10 g
1
or, Mass of an electron = × Mass of one atom of hydrogen
1837
Determination of Avogadro's number

We know, 1 Faraday = 96500 coulombs or 9.65 × 10 4
coulombs.
Charge on one electron = 1.60 × 10 –19
coulombs
9.65 10 4
 N0 = Avogadro's number = = 6.02 × 10 23
electrons
1.60 10 19
So, from the above discussed experiments, we conclude,
(i) All atoms contain electrons.
(ii) An electron is a subatomic particles which carries a negative charge of 1.6 × 10 –19
C.
(iii) The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10 –28
g or 9.1 × 10 –31
kg.
(iv) Mass of an electron is 1/1837 of the mass of one hydrogen atom.
(v) Electrons from all sources (solid, liquid or gas) are alike, having identical mass.
Production of electrons can take place by the following actions.
1. The action of heat on certain metals.
2. The action of UV radiation on highly active metals like K and Na.
3. The action of Xrays on all forms of matter.
How we say that cathode rays travel in straight line?

Explanation
Shadow of any object is formed only when radiation strikes on it and object is placed straight in the path of
light. In moving water shadow never forms but in still water you observe that it is formed.
The presence of positively charged particles in an atom has been predicted by Goldstein on the electrical
neutrality of an atom. The discovery of proton by Goldstein was done on the basis of the cathode ray experiment
conducted by using a perforated cathode.
71
Class IX
Why e/m ratio of cathode ray is constant but not for proton rays?
Explanation
Cathode rays are stream of electron and are created because of emission of electron from atom and thus
for each element, electron charge is 1.6 ×10 –19
coulumb and mass is 9.1 ×10 –28 gm. This ratio is constant,
but in case of proton rays these rays are stream of + ve ions which were produced because of knock out
of electron from atom's valence shells and as mass of atom is different for different elements thus e/m is
e 1
never constant for positive radiation e.g. of He +1
ion charge is 1 coulomb mass is 4 amu and =
m 4
e 1
Na +1 ion charge is 1 coulomb mass is 23 amu = =
m 4
The neutron is a particle found in almost every nucleus (the tiny speck of matter in the heart of the atom).
Only the hydrogen nucleus has no neutron while all the other atoms have one or more. It has no electric
charge and its mass is nearly 1,840 times that of the electron. Neutrons and protons constitute almost all
of the atom's mass and they stick together because of a strong nuclear forces present.
In 1932, the neutron was discovered by the English physicist, James Chadwick. He bombarded light nuclei
like beryllium and boron with fast moving alpha particles, i.e., helium nuclei, new particles were emitted.
Each of these particles had no charge (neutral particles) and had mass nearly equal to that of an Hatom
or a proton. This particle was called the neutron.
4 Be + 2 He 4  6 C 12 + 0 n 1
9
By now we know that an atom contains electrons and protons, and that the atomic mass of electron is negligible.
Therefore, an atom of helium which contains 2 protons should have a mass = 2 x 1 a.m.u. = 2 a.m.u.
But the atomic mass of a helium atom was found to be approximately 4.0 a.m.u. It was therefore proved
that, in the nucleus of an atom, there is another particle called a neutron which possesses no electrical charge
and has mass equal in mass as that of proton.
Fundamental particles
Sr. Charge
Particle Symbol Mass (a.m.u.) Mass in grams
No. (electronic unit)
1. Electron e –1 or 0
e –1 1/1837 9.1× 10 – 28
1
2. Proton 1 +1 1 1.6 × 10 –24
1H or p + Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry\04_Atomic structure.p65
1
3. Neutron 0 n or n 0 1 1.6 × 10 –24
According to Rutherford, the atom is mostly composed of

empty space. The entire positive charge and mass of the atom
is concentrated in small central part known as nucleus. The size
of the nucleus is so small that its diameter is 10 –5 times less
than that of an atom. The electrons present outside the nucleus
revolve around the nucleus with high velocities. Nuclear force
counterbalances the electrostatic forces of attraction between
Fig. 4 Resemblance of solar system
protons and electrons. Rutherford's atomic model resembles the and Rutherford's model.
planetary motion in solar system. Therefore, Rutherford's model
of an atom is also called planetary model .
72
Chemistry
Validity of Rutherford's atomic model
Rutherford's atomic model could very well explain the presence of positively charged nucleus and presence
of electrons outside the nucleus in an atom. However, the failure of Rutherford's theory can be understood
from two major objections.
(i) Firstly, this model is in contradiction to the principle of classical electrodynamics. According to this any
charged particle in circular motion radiates energy continuously. The electron being a charged particle
in circular motion loses energy. This should ultimately result in its spiral path towards nucleus and the
atom should then collapse but in reality it never happens.
(ii) The second major objection for Rutherford's model came from the pattern of atomic spectra.
Electromagnetic wave theory
This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864. The main points of his theory are following.
(i) The energy is emitted from any source (like the heated rod or the filament of a bulb through which electric
current is passed) continuously in the form of radiations (or waves) and is called the radiant energy.
(ii) The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other and both
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation.
(iii) The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light (i.e., nearly 3 × 10 8
m/sec).
(iv) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation. For example, rays from the sun reach
us through space which is a nonmaterial medium.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in specified circular paths called orbits or shells .
Each orbit or shell is associated with a definite amount of energy.
Hence these are also called energy levels and are designated K, L, M, N respectively.
The energy associated with a certain energy level increases with the increase of its distance from the nucleus.
Hence if the energy associated with the K, L, M, N shells are E 1 , E 2 , E 3 respectively, then E 1 < E 2 < E 3
etc.
As long as the electron revolves in a particular orbit, the electron does not lose its energy. Therefore, these
orbits are called stationary orbits and the electrons are said to be in stationary energy states.
An electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, by absorbing energy, but when it jumps
from a higher to lower energy level, the energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The energy
emitted or absorbed ( E) is an integral multiple of 'h '.
The electron can revolve only in the orbit in which the angular momentum of the electron (mvr) is quantized,
i.e., mvr is a wholenumber multiple of h/2 . This is known as principle of quantization of angular momentum.
nh
The angular momentum is written as, mvr = .
2
where, n is an integer (n = 1, 2, 3, 4) and is called principal quantum number.

m = mass of the electron,
v = velocity of an electron in its orbit,
r = distance of the electron from the nucleus.
By applying the concept of quantization of energy, Bohr calculated the radii and energy of the n th
orbit of
hydrogen atom.
n2h 2 2 2me 4
rn = , E n =
4 2me 2 n 2h2
With the help of these expressions, Bohr gave a satisfactory explanation for the hydrogen and hydrogen like
species (ions having one electron e.g., He + , Li +2 , Be +3 ) etc.
When electron jump to higher energy level or nature back to lower energy level then it absorb or emit a
radiation equal to E = E n E m
n & m are quantized energy levels.
73
Class IX
 z2 
Total energy of electron in hydrogen atom by Bohr's model is  E   13.6  what is the significance of
 n2 
minus sign ?
Explanation
Any charge particle at infinite distance has zero energy. But when any two charge particles come close to
each other, they losses energy and repulsion between two charge particles increases the energy. As electron
enter in nuclear force region because of attraction it looses energy less than zero which is negative in value.
Z2
Thus energy of electron is –13.6 × .
n2
Through there is only one electron in a hydrogen atom, the spectrum of hydrogen contains a number of line.
How do you explain this?
Explanation
If any electron at excited state is in meta stable state (state exist only for 10 –8
sec), it returns back either
in single step or by multi steps to its original energy level.
e.g. Let electron is at 4 th energy level it can return to ground state.
N E4 N N
M M M
L L L
K E1 K K
E = E 4 – E 1 Radiation Emitted Energy Radiation Emitted
E1 = E 4 – E 2 =0.66 eV E1 = E 4 – E 3 =0.66 eV
– [0.85 – 13.6] = 12.75 eV E2 = E 3 – E 2 =2.25 eV E2 = E 3 – E 1 =12.9 eV
E3 = E 2 – E 1 =10.2 eV
Limitations of Bohr's atomic model
Bohr could not explain the spectral series for the multi electron atoms.
Bohr's model couldn't give a satisfactory justification for the quantization of angular momentum.
The atomic spectral lines split into a number of closely packed lines in the presence of magnetic field and
an electric field. These effects are called Zeeman effect and Stark effect respectively. Bohr failed to explain
these effects.
When the hydrogen spectrum was observed with the spectroscope of high resolving power, it was found that
the individual lines in the spectrum consisted of several lines lying close to each other. This is called fine
spectrum and he failed to explain structure of the spectrum.
Distribution of electrons in different orbit:
1. The shells are area that surrounds the nuclei, where electrons exist and revolves.
2. The electron revolves in different energy level and this arrangement is known as electronic configuration .
This scheme was proposed by two scientist Bohr and Bury .
3. The minimum number of electron which are present in any shell of an atom is given by the formula 2n 2
as shown:
2
O= 2n = 50 (n = 5)
2
N = 2n = 32 (n = 4)
2
M = 2n = 18 (n = 3)
+ L = 2n 2 = 8 (n = 2)
2
K = 2n = 2 (n = 1)
Fig. 5 Energy levels in an atom.
74
Chemistry
4. The outermost shell (also called valence shell ) cannot have more than 8 electrons.
5. It is not necessary for a given shell to complete itself, before another shell starts forming. As a rule, a new
shell is formed as soon as the shell attains 8 electrons.
6. An atom becomes stable (i.e. it stops reacting with other elements when its outermost shell has 8 electrons
or it has only one shell containing 2 electrons.
As in 5 th rule, new concept that new shell is formed as soon as the shell attain 8 electrons is the concept
of classical theory, which we will study in higher classes. K, L, M, N shells are further divided into following
sub shells.
s = Sharp p = Principal
d = Diffused f = Fundamental
and filling of electron in these sub shell is done by Aufbau rule which is framed after the study of orientation
and shapes of these orbital.
Valency of element
The capacity of an atom of an element to form chemical bond is known as its valency and valency of an
element is decided by the number of valence electron.
The valency of element is either equal to the number of valence electron in its atom or equal to number
of electrons required to complete the octet in valence shell. It depends upon the nature of element. On this
basis valency can be of two types.
(a) Electrovalency (B) Covalency
(a) Electrovalency
The number of electrons gain or lose to achieve inert gas [Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe etc.) configuration is known as
electrovalency.
e.g. Sodium
1) Na = Atomic No = 11
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 1
Neon = 2, 8
Its electrovalency is = 1 or + 1 because it looses 'one' electron.
2) Oxygen (O) = Atomic No = 8.
Electronic configuration = 2, 6
Neon configuration = 2, 8
It electrovalency is = 2 or –2
Because it gains two electron to get Neon gas configuration.
(b) Covalency
Number of electrons shared by one atom of an element to achieve inert gas configuration.
e.g. (i) Chlorine (Cl)
Atomic No. = 17
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 7
It shares one electrons to get Argon [2, 8, 8] configuration, therefore, its covalency is one.
e.g. (ii) Carbon
Atomic No. = 6
Electronic configuration = 2, 4
It shares four electrons to get Neon [2,8] configuration, therefore, its covalency is four.
75
Class IX
Two atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons but differ in number of neutrons. However,
electrons, protons and neutrons are arranged in the same way and give the atoms identical chemical properties.
An element showing similar chemical properties but different masses is said to show isotopy and the different
atoms showing this property.
While the most common isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons at all, there is also a hydrogen isotope with
one neutron called deuterium and the other with two neutrons called tritium.
Fig. 6 Isotopes of hydrogen.

Isotopes are, therefore, atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number but different mass number.
How do we know isotopes exist ?

Explanation
They were first discovered by scientists using apparatus called a mass spectrometer . The first mass
spectrometer was built by the British scientist Francis Aston in 1919 and enabled scientists to compare the
relative masses of atoms accurately for the first time.
A vacuum exists inside a mass spectrometer. A sample of the vapour of the element is injected into a chamber
where it is bombarded by electrons. The subsequent collisions that take place causes the atoms in the vapour
to lose one of their electrons and so form positive ions. The beam of positive ions is accelerated by an electric
field and then deflected by a magnetic field. The amount of deflection depends on the different masses of
the positive ions. The lighter ions which were formed from the lighter isotopes, are deflected more than the
heavier ones. In this way particles with different masses can be separated and identified. A detector counts
the number of each ions that fall upon it and so a measure of the percentage abundance of each isotope
is obtained. A typical mass spectrum for chlorine is shown.
100
75 35
Cl (75%)
50
25 37
Cl (25%)
10 20 30 40
Some examples of elements having isotopes:
Element Number of Isotopes

1 2 3
Hydrogen Three 1H 1H 1H
12 13 14
Carbon Three 6 C 6 C 6 C
16 18
Oxygen Two 2 O 2 O
35 37
Chlorine Two 17 Cl 17 Cl
39 40
Potassium Two 19 K 19 K
76
Chemistry
Characteristics of isotopes
(1) Since the atomic number of all the isotopes of a given element is same, the number of electrons present
in them is also the same. Because of the same number of electrons, their electronic configuration and
hence the chemical properties of the isotopes are also the same.
(2) Since the mass numbers or atomic masses of the isotopes are different, their physical properties (e.g.
M.P., B.P., Density, etc.) are also different.
(3) Due to the same atomic number, the number of protons in all isotopes are the same.
(4) Due to the different mass number, the number of neutrons present in the nuclei of all the isotopes are
different.
Uses of isotopes
(1) Some isotopes are radioactive and are used for treating cancer and other diseases.
14
(2) The carbon14 isotope 6 C is used for determining the age of historical and geological material (monuments).
These are also known as radio carbon dating .
(3) The isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen , nitrogen and carbon are employed for studying the nature of organic reactions.
Isotones
These are atoms of different element, in which number of electrons and protons are different, but their number
of neutron are same are called isotones.
Radioactive properties of nucleoid depend upon particular combination of proton and neutrons. These properties
do not depend upon the same number of protons and neutrons.
For example, in Radium and Actinium, despite having same numbers of neutrons (138), they show different
properties because number of protons present in them are different.
Isotones Atomic number Mass number Electrons Protons Neutrons
23
11 Na 11 23 11 11 2311=12
24
12 Mg 12 24 12 12 2412=12
Isobars
There are few atoms whose atomic numbers are different but mass numbers are the same. Such atoms are
called isobars. (Greek : iso=same, bar= weight)
All the properties of elements are based on their atomic number due to which, chemical properties of all
the atoms having same atomic number are same and these atoms are called atoms of the same element.
Chemical reactions of various atoms having different atomic number are different and these atoms are called
atoms of different elements.
Some important examples of isobars are as follows:
Argon 18 Ar40 , Potassium 19 K40 and Calcium 20 Ca 40 are isobars. There structure are as follows
18p 19p 19p

22n 21n 21n
Argon
Potassium Calcium
Fig. 7 Atomic structure of argon, potassium and calcium.
The characteristics of isobars are:
(1) They have the same mass number.
(2) They have different atomic numbers.
(3) They have different number of protons.
(4) They have different electronic configurations.
(5) They have different number of valence electrons.
(6) They have different chemical properties.
77
Class IX
Mirror nuclei
These are nuclei with same atomic number but in which neutron and proton number are interchanged.
7 7
e.g. 4 Be (Z = 4, N = 3) and 3 Li (Z = 3, N = 4)
3 4
Average atomic mass
We usually see that atomic masses are in fractions e.g. atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5.
This is due to isotopes of chlorine existing in nature. These two isotopes are 35
Cl and 37
Cl. Their abundance
are respectively 75% and 25%.
Total Mass
Average atomic mass =
Total moles
n 1m 1  n 2 m 2 .................
=
n 1  n 2 .........................
Where n 1 , n 2 are moles of respective species
m 1 , m 2 ...........gram atomic mass/molecular mass of species
75 × 35 + 25 × 37
Thus average atomic mass of chlorine is = = 35.5 u.
100
A sample of a oxygen contains two isotopes 16

8 O and
18
8 O. If the average atomic mass of this sample of element
be 16.2 amu, calculate the percentage of the two isotopes in this sample.
Explanation
Let % of isotope 168 O is x
Then % of isotope 188 O is 100 – x
Total mass x×16 + (100 – x)×18 16x + 1800 – 18x
Average mass = = or 16.2 =
Total moles 100 100
or 1620 = 1800 – 2x
or 2x = 180
or x = 90
 Isotope 168 O is 90%
Isotope is 188 O is 10%
Uses of radioactive isotopes
1. In medicine
a) Co 60 for treatment of cancer
b) Na24 for circulation of blood
c) I131 for thyroid
d) Fe59 for location of brain tumor
e) Radiographs of casting and teeth
2. In industries
a) For detecting leakage in water and oil pipe lines
b) For investigation of wear & tear, study of plastics & alloys, thickness measurement.
3. In agriculture
a) C14 to study kinetics of plant photosynthesis
b) P35 to find nature of phosphate which one is best for given soil & crop
4. In scientific research
a) K40 to find age of meteorites
b) S35 in factories
5. As tracers
A very small quantity of radio isotope present in any specimen is called tracer. This technique is used to
study complex biochemical reactions, in detection of cracks, blockages etc, tracing sewage or silt in sea.
6. In geology
a) For dating geological specimens like ancient rocks, lunar rocks using Uranium.
b) For dating archaeological specimens, biological specimens using C 14
.
78
Chemistry
What is spectrum ?
When light passes through the prism, it gets split up into its components of different wave lengths like visible,
ultraviolet, infrared light etc. The arrangement of component light energies according to their wavelengths
is called spectrum and spectroscope is the instrument designed to observe the spectra.
Spectrum is defined as the arrangement of various types of electromagnetic radiations in terms of increasing
(or decreasing) wave lengths (or frequency). The complete range of electromagnetic waves is called electromagnetic
spectrum. The wavelengths of various waves increases in the following order.
Cosmic rays < rays < Xrays < UV rays < Visible < IR rays < Micro waves < Radio waves
INCREASING WAVE LENGTHS

–16 –14
10 10 10 –12 10 –10 10 –8 10 –6 10 –4 10 –2 10 0 10 2 10 4
(m)
Cosmic rays xrays Ultra Infra Micro Radio
rays voilet red waves waves
(s–1 )
10 24 10 22 10 20 10 18 10 16 10 14 10 12 10 10 10 8 10 6 10 4
VISIBLE
INCREASING FREQUENCIES
380 430 450 490 560 590 650 760

(nm)
V I B G Y O R
(nm)
400 500 600 700 800
Fig. 8 (a) Complete electromagnetic spectrum (b) Spectrum of visible light.
Since white light is composed of lights of different wavelengths, a continuous spectra comprising of different
wave length is obtained which is also known as continuous spectrum . Light from incandescent bulb gives
such type of spectra.
But when the spectrum is taken from the atoms of the gas present in the discharge tube it is found to be
consisting of discrete lines of different colors. This is called line spectrum which is discontinuous one.
According to Rutherford's atomic model, electrons revolving around the nucleus should lose energy continuously.
Hence the spectra of atom should be a continuous one but the observed results are different.
In 1913, Danish scientist, Neils Bohr overcame the limitations of Rutherford model which is based on the
quantum theory of radiation proposed by Max Planck.
At the end of the 19th century, physicists had an idea that matter and energy are different entities. Matter
consists of particles which have mass and have specific positions in space.
Energy is the form of electromagnetic radiation which has no mass and doesn't have any specific position
in the space.
Matter can absorb or emit any quantity of energy.
German physicist, Max Planck, in 1901 carried out the first important experiment by studying the radiation
emitted by solid bodies heated to incandescence.
He concluded from his experimental observation that energy can be absorbed or radiated by a body in the
form of small packets of energy called quanta which are whole number multiples of the quantity h  where
h = Planck's constant = 6.625 x 10 –34
joule sec.
 = frequency of the radiation
This theory proves the particle nature of energy.
79
Class IX
The total amount of energy emitted or absorbed by a body will be some whole number multiple of quantum
by an integer n.i.e, E = nh  where n is an integer e.g., n = 1,2,3,...........etc.
This implies that a body can emit or absorb energy equal to hv, 2h , 3h , 4h ,.......etc.. but not in fractions
c
i.e., 0.5 h , 1.2 h . Further we know that  =

hc
 Equation E = h  becomes E =

This equation represent that a wave of higher frequency or lower wavelength will be more energetic and
vice versa, e.g. violet light of high frequency has more energy while the red light of low frequency is associated
with less energy.
On the basis of this theory, Bohr proposed his atomic model.
Calculate the frequency and energy of a photon of radiation having wavelength 6000 Å.
Explanation
c
(i) Frequency  =

Substituting c = 3 × 10 8 ms –1
 = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10 –10
m
3 10 8
we get = = 5 × 10 14 s –1
6000 10 10
(ii) Energy of the photon E = h 
Substituting h = 6.625 × 10 14 Js
 = 5 × 10 –14 s –1
we get E = 6.625 × 10 –34 × 5 × 10 14 = 3.3125 × 10 –19
J
Atomic spectrum of hydrogen

The atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom has been studied quite in detail by various scientists during the development
of atomic structure. The spectrum of hydrogen atom can be obtained when radiations emitted by hydrogen
gas at low pressure are taken in a discharge tube and examined by a spectroscope. The line spectrum so
obtained is called atomic spectrum of hydrogen .
The spectrum consists of a large number of sharp lines each corresponding to a particular wavelength (or
frequency) of light emitted by hydrogen atoms. These lines, which are present in ultraviolet, visible and infrared
region, are grouped together into different series named after the discoverers as shown in figure. The lines
in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are grouped into the following five series.
(i) Lyman series ............................Ultraviolet region

(ii) Balmer series ...........................Visible region
(iii) Paschen 
(iv) Brackett series  ...................Infrared region
(v) Pfund series 

80
Chemistry
The spectral lines observed by Balmer in the visible part of the spectrum are called as Ha, Hp, Hy, Hg,..........,
etc. The brightness and spacing of these lines decrease regularly in going from one end to the other. J.J.
Balmer (1885) developed a relationship between the different wave lengths of all these lines. The relationship
is :
1 1 1 
=  = R  2  2
 2 n 
where R is a constant called Rydberg's constant and its value is R = 109677 cm –1
.
n is a integer equal to or greater than 3 i.e., n = 3, 4, 5,.......
Later on Rydberg gave a more general expression which can be applied to all the series of the hydrogen
spectrum. This expression is called Rydberg formula.
1 1 1 
=  = R  2  2
  n1 n2 
where n 2 > n 1 . For a particular series n 1 is constant i.e.,
n1 n2
For Lyman series 1 2, 3, 4, .........
For Balmer series 2 3, 4, 5, .........
For Paschen series 3 4, 5, 6, .........
For Brackett series 4 5, 6, 7, .........
For Pfund series 5 6, 7, 8, .........
What is the wavelength of the light emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes transition from
an energy level with n = 4 to an energy level with n = 2 ? What is the colour corresponding to this wavelength?
[Rydberg constant = 109,677 cm –1 ]
Explanation
 1 1  1 1 
 = R  2  2
 = 109677  2  2  cm –1 = 20564.4 cm –1
 n1 n 2
 2 4 
1 1
= = = 486 × 10 –7 = 486 × 10 –9 m = 486 nm
v 20564.4 cm 1
We have studied that orbital is that area around the nucleus in which the probability of finding the electron
is maximum. However, an atom contains a large number of orbitals, which are distinguished from each other
by their size, shape and orientation (direction) in space. The parameters by which orbitals are distinguished
can be expressed by a set of numbers known as quantum numbers.
Thus, quantum numbers may be defined as set of numbers which display complete, information about size,
shape and orientation of the orbital.
These are designated as principal quantum number (n), azimuthal quantum number (  ) and magnetic quantum
number (m). Thus, an orbital is designated by three quantum numbers. The fourth quantum number designated
as spin quantum number (s), represent the spin of electron i.e., rotation of electron about its own axis.
1. Principal quantum number (n)
This is an important quantum number which gives the following information about the electron.
(i) This refer to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus i.e., it relates to the size of the electron
cloud.
(ii) It denotes the energy level to which the electron belongs.
(iii) It gives information about the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any shell.
Number of electrons in any shell is given by expression 2n 2
.
81
Class IX
2. Azimuthal quantum number or angular momentum quantum number (  )
This quantum number is denoted by ' l' and gives the following information about the electron.
(i) It tells about the number of subshells within a given principal energy shell to which the electrons belong.
For a given value of principal quantum number, 'n', the azimuthal quantum number, ' l ', may have all
integral values from 0 to (n – 1), each of which represent a different subenergy level or subshell. These
subshells are designated by letters s, p, d and f for which l' = 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
n 1 2 3 4
 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Subshe ll 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
D e signa tion
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
of sub she ll
Thus, the total number of subshells for a given principal shell is equal to the value of n.
(ii) It tells about the relative energies of subshells belonging to same shell. The energies of different subshell
present within the same principal shell are in the following order.
s<p<d<f

increasing energy
(iii) The value of  refer to the shape of the subshells. For example,
l Subshell Shape of subshell
0 s Sphe rical
1 p Dumbell
2 d Double dumbell
3 f Complex shape
3. Magnetic quantum number (m or m  )
This quantum number describes the behaviour of electron in a magnetic field. This quantum number provides
following information about the electron.
(i) Magnetic quantum number gives the number of permitted orientations of subshells. For example, for
a given value of ' l ' the possible values of 'm' range from –  through 0 to +  . Each value of m corresponds
to one atomic orbital. For example,
For ssubshell, l=0 m= 0 i.e., ssubshell has one orbital
For psubshell. l=1 m= –1, 0, +1 i.e., psubshell has three orbitals
For dsubshell, l=2 m = –2, –1,0,+1,+2 i.e., dsubshell has five orbitals
For fsubshell, l=3 m = –3,–2,–1,0,+1,+2,+3 i.e., fsubshell has seven orbitals
(ii) It explained successfully the splitting of spectral lines in the magnetic field i.e., Zeeman effect .
4. Spin quantum number (s) or (ms)
It has actually been observed that the electron in an atom is not only revolving around the nucleus but is
also spinning about its own axis. Spin quantum number accounts for the spinning orientation of an electron
The electron in an orbital can have only two types of spins i.e., in clockwise and anticlockwise direction. Therefore,
1 1
the spin quantum number can have only two values i.e., + or – . The two spins of the electrons in an
2 2
orbital are usually represented by arrows pointing in the opposite directions i.e..  and  respectively.
The value of spin quantum number is independent of the values of other three quantum numbers.
Spin of
electron
e– e–
+ +
Fig.10 Clockwise and anticlockwise spins of an electron.

82
Chemistry
In order to fill the electrons in the orbitals, some rules are followed. These are,
Pauli's exclusion principle
According to this principle "no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all the four quantum numbers".
In other words,
(a) an orbital cannot have more than two electrons.
(b) if an orbital has two electrons, they must have opposite spin i.e., they must he paired elections.
Aufbau principle
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies. In other words,
electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and then enter into higher energy orbitals
only when the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the orbitals are filled
is as follows :
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s. 5f, 6d, 7p,..........
In neutral isolated atom, the lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, lower is its energy. However, if the
two different types of orbitals have the same value of (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n has lower
energy.
This trend of increasing energies of various orbitals may be remembered in the form of following diagram.
7s
6p
7s 7p 5d
4f
6s
5s 6p 6p 5p
4d
Increasing energy
5s 6p 5d 4f 5s
Increasing energy
4p
4s 4p 4d 4f 3d
4s
3s 3d 3p
3p
3s
2s 2p 2p
1s 2s
1s
Fig.11 Increasing order of energy of various orbitals.
Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity

This rule deals with the filling of electrons into degenerate (equal energy) orbitals of the same subshell
(p, d and f). According to this rule, Electron pairing in p, d and f orbitals cannot occur until each orbital
of a given subshell contains one electron each or is singly occupied.
Electronic configuration
The assignment of all of the electrons in an atom into specific shells and subshells is known as the element's
electronic configuration,
A shell is designated by the principal quantum number (n), the subshell by the azimuthal quantum number
(l), and the number of electron in that subshell by the appropriate superscript number. For example, the
existence of three electrons in the p subshell of the fourth shell (n = 4) is shown as follows:
Number of electrons
in the subshell (3)
Principal quantum 4p
3
number of shell
(n – 4)
Subshell (p)
83
Class IX
We begin with the ground state of the one electron in the simplest and first element, hydrogen. The electron
is in the n = 1 shell, which has an s subshell. The electron configuration for H is 1s 1
.
The next element, helium, has two electrons. The 1s subshell has a capacity of two electrons, so He has
the configuration 1s 2 .
Next comes Li with three electrons. The first two electrons fill the first shell, but the third is assigned to the
second shell (n = 2). The second shell has two subshells, the s and the p, but the s is lower in energy so
it fills first. The next element is Be. Its four electrons are also assigned to the 1s and 2s subshells. The electron
configurations of Li and Be are,
Li : 1s 2 2s 1 Be: 1s 2 2s 2
The next element is B. Four of its five electrons have the same configuration as Be, but the fifth electron
begins the filling of the next subshell, the 2p. The next five elements, C to Ne complete the filling of the
2p subshell.
B : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 N : 1s 2
2s 2 2p 3 F : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 5
C : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 O : 1s 2
2s 2 2s 4 Ne : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
With the element neon, all of the orbitals in the second shell are full. We now continue with the element
sodium, which has 11 electrons. The first 10 electrons till the first and second shells, so the 11th electron
is assigned to the third shell. The third shell has three subshells, the 3s. 3p and 3d. The lowest in energy
is the 3s subshell, so the 11th electron is in the 3s subshell.
A shorthand method of writing configurations is to represent all of the filled subshells of a noble gas by the
symbol of that noble gas in brackets (e.g., [Ne]). Thus, in the following electron configurations, we will assume
Ne] 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
We choose a noble gas to use in our shorthand notation for a good reason. As electrons in noble gas cores
are not involved in bonding so we can treat them as a group. Using the (Ne) core symbolism, the electron
configurations of the next eight elements after neon are shown as follows.
Na : [Ne] 3s 1 P : [Ne]3s 2 3p 3
Mg : [Ne] 3s 2 S : [Ne]3s 2 3p 4
Al : [Ne] 3s 2 3p 1 Cl : [Ne]3s 2 3p 5
Si : [Ne] 3s 2 3p 2 Ar : [Ne]3s 2 3p 6
We have already studied in 'atomic structure' that an atom is considered as being composed of three fundamental
subatomic particles namely electrons, protons and neutrons. Neutrons and protons are the constituent particles
of the nucleus (also known as nucleons), while electrons, are present in the extranuclear region. During a
chemical reaction, the behavior of an atom is governed only by the number of electrons present in the extra
nuclear part, while the nucleus of the participating atom has little influence on the reaction.
However, further studies about nucleus have revealed, that there are many unstable nuclei which keep on
giving certain smaller particles and gamma radiations. As a result of this process, the unstable nuclei transform
into new stable element. Such spontaneous transformation is called nuclear reaction or simply radioactive
decay .
The phenomenon of radioactive decay was initially observed by Becquerel (1896) while performing experiments
with potassium uranyl sulphate. Later investigations have shown that nuclei not only undergo radioactive decay
but also undergo processes such as artificial transmutation, nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, etc. The study of
all these phenomenon is done under branch of chemistry called nuclear chemistry .
The nuclear chemistry is thus defined as that branch of chemistry in which we study the composition of nuclei
of atoms, nuclear forces, stability of the nucleus and the nuclear changes in the atom during reactions.
The study of nuclear properties of elements is classified into two categories.
(a) Natural radioactivity (b) Artificial or induced radioactivity
84
Chemistry
(a) Natural Radioactivity
A number of elements such as uranium, thorium, radium, polonium, etc, have unstable nuclei. These unstable
nuclei disintegrate of their own resulting in the formation of a smaller atomic nuclei of another element.
In this process, the protons and neutrons in the unstable nuclei regroup to give new nuclei, releasing
the smaller particles and emitting radioactive radiations. All elements whose atomic nucleus emit highly
penetrating radiations are called radioactive elements and the phenomenon is called radioactivity .
Thus, the radioactivity may be defined as the process of spontaneous disintegration or decay of unstable
nuclei accompanied by emission of radiations.
The stable nuclei are found to have neutron/proton (n/p) ratio in the range 1 to 1.5. The nuclei whose
n/p ratio lies outside this range (i.e., <1 or > 1.5) lose  or particles so that their n/p ratio shift into
the stability belt.
Nature of radiations : The radioactive invisible radiations emitted out continuously by radium and other
radioactive substances are not of one kind. Rutherford (1902) resolved these radiations into three types
by placing uranium mineral in a lead box and passing emitted radiations between two oppositely charged
plates as shown in figure.
(i) The radiations bending towards negative plate (cathode) show that these radiations are carrying positive
charge and thus named as alpha rays or alpha particles ( ; 2 He 4 ). These rays in fact, consist of
merely helium nuclei.
(ii) The beam of rays which are deflected towards positive electrode (anode) show that these radiations
are carrying negative charge and are known as beta rays or beta particles ( ). These rays are deflected
to a much greater extent showing that rays are lighter than those of rays.
(iii) The third type of radiations, which are not deflected even in the strongest electric or magnetic field,
are neutral in nature and are termed as gamma rays (  ).
Radioactivity is a spontaneous emission of high energy radiation and particles from substance.
This spontaneous emission happens because of two reasons:
1) Disintegration of bigger element to smaller one (to reach stability)
14 14
e.g. 6
C  7 N + e –1 ,
238 234 4
92
Ur  90 Th + 2 He
This process is known as fission and it is used in Nuclear bomb.

2) Combining smaller atoms to form big one.
e.g. Nuclear reaction in sun
2 13 H  24 He + 2 10 n
This process is known as fusion . The radioactivity was first experimentally experienced by Henry Becquarel .
85
Class IX
Properties of radioactivity
The life of disintegration follow logarithmic curve as,
Disintegration atoms
Time
Fig.13 Disintegration v/s time graph.

Its disintegration series is as follows, if ‘X’ is initial amount and t is the half life.
X X X X X
2 4 8 16
t t t t
Fig.14 Disintegration series.
Uses of radioactive isotopes
Further studies have shown that these three kinds of radiations are the characteristic properties of all radioactive
unstable nuclei. The properties of each of these three kinds of radiations are briefly discussed below.
1. Alpha ( ) rays
(i) Nature : From the direction of deflection of rays in the electric and magnetic field, it is evident that
these rays carry positive charge. The alpha rays consist of alpha panicles carrying two units of positive
charge and has mass nearly four times to that of hydrogen atom. In other words, alpha particles are
merely helium nuclei consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
1
(ii) Velocity : particles have a velocity of over 16 × 10 6 meter/sec or nearly th of that of light.
10
(iii) Ionizing power : particles ionise the gas through which they pass. This is caused due to knocking
off electrons from neutral gas molecules on collision with particles.
(iv) Penetrating power : The particles have low penetrating power. These can penetrate through air upto
a thickness about 7 cm before being absorbed. These can penetrate upto 0.01 mm thick aluminium
foil. This is because of their large size and thus these cannot pass through thick sheets of metal.
(v) Luminescence : The particles cause luminescence on striking a zinc sulphide screen. This is due to
high kinetic energypossessed by particles.
(vi) Effect on photographic plate : particles affect photographic plate.
2. Beta () rays :

(i) Nature : The deflection of rays in the electric and magnetic field have shown them to be identical
with cathode rays. These carry negative charge and their e/m ratio is found to he identical to that
0 0
of the electron. Thus these are designated as 1 e or 1  .
(ii) Velocity : Being much lighter than particles these move much faster than the particles. Their
velocity is almost equal to that of the light.
(iii) Penetrating power : particles are of small size and so move with high velocity. Thus these possess
more penetrating power than rays. These can penetrate through aluminium sheet of 2 mm thickness.
(iv) Ionizing power : Though rays cause ionization of air but the effect is quite less. This is due to
the fact that ray are lighter than partides and so possess lower kinetic energy.
The ionizing capacity of particles is about 1/100th of that of particles.
(v) Luminescence : particles have very little effect on the zinc sulphide plate. These do not show
luminescence because they possess low kinetic energy.
(vi) Effect on photographic plate : rays produce much greater effect than rays on photographic plate.
86
Chemistry
3. Gamma () rays
(i) Nature : rays are the highly energetic electromagnetic radiations which are not deflected in the
electric and magnetic fields. This shows that they do not carry any charge.
The production of gamma rays is subsequent with the production of  and rays. After the emission
of an  or particles, the nucleus is left behind in an excited state, i.e., in a state of high energy.
The excess energy of the excited state is released in the form of gamma ( ) radiations. Their wavelength
is of the order of 10 –8 to 10 –11 cm.
(ii) Velocity : They travel with the velocity comparable to that of light.
(iii) Penetrating power : These are highly penetrating rays amongst the threekind of radiations. This
is due to their high velocity and small wavelength. Their penetrating power is 100 times more than
that of rays. These can penetrate through an aluminium sheet of nearly 100 cm thickness.
(iv) Ionizing power : Their ionizing power is very poor because these do not possess any mass i.e., these
are not material in nature.
(v) Effect on zinc sulphide plate : Gamma rays have negligible effect on the zinc sulphide screen.
(vi) Effect on photographic plate : They produce either very little or no effect on the photographic
plate.
The characteristic properties of ,  and  rays are compiled in the given table.
S.N Property -rays
 -rays
 -rays
4 0 0
1. Symbol ; He
2 ; –1 ; –1e 
2. Charge +2 –1 0
–24 –28
3. Mass 6.65 × 10 g 9.11 × 10 g Negligible
4. Nature of particles High speed High speed (electrons) High energy (radiations)
(Helium nuclei)
5. Effect of electric and Deflected towards Deflected towards positive Not deflected
magnetic field negative plate plate
6. Velocity Nearly 1/10th to Nearly same as that of light Same as that of light
10
1/20th to that of light (3.0 × 10 cm/sec)
4
7. Penetrating power Small, being heavy More than particles.
 being Very high, 10 times
particles lighter and of high velocity more than rays
Their penetrating power is
2
10 times more than rays

8. Luminescence Positive, i.e. it shows Very little luminescence No luminescence
luminescence compared to  rays
9. Effect on These produce effect on Effect on photographic is Effect on photographic
photographic plate photographic plate less than rays plate is least
90 Th disintegrates to give 82 Pb as the final product. How many alpha and beta particles are emitted
234 206
during this process ?

Explanation
Suppose the no. of particles emitted = x and the no. of particles emitted = y. Then
90 Th  82 Pb 206 + x +24  + y –10 
234
Equating the mass number on both sides, we get

234 = 206 + 4x + 0y
or 4x = 28
or x = 7
Equating the atomic number on both sides, we
90 = 82 + 2x – y
or 90 = 82 + 2 × 7 – y
or y=6
Hence, 7  and 6  particles will be emitted.
87
Class IX
EXERCISE
1. A pure substance that contains only one kind of atoms is called
(1) Molecule (2) Element (3) Isotopes (4) Iron
2. Which of the following is not a basic particle of an element?
(1) An atom (2) A molecule (3) An ion (4) None of these
3. An atom is electrically neutral because
(1) it contains neutron
(2) it contains equal number of protons and electrons
(3) the electrons are in a state of continuous motion around the nucleus
(4) the nucleus is in the centre of the atom.
4. The fundamental particles present in an atom are
(1) the protons and the electrons (2) the electrons and the neutrons
(3) the protons and the neutrons (4) the electrons and the nucleons
5. Cathode rays are made up of
(1) Positively charged particles (2) Negatively charged particles
(3) Neutral particles (4) None of these
6. Plumpudding model is known as
(1) Rutherford model (2) Thomson's model
(3) Bohr model (4) All the above
7. Cathode rays have
(1) only mass (2) only charge
(3) neither mass nor charge (4) both mass and charge
8. The ratio of charge and mass would be greater for
(1) Proton (2) Electron (3) Neutron (4) Alpha
9. The charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10 –19 coulombs. What will be the value of charge on Na + ion?
(1) 1.6 × 10 –19 C (2) 3.2 × 10 –19 C
(3) 2.4 × 10 –19 C (4) 10 × 1.6 × 10 –19 C
10. The charge carried by an electron is
(1) 1.602 × 10 19 coulombs (2) 1.602 × 10 –19 coulombs

(3) 1.609 coulombs (4) 6.02 × 10 19 coulombs
11. Which of the following has a charge of +1 and a mass of 1 amu?
(1) A neutron (2) A proton (3) An electron (4) A helium nucleus
12. Elements having 7 electrons in the valence shell are called
(1) halogens (2) chalcogens (3) alkali metals (4) alkaline earth metals
13. Which of the following fundamental particles is not deflected by a magnetic field?
(1) Proton (2) Neutron (3) Electron (4) Positron
14. The ratio of the masses of proton and neutron is usually
(1) > 1 (2) < 1 (3) = 1 (4)  1
88
Chemistry
15. The number of neutrons present in the radioactive isotope of hydrogen is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
16. The ratio between the neutrons present in nitrogen atom and silicon atoms with mass numbers 14 and 28 is
(1) 7 : 3 (2) 3 : 7 (3) 1 : 2 (4) 2 : 1
17. The nucleus of an atom has atomic number 17 and mass number 37. There are 17 electrons outside the
nucleus. Then the number of neutrons in it is
(1) 20 (2) 21 (3) 17 (4) 37
55
18. 25 Mn  has
(1) 25 protons and 25 neutrons (2) 25 protons and 55 neutrons

(3) 55 protons and 25 neutrons (4) 25 protons and 30 neutrons
19. The ratio between the neutrons present in the carbon and silicon with respect to their atomic masses (atomic
number of silicon is 28) is
(1) 3 : 7 (2) 7 : 3 (3) 3 : 4 (4) 6 : 28
20. When  particles are sent through a thin metal foil, most of them go straight through the foil because
(1) Alpha particles are much heavier than electrons
(2) Alpha particles are positively charged
(3) Most part of the atom is empty space
(4) Alpha particles move with high velocity
21. Which one of the following statement is not true?
(1) Most of the space in an atom is empty
(2) The total number of neutrons and protons is always equal in a neutral atom
(3) The total number of electrons and protons in an atom is always equal
(4) The total number of electrons in any energy level can be calculated by the formula 2n 2.
22. The existence of the nucleus was discovered by

(1) J. J. Thomson (2) Rutherford (3) Bohr (4) Goldstein
23. Which of the following concepts was not considered in Rutherford's atomic model ?
(1) The electrical neutrality of atom.
(2) The quantization of energy.
(3) Electrons revolve around nucleus at very high speeds.
(4) Existence of nuclear forces of attraction on the electrons.

24. Size of the nucleus is
(1) 10 –15 cm (2) 10 –13 cm (3) 10 –10 cm (4) 10 –8 cm
25. In Rutherford's alpharay scattering experiment, the alpha particles are detected using a screen coated with
(1) carbon black (2) platinum black
(3) zinc sulphide (4) polytetrafluoroethylene
26. According to quantum theory of radiation which is false ?
(1) Radiations are associated with energy
(2) Radiation is neither emitted nor absorbed discontinuously
(3) The magnitude of energy associated with a quantum is dependent on frequency
(4) Photons are quanta of radiation
89
Class IX
27. Mg+2 and F – ions differ in which of the following fundamental particles?
(1) Electrons, protons and neutrons (2) Protons and neutrons
(3) Only protons (4) Neutrons and electrons
28. An atom has mass number 23 and atomic number 11. The atom has ______ electrons, _______ protons
and ________ neutrons.
(1) 11, 12, 13 (2) 11, 11, 12 (3) 11, 11, 13 (4) 11, 14, 15
29. An atom has a net charge of –1. It has 18 electrons and 20 neutrons. Its mass number is
(1) 37 (2) 35 (3) 38 (4) 20
30. What happens when an electron jumps from a lower energy level to higher energy level and when an electron
comes down from a higher energy level to a lower energy level?
(1) Electron loses energy & electron gains energy respectively
(2) Electron gains energy & electron loses energy respectively
(3) Loses and gains energy simultaneously
(4) Neither loses nor gains any energy
31. Number of neutrons in a heavy hydrogen atom is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
32. Which of the following is false?
(1) Neutron has highest mass among fundamental particles
(2) The mass of an electron is negligible
(3) e/m is highest for a proton
(4) Charge of neutron is zero
33. Bohr's model violates the rules of classical physics because it assumes that
(1) all electrons have same charge
(2) the nuclei have same charge
(3) electrons can revolve around the nucleus
(4) charged particles can be accelerate without emitting radiation
34. The number of electrons in the valence shell of calcium is
(1) 6 (2) 8 (3) 2 (4) 4
35. Which of the following shells can have maximum number of 18 electrons?
(1) Kshell (2) Lshell (3) Mshell (4) Nshell
36. Which of the following electronic configurations is wrong?
(1) Li(3) = 2, 1 (2) O(8) = 2, 6 (3) S(16) = 2, 6, 8 (4) P(15) = 2, 8, 5
37. The mass number of an element is 27. If it has 14 neutrons then valence shell of this element is
(1) K (2) L (3) M (4) N
38. How many electrons are present in the M shell of the atom of an element with atomic number 24?
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3) 12 (4) 13
39. Two particles X and Y have the composition as shown in the table. The particles X and Y are.
Particle Number of electrons Number of neutrons Number of protons
X 10 8 8
Y 18 18 17
(1) Metal atoms (2) Metalloid atoms (3) Negative ions (4) Positive ions
90
Chemistry
40. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the 4 th energy level is
(1) 32 (2) 18 (3) 2 (4) 8
41. The charge of the atom containing 17 protons, 18 neutrons and 18 electrons is
(1) +1 (2) –2 (3) –1 (4) zero
42. A cation has a positive charge because
(1) there are more protons than neutrons (2) the neutrons in the nucleus are charged
(3) there are fewer electrons than protons (4) there are more electrons than protons
43. Valency is the
(1) combining capacity of an element (2) atomicity of an element
(3) oxidation number of an element (4) None of these
44. The number of valence electrons in carbon atom (atomic number 6) is
(1) 0 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 6
45. A species 'X' contains 9 protons, 10 electrons and 11 neutrons. It is
(1) a neutral atom (2) an isotope
(3) a cation (4) an anion
46. In a species the number of protons, electrons and neutrons are respectively 1, 0 and 1. The species is
(1) D+ (2) H + (3) He (4) Li+
47. The sub atomic particle not present in a protium is
(1) Neutron (2) Proton (3) Electron (4) All of these
48. Which of the following is not true for isotopes?
(1) They have the same atomic number
(2) They have the same mass number
(3) They have the same electronic configuration
(4) They have the same chemical properties
23
49. Atomic number of 11 Na is
(1) 11 (2) 23 (3) 23 – 11 = 12 (4) 23 + 11 = 34
50. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of 38 Sr 90 ?
(1) 38, 88, 90 (2) 38, 52, 38 (3) 38, 90, 38 (4) 90, 180, 38
51. Which of the following elements has no naturally occurring stable isotopes?
(1) F (2) H (3) Cl (4) O
52. Which of the following isotopes is used as the standard for atomic mass?
(1) 12 C (2) 16 O (3) 13 C (4) 1 H

53. Which of the following pairs are isotopes?
(1) Oxygen and ozone (2) Ice and steam
(3) Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (4) Hydrogen and deuterium
54. The number of neutrons in the three isotopes of hydrogen are
(1) 1, 1, 1 (2) 1, 2, 3 (3) 2, 1, 0 (4) 0, 1, 2
55. Isotopes differ in
(1) physical properties (2) chemical properties
(3) number of protons (4) None of these
56. The radioisotope used in the treatment of cancer is
(1) C12 (2) Co 60 (3) I131 (4) P31
91
Class IX
57. In agriculture, radioactive P 32 is used
(1) to increase the crop production
(2) in insecticides and pesticides
(3) to study how phosphorous is absorbed and distributed to various parts of plants
(4) to increase the chlorophyll content
58. Which of the following pairs provides an example of isobars?
12 14 11 11
(1) 6 C and 6 C (2) 6 C and 5 B (3) 12 H and 3
H
1
(4) 16
8 O and 18
8 O
59. Atoms of different elements having identical masses are known as
(1) isotopes (2) isobars (3) isotones (4) isomers
60. In nature element boron occurs as 20% 10 B and 80% 11 B then average atomic mass of Boron is
(1) 10 (2) 11 (3) 10.8 (4) 10.2
61. An atom of an element has 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons. The atomic mass of the atom is
(1) 22 (2) 11 (3) 12 (4) 23
62. What do the letters "amu" stand for ?
(1) Absolute Metric Unit (2) Atomic Mass Unit
(3) Actual Make Up (4) None of the above
63. Atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons. If the mass attributed to neutrons were halved and that
attributed to the electrons were doubled the atomic mass of 6C
12 would approximately be
(1) same (2) doubled (3) halved (4) reduced by 25%

64. The atomic mass of an element is expressed in terms of
(1) grams (2) joules (3) ergs (4) a.m.u.
65. The Planck's constant is a unit of
(1) work (2) energy
(3) angular momentum (4) linear momentum
66. What is the packet of energy called?
(1) Electron (2) Photon (3) Positron (4) Proton
67. Find out the ratio of energy required to remove the electron from species H, He +1 & Li +2 .
(1) 36.9 : 4 (2) 1 : 2 : 3 (3) 1 : 4 : 9 (4) 1 : 1 : 1
68. The energy difference between two successive levels in an atom is maximum between
(1) 1 and 2 (2) 2 and 3 (3) 3 and 4 (4) 4 and 5
69. The frequency associated with photon of radiation having a wavelength of 6000 Å is
(1) 5 × 10 14 Hz (2) 5 × 10 10 Hz (3) 2 × 10 14 Hz (4) 5 × 10 15 Hz
70. The ratio of the energy of photon of 2000 Å wavelength to that of 4000 Å wavelength is
(1) 1 : 4 (2) 4 : 1 (3) 1 : 2 (4) 2 : 1

71. Bohr's model can explain
(1) the spectrum of hydrogen atom only
(2) Spectrum of atom or ion containing one electron only
(3) the spectrum of hydrogen molecule
(4) The solar spectrum
72. When the speed of an electron increases (as light of velocity is greater than velocity of electron), the specific
charge
(1) decreases (2) increases (3) remains same (4) none of these
73. Which of the following is always a whole number ?
(1) Atomic mass of an isotope (2) Mass number of an isotope
(3) Atomic weight of an element (4) None of the above are correct
92
Chemistry
74. For which of the following species, Bohr's theory does not apply?
(1) H (2) H + (3) He + (4) Li2+
75. Mass of a hydrogen atom is equal to
(1) 1.673 × 10 –24 g
(2) 5.56 × 10 –4 g
(3) the sum of a proton, an electron and a neutron
(4) mass of 1836 electrons
76. In a stationary orbit of an atom the electron will be
(1) revolving with constant energy (2) at rest
(3) loosing energy constantly (4) loosing energy discontinuously
77. While revolving round the nucleus in a fixed orbit, the electron neither looses nor gains energy. Under this
condition the atom as a whole is said to be in a
(1) reactive energy state (2) neutral energy state
(3) stationary energy state (4) none of the above
78. The emission of light on heating a gas is due to
(1) excitation of electrons (2) deexcitation of electrons
(3) initial excitation and then deexcitation (4) none of these
79. According to Bohr's model of hydrogen atom
(1) the linear velocity of the electron is quantised
(2) the angular velocity is quantised
(3) the linear momentum of the electron is quantised
(4) the angular momentum of the electron is quantised
80. A ______ is the smallest unit of waves in the form of which a hot body emits radiant energy and it can exist
independently.
(1) electron (2) proton (3) quantum (4) neutron
81. The atomic number of an element is 17. The number of orbitals containing electron pairs are
(1) three (2) eight (3) two (4) six
82. The existence of protons in the atoms was shown by
(1) Neils Bohr (2) Chadwick (3) Madam Curie (4) Goldstein
83. If S1 is the specific charge (e/m) of cathode rays and S 2 be that of positive rays then which of the following
is true?
(1) S1 = S 2 (2) S1 < S 2 (3) S1 > S 2 (4) Any of these

84. Which one is the electronic configuration of Fe +2 ?
(1) 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2p 6 , 3s 2 3p 6 3d 6 (2) 1s 2 , 2s 2 2p 6 , 3s 2 3p 6 3d 4 , 4s 2
(3) 1s 2 , 2s 2 2p 6 , 3s 2 3p 6 3d 9 (4) 1s 2 , 2s 2 2p 6 , 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 , 4s 1
85. Which of the following species are isoelectronic?
(1) Cl– and Br (2) Na + and Mg ++ (3) Ar and Ne (4) Mg ++ and Ca ++
86. Radioactivity was discovered by

(1) Neil Bohr (2) Henry Becquerel (3) Madam Curie (4) Albert Einstein
87. The atomic nucleus becomes unstable due to
(1) high binding energy (2) low packing fraction
(3) high neutronproton ratio (4) strong nuclear forces
93
Class IX
88. The unit of radioactivity is
(1) Einstein (2) Becquerel (3) Curie (4) Rutherford
89. The radioactive element that is obtained from pitchblende is
(1) uranium (2) thorium (3) radium (4) plutonium
90. Which of the following detects radiations by flashes produced on a ZnS screen?
(1) GM counter (2) Bubble chamber
(3) Scintillation counter (4) Wilson's cloud chamber
91. The half life of a radioactive isotope is 1.5 hrs. The mass of it that remains undecayed after 6 hours if the
initial mass of a specimen of the isotope is 32 g is
(1) 32 g (2) 16 g (3) 4 g (4) 2 g
92. Half life of radium is 1600 years. 2 grams of radium metal will be reduced to 0.125 grams in
(1) 1600 years (2) 3200 years (3) 6400 years (4) 8000 years
93. A radioactive isotope decays at such a rate that after 96 days only 1.8 of the original amount is left behind.
The halflife of the nucleide is
(1) 32 days (2) 24 days (3) 48 days (4) 96 days
94. When C–14 is heated in a flame its halflife period
(1) decreases (2) increases
(3) remains unchanged (4) becomes infinity
95. If the half life of a radioactive substance is higher, then its stability is
(1) low (2) high (3) both (4) none of these
96. Which of the following consist of particles of matter?
(1) Alpha rays (2) Beta rays (3) Cathode rays (4) All of these
97. The radioactive emission having the highest penetration power is
(1) visible light (2) Xrays (3)  rays (4)  rays
98. Radioactive disintegration differs from a chemical change in being
(1) an exothermic change (2) a spontaneous process
(3) a nuclear process (4) a unimolecular first order reaction
99. Complete the following reaction.
2 1 H 3  2 He 4 + _______ .
(1) 6 0 n 1 (2) 1 H 1 (3) 2 He 4 (4) 2 0 n 1
100. When a heavier nucleus breaks down into two or more lighter nuclei of almost equal size, a large amount
of energy is also liberated. This type of reaction is called as
(1) fission reaction (2) fusion reaction (3) spallation reaction (4) capture reaction
ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 4 2 2 4 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 4 1 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 4 4 1 2 3 2 2 3
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 2 4 4 3 2 3 1 1 4 2 2 2 2 4 1 3 3 4 3
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 4 3 1 2 2 3 2 1 3 4 3 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 1
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CONTENTS

3. Atoms and Molecules 47

4. The matter is effected by the gravity

1.2 Composition of matter

Fig. 1 Living hand with non-living band.

Beaker A containing Beaker B containing Beaker C containing Beaker D containing

Fig. 4 Brownian motion.

Let us perform an experiment which will show whether the

1.4 States of matter on the basis of kinetic theory

Kinetic model of a solid

Solid Liquid Gas

1.5 Interconversion of the states of matter

liquid and all

Freezing oil solid

Fig. 8 Interconversion of solid and liquid state. heat

Different solids have different melting points.

Factors affecting melting point

(ii) Effect of addition of impurities

The rate of evaporation can also increase with a decrease in

Effects of condensation on climate

Cooling produced due to evaporation

(i) Cool sensation produced when alcohol is poured on palm.

(ii) Cotton clothes produce cooling effect during summer.

(iv) Cooling of water in earthen pots.

Take a few crystals of iodine in a test tube. Heat them

Observation: The shiny grey crystals of iodine directly

Difference between vapour and gas

10. Which has the least energetic molecules?

(1) chemical reaction (2) diffusion (3) effusion (4) explosion

38. When water particles condenses on air on dust, it forms

(2) Decrease Decrease Increase Increase

(1) Condensation (2) Sublimation (3) Diffusion (4) Evaporation.

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by any simple physical process.

Why are composite materials often used instead of single material ?

Fig.1 Elements (a) Iron (b) Silver.

Classification of elements based on physical and chemical properties

List the following ‘waters’ in order of increasing purity :

Following are the various ways of expressing concentration of solutions.

Weight of the solute mass of the so lute

Volume of the solute

Equivalents of solute 1.25

Wt.of solute in gms

No. of moles of solute

Mass of solute in grams 1000

Molarity Mass of solvent in kg

(6) Mole fraction (x)

Mole fraction of the components is always temperature independent.

How high temperature in lakes could be a problem for aquatic life ?

True solution Colloidal solution Suspension

sol is called hydrolyophobic colloid.

Applications of colloids in everyday life

are discussed below :

(a) Argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion,

(b) Colloidal antimony is used for curing kalazar.

(c) Colloidal gold is used as an intramuscular injection.

Sand & clay particles

Fig. 4 Formation of Delta.