J Bus Psychol
DOI 10.1007/s10869-014-9375-4
Work Passion Through the Lens of Culture: Harmonious Work
Passion, Obsessive Work Passion, and Work Outcomes in Russia
and China
Ronald J. Burke • Marina N. Astakhova •
Hongli Hang
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Abstract
Purpose This cross-cultural study with employee–super-
visor dyads in Russia and China examines links between
harmonious and obsessive work passion and four job- and
organization-focused outcomes (job satisfaction, intentions
to quit, job performance, and organizational citizenship
behaviors) and two career-focused outcomes (career satis-
faction and occupational commitment).
Design/Methodology/Approach Data were collected from
employee–supervisor dyads in Russia (N = 223) and
China (N = 193). We undertook a series of hierarchical
regressions to examine the hypothesized relationships.
Findings We found considerable support for the harmo-
nious passion–work outcome relationships and less support
for the obsessive passion–work outcome relationships. In
both Russia and China, harmonious passion predicted all
six hypothesized outcomes. However, obsessive work
passion predicted job satisfaction and occupational com-
mitment in Russia, but was unrelated to any of the
R. J. Burke
Schulich School of Business, York University, SSB-W363, 4700
Keele Street, North York, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
e-mail: rburke@schulich.yorku.ca
M. N. Astakhova (&)
Department of Management and Marketing, College of Business
and Technology, University of Texas at Tyler, 3900 University
Blvd., Tyler, TX 75799, USA
e-mail: mastakhova@uttyler.edu
H. Hang
College of International Business, Shanghai International
Studies University, 550 Dalian Road (West), Shanghai 200083,
People’s Republic of China
e-mail: hhang@shisu.edu.cn
hypothesized outcomes in China. We also identified several
culture-specific work passion–outcome relationships.
Implications Our research extends the duality of the work
passion construct to non-Western cultures. The examina-
tion of a variety of work passion outcomes provides a finer-
grained approach to how two types of passion uniquely link
to different work consequences. Several culture-specific
findings refute the traditionally held assumption that har-
monious passion relates to solely positive outcomes,
whereas obsessive passion relates to solely negative out-
comes. Collectively, the results augment the nomological
framework of the passion construct. The study informs
managerial practices by suggesting when work passion
needs to be encouraged or tamed.
Originality/Value This is the first study that examines a
variety of job-, organization-, and career-focused outcomes
of work passion in non-Western organizations.
Keywords Harmonious work passion
Obsessive work
passion
Work outcomes
Russia
China
Introduction
Passion should be the fire that drives your life’s work.
Michel Dell1
The concept of work passion has seen increased attention
in the organizational behavior and management literature
(Ho et al. 2011; Vallerand et al. 2003). Work passion is
defined as a strong inclination toward work-related activ-
ities that individuals enjoy and in which they invest time
and energy (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). Scholars have
1
We accessed this quote at http://www.evancarmichael.com.
123

theoretically advanced and empirically supported the dual-
istic model of work passion that includes harmonious and
obsessive passion (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). These
types of passion stem from two different processes by which
an activity can be internalized into one’s identity. Harmo-
nious passion results from the autonomous internalization of
an activity into one’s identity; individuals engage into an
activity freely and willingly (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003).
Obsessive passion refers to a controlled internalization of an
activity that creates an internal pressure to engage in this
activity. Considerable evidence from organizations suggests
that, although employees’ work passion makes a significant
contribution to their work, its consequences vary. Harmo-
nious passion generally promotes healthy adaptation and
thus positive work outcomes, whereas obsessive passion
‘‘thwarts it by causing negative affect and rigid persistence’’
(Vallerand et al. 2003, p. 756).
Despite the widespread fascination with work passion, its
consequences remain largely unexplored. Previous research
is characterized by at least four limitations. First, although a
dualistic conceptualization of passion is widely accepted in
the context of non-work activities (Ho et al. 2011; Vallerand
et al. 2003), little research has examined the applicability of
the dualistic model of passion for work activities. Surpris-
ingly, even recent studies continue to employ a single factor
passion model when referring to work passion, and therefore,
fail to distinguish between its harmonious and obsessive
manifestations (e.g., Perrewé et al. 2013). This approach
conflates the benefits and drawbacks of each passion type, as
well as the contingencies under which unique outcomes may
ensue, therefore, resulting in an ‘‘incomplete representation
of the phenomenon’’ (Ho et al. 2011, p. 5). Second, although
the majority of passion studies examine outcomes of passion
for non-work activities (e.g., Hill 2002), scarce research links
passion for work activities to critical attitudinal and behav-
ioral work outcomes. This knowledge is important because it
may shed light on the ongoing debate about whether work
passion is a virtue or hazard for organizations (Ho et al.
2011). Third, although a few studies have focused on work-
related outcomes, the primary focus of these studies has been
on job performance (Ho et al. 2011), with little to no research
examining other work-related outcomes, including outcomes
that are organization- or career-focused. Because of spillover
effects, passion generally relates to an expansive list of
various outcomes (Edwards and Rothbard 2000) and their
simultaneous consideration may allow researchers to directly
compare and juxtapose relative effects of work passion thus
contributing to a more systematic understanding of the work
passion phenomenon. Fourth, studies that have focused on
the work passion construct have been primarily conducted in
Western cultures (e.g., Cardon et al. 2009; Ho et al. 2011),
with research in Eastern cultures lagging behind. With work
becoming the most important activity in individuals’ lives
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J Bus Psychol
across the globe (Kanai and Wakabayashi 2001; Vallerand
and Houlfort 2003), it is essential to examine the phenome-
non of work passion in other cultures as well. Cross-cultural
studies will advance theory on work passion by providing
insight into whether or not work passion–outcome relation-
ships are generalizable or culture-specific.
To address the abovementioned gaps in the work passion
literature, we conducted a cross-cultural study with employee-
supervisor dyads in Russia and China that examines links
between work passion and a set of job-, organization-, and
career-focused outcomes. This study contributes to the extant
literature in several ways. First, our work both replicates and
extends the existing dualistic model of work passion by pro-
viding general evidence that, depending on the type of work
passion, work outcomes can be either positive or negative. Our
study also extends the passion literature by refuting the tra-
ditionally held view that harmonious passion solely predicts
positive outcomes, whereas obsessive passion leads to solely
negative outcomes. In contrast, our results suggest that some
relationships may be counter-intuitive in different cultural
settings. Second, by including job-, organization-, and career-
focused outcomes, we offer a finer-grained representation of
work passion–outcome relationships. Because work passion is
driven by a broad range of work activities (Forest et al. 2010),
its outcomes may extend beyond one’s job to one’s organi-
zation and career. The simultaneous consideration of different
outcomes helps to disentangle different effects of work pas-
sion on different areas of the work domain. Third, our study
extends the dualistic passion model to Russia and China, thus
addressing the critical issue of generalizability. Finally, this
research informs managerial practices by identifying situa-
tions in which managers may need to encourage or tame work
passion in order to enhance its benefits and mitigate its neg-
ative outcomes.
Russia and China represent attractive study domains for
several reasons. Previous research indicates that both
Russian and Chinese employees may experience harmo-
nious and obsessive work passion. For example, Khapova
and Korotov (2007) note that career success among Rus-
sian employees is driven by their passion, despite admin-
istrative, and ideological barriers. Russians are known for
professional qualities and ability to perform their duties
with passion and creativity (Khapova and Korotov 2007).
Similarly, in China, employees manifest work behaviors
that are guided by tenets of love and passion (Chen et al.
2000). Because work passion is an important antecedent of
various outcomes in the workplace (Ho et al. 2011), it is
essential to examine its impact in Russian and Chinese
organizational contexts.
Furthermore, because both Russian and Chinese cultures
are considerably different from that of the U.S. and most of
the Western cultures (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005),
examining work passion in these cultural contexts
J Bus Psychol
represents a test of the generalizability of passion research.
Russia and China are ambitious, fast-growing markets with
highly educated, and talented workforce (Khanna et al.
2005) and are thus attractive targets for foreign invest-
ments. Both Russia and China are in transition from cen-
trally planned to free market economies and are now under
more effectiveness and performance pressures (Haas
2010). Work is becoming an increasingly important factor
in one’s standard of living in Russia and China; employ-
ment for life because of friendship connections or political
party affiliation has declined (Kuchinke et al. 2011). In
addition to these unique economic conditions, cultural
values in Russia and China are different from those in the
U.S. For example, China and Russia are characterized by
higher masculinity than the U.S. (Hofstede and Hofstede
2005). Because masculinity is associated with work cen-
trality, achievement, and material reward for success
(Hofstede and Hofstede 2005), it may be particularly
interesting to examine how harmonious and obsessive work
passion will manifest in masculine societies. More
knowledge of what drives employees work in Russia and
China will inform managerial practices in Russian, Chi-
nese, and multi-national organizations.
The Dualistic Model of Work Passion and Work
Outcomes
Vallerand et al. (2003) developed a motivational approach
to the concept of passion in which passion is defined as a
strong inclination toward an activity that is perceived to be
both interesting and important, and in which individuals
invest time and energy. These authors made the first
attempt to apply the concept of passion to activities and
interests, as previous research had mostly viewed passion
in the context of interpersonal relationships (Sternberg
1986). Building their arguments on the premises of identity
theory, (Vallerand et al. 2003) proposed that highly
engaging activities can be internalized in two ways—either
in an autonomous or self-determined manner, or in way
that is largely externally controlled—resulting in either
harmonious or obsessive passion, respectively. Vallerand
and Houlfort (2003) further expanded the conceptual and
empirical application of the passion construct by showing
that both harmonious and obsessive passion types can also
be applied to the realm of work and organizations.
Harmonious and Obsessive Work Passion
Harmonious passion derives from autonomous internali-
zation that occurs when individuals ‘‘have freely accepted
the activity as important for them without any contingen-
cies attached to it’’ (Vallerand et al. 2003, p. 757).
Harmoniously passionate individuals are not compelled to
engage in work activities but rather choose to do so
because work generates a sense of endorsement and plea-
sure. Harmonious work passion represents a motivational
force allowing work to occupy a significant but not over-
powering space in one’s identity, and remains in harmony
with other aspects of one’s life (e.g., hobbies, friends, or
family). Individuals remain in control of how much they
engage in work. When prevented from taking part in their
passionate activity, such individuals should be able to focus
their attention on other tasks, without constantly ruminat-
ing (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). For example, during
breaks, harmoniously passionate employees will eagerly
chat with their colleagues about non-work activities, chat
on the phone with family members, or have a relaxing walk
outside. However, during work time people with harmo-
nious passion will fully concentrate on the work task and
will experience positive emotions from their work
engagement (Zigarmi et al. 2009).
Unlike harmonious work passion, obsessive work pas-
sion originates from a controlled internalization of an
activity into one’s identity (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003).
The individual has thus lost control over his or her work
engagement and feels constant pressure or an internal
compulsion to engage in work. Obsessive passion may be
driven by the need for social acceptance or self-esteem
(Vallerand et al. 2003). For example, individuals may
desire greater group or organizational acceptance. Alter-
natively, they may strive for pay raises, promotions, or
other rewards that would reinforce their self-worth. Finally,
individuals with obsessive work passion may overly invest
in work for no apparent reason but simply because ‘‘they
cannot help but to engage in it’’ (Vallerand and Houlfort
2003, p. 178). Because work passion becomes uncontrol-
lable, work occupies a disproportional space in one’s
identity and creates conflict with other aspects of the one’s
life. Obsessively passionate individuals tend to stay at work
after the end of the work day or bring work home, thus
neglecting their family or any other non-work tasks or
interests (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). Different pro-
cesses underlying harmonious and obsessive work passion
suggest potentially different work-related outcomes.
Harmonious and Obsessive Work Passion Outcomes
It is commonly accepted in the passion literature that
harmonious passion leads to adaptive behavior and hence
to more positive outcomes, whereas obsessive passion
results in fewer positive and more negative outcomes.
(Vallerand et al. 2003) refer to harmonious passion as the
passion that makes life ‘‘worth living.’’ In their view, the
ability to freely choose to engage in a particular activity
allows one to fully enjoy the associated benefits, and this
123

generally leads to positive work consequences (Vallerand
and Houlfort 2003). Conversely, obsessive passion
involves high-engagement activities that are both time
consuming and inconsistent with one’s other life domains,
values, and self-concept. As such, obsessive passion often
results in maladaptive work outcomes (Vallerand and
Houlfort 2003). Individuals who are obsessed with work
tend to have lower levels of job satisfaction, commitment
and performance, and ultimately burnout (Burke and Fik-
senbaum 2009).
Evidence suggests that the favorable work outcomes
associated with harmonious passion (and the less favorable
outcomes associated with obsessive passion) are not reg-
istered solely in the U.S. but are also found in other cul-
tures. Using employee samples from France and Canada,
(Vallerand et al. 2010) found that harmonious passion is
associated with an increase in work satisfaction and a
decrease in conflict, while obsessive passion is associated
with an increase in conflict. Findings from the U.S. (Ho
et al. 2011) and Canada (Vallerand et al. 2007) indicate
that harmonious passion is positively related to in-role
performance and work commitment, whereas obsessive
passion is negatively associated with cognitive attention,
but not related to in-role performance. Below we argue that
harmonious and obsessive types of work passion have
unique relationships with job-, organization-, and career-
focused outcomes in Russia and China.
Job- and Organization-Focused Outcomes of Work
Passion We expect that harmonious and obsessive work
passion will be uniquely related to job- and organization-
focused outcomes, such as job satisfaction, intentions to
quit, job performance, and organizational citizenship
behaviors (OCB). Job satisfaction is defined as a positive
emotional state which results from the appraisal of one’s
job experiences (Locke 1976). According to Affective
Event Theory (Weiss and Cropanzano 1996), the ebb and
flow of emotional experiences may alter job satisfaction.
Because harmonious passion leads to positive emotions
during and after engagement in the passionate activity
(Vallerand et al. 2003), we expect a positive link between
harmonious work passion and job satisfaction. Conversely,
obsessive work passion builds on controlled internalization
and thus ‘‘nurtures an internal compulsion to engage in the
activity which leads to a more rigid form of task engage-
ment and less positive affect’’ (Vallerand and Houlfort
2003, p. 182). Such a compulsive nature of obsessive work
passion constrains enjoyment with the activity (Vallerand
and Houlfort 2003), suggesting negative relationships
between obsessive work passion and job satisfaction.
We also expect harmonious and obsessive work passion
to predict employee intentions to quit. Turnover models
posit that factors influencing employees’ quit intentions
may vary but are more or less evoked by external
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contingencies, such as rewards systems, job demands, or
relations with co-workers (Steel 2002). According to Self-
Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan 2000), the extent to
which individuals are subject to external contingencies
depends on individuals’ level of internalization of the
activity. Although both harmonious and obsessive work
passion are internalized (Forest et al. 2010), the extent to
which they are subject to external contingencies is differ-
ent. Harmonious passion draws from personal endorsement
and pleasure one derives from the activity and is minimally
affected by external influences (Vallerand et al. 2007).
Employees with harmonious passion feel in control over
their work decisions and behaviors. Because, the sense of
control mitigates quit intentions (Firth et al. 2004), we
propose a negative link between harmonious passion and
intentions to quit. Conversely, obsessively passionate
employees engage in work within a context which they
perceive as externally rather than internally controlled
(Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). Being sensitive to external
contingencies (Vallerand et al. 2007), these employees may
feel pressured to behave in certain ways and may therefore
consider quitting the job to relieve perceived external
control.
To the extent that employees are harmoniously or
obsessively passionate about their work, their job perfor-
mance should also be affected. According to Deci and
Ryan (2000), ‘‘most contemporary theories of motivation
assume that people initiate and persist at behaviors to the
extent that they believe the behaviors will lead to desired
outcomes or goals’’ (p. 227). Both harmonious passion and
obsessive passion lead to continued persistence in the
activity (Vallerand et al. 2007). However, the nature of
persistence is different for each type of passion resulting in
different performance outcomes. Harmoniously passionate
employees will persist as long as their work remains
enjoyable and do not interfere with other life activities
(Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). Under these conditions,
increased performance is likely. Persistence associated
with obsessive passion is rigid in nature and is exerted at
the expense of other life activities (Vallerand and Houlfort
2003). It may ultimately lead to mental staleness and even
physical injuries that are not conducive to optimal perfor-
mance (Vallerand et al. 2003).
Finally, both types of work passion should also relate to
OCB, or prosocial acts that are not directly specified by an
individual’s job description and that primarily benefit the
organization as opposed to the individual (Van Dyne and
LePine 1998). Researchers argue that harmonious passion
remains in balance with other activities in an individual’s
life (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003). Employees with har-
monious passion may find time to participate in organiza-
tional events, volunteer help to co-workers or managers,
while still sustaining their high levels of work engagement.
J Bus Psychol
Unlike harmonious passion, obsessive passion occupies
disproportionate space in the person’s identity and causes
conflict with other activities in the person’s life (Vallerand
et al. 2007). Employees with this type of passion may be
overly preoccupied with their work to the extent that they
perceive any non-work activities, such as OCB, to be a
distraction or even threat to their work passion, and will be
less willing to get involved in them. Based on the above,
we hypothesize the following relationships between the
two types of work passion and job- and organization-
focused outcomes.
Hypothesis 1a Controlling for obsessive work passion,
harmonious work passion among Russian and Chinese
employees is positively related to job satisfaction, job
performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors and
negatively related to intentions to quit.
Hypothesis 1b Controlling for harmonious work passion,
obsessive work passion among Russian and Chinese
employees is negatively related to job satisfaction, job
performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors and
positively related to intentions to quit.
Career-Focused Outcomes of Work Passion We also
propose that harmonious work passion and obsessive work
passion relate to an individual’s career satisfaction and
occupational commitment. Career satisfaction research has
long documented a positive relationship between one’s
balanced life and satisfaction with career. For example,
Martins et al. (2002) found that work-family conflict neg-
atively affects career satisfaction. Likewise, Sturges and
Guest (2004) concluded that individuals tend to be more
satisfied with a career that ‘‘enhances personal lifestyles
that are separate from, rather than subordinated to, work
roles’’ (p. 6). Because harmonious work passion coexists in
harmony with other areas of individual’s life (Vallerand
et al. 2007), it is more likely to contribute to one’s work-
life balance, ultimately enhancing career satisfaction.
Obsessive work passion, however, may have an opposite
effect. Being compelled by work, individuals tend to
negate their other interests and needs. Greenhaus et al.
(2003) pointed to the dangers of over-involvement in work
to one’s career. Likewise, based on Burke’s (2000) find-
ings, if work-life imbalance occurs, it is more likely that
employees will experience negative affect that will spill
over to their careers.
Finally, we argue that harmonious and obsessive work
passion can predict occupational commitment. Occupa-
tional commitment is defined as ‘psychological link
between an individual and his/her occupation that is based
on an affective reaction to that occupation’ (Lee et al.
2000, p. 800). Although prior research has not explicitly
examined the link between work passion and occupational
commitment, empirical evidence generally connects pas-
sion to committed behavioral outcomes (Day 2004). As
Day (2004) noted, being passionate generates determina-
tion, conviction, and commitment. Internalized into one’s
identity, work passion contributes to role identity construal
and becomes a source of motivation for actions that result
in affirming self-meaning (Cardon et al. 2009). Role
identities put people in social categories (e.g., ‘‘I am an
educator’’), and individuals are motivated to maintain their
self-meaning by committing to professions/occupations
that confirm their role expectations and validate the
behavioral implications of salient categories. Because both
harmonious and obsessive work passion promote strong
identification with and devotion to work environment
(Vallerand and Houlfort 2003), we expect that both types
of passion would lead to greater occupational commitment.
Hypothesis 2a Controlling for obsessive work passion,
harmonious work passion among Russian and Chinese
employees is positively related to career satisfaction and
occupational commitment.
Hypothesis 2b Controlling for harmonious work passion,
obsessive work passion among Russian and Chinese
employees is negatively related to career satisfaction and
positively related to occupational commitment.
Method
Procedure
Data were collected in organizations in Russia and China
using the same procedure. The human resource (HR)
departments of ten organizations from various industries
were contacted with a request to take part in the research.
In either country, organizations ranged in size from ten to
seven hundred employees. The use of multiple organiza-
tions and industries increases the variability of respondent
perceptions (Ostroff 2007) and increases the generaliz-
ability of our findings. Data were gathered from employee-
supervisor dyads using a two-step procedure.
HR departments sent out emails to their employees
(1,500 in each country) with a link to the online survey.
Each respondent received an identification number that
allowed matching with a second survey, as well as
responses of their supervisors. The first round of survey
solicited demographic information and responses on work
passion scales. Four weeks later, respondents to the first
employee survey were sent a second survey. The second
survey asked questions related to work outcomes.
Employees completing both surveys then sent a survey to
their immediate supervisor (or a co-worker if they had no
immediate supervisor).
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 J Bus Psychol

The original English survey was translated into Russian The scale reliabilities were a = .94 and a = .94 for har-
and Chinese, following a procedure described by McGorry monious and obsessive passion, respectively, in Russia;
(2000), then back translated into English for verification and a = .88 and a = .89, in China.
purposes. Four translators were involved in the translation
and back-translation of the surveys (two for each lan-
Job- and Organization-Focused Outcomes
guage). All translators were bi-lingual and had advanced
university degrees from the US. The few minor discrep-
Four organization-focused outcomes were included in the
ancies were resolved thorough discussion.
study: job satisfaction, intentions to quit, job performance,
and OCB. The first two variables were assessed through
Samples
employee self-responses, whereas job performance and
OCB assessments were provided by supervisors.
Russian Sample
Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction was measured by a
three-item scale (a = .83 and a = .81 for Russian and
Complete data were provided by 233 respondent-supervi-
Chinese samples, respectively) created by Cable and Judge
sor pairs. Over half of all respondents were female (67 %),
(1996) using different response formats. One item was ‘‘All
were married (61 %), had an undergraduate university
things considered, how satisfied are you with your job.’’
degree (55 %), most had 5 years or less of work experience
Responses were made on a five-point scale (5 = very
(71 %), less than half were 30 years of age or younger
satisfied, 1 = very dissatisfied).
(26 %), had 5 years of less or organizational tenure (46 %),
Intentions to Quit This construct was assessed by a
most worked 40 h a week or less (69 %), slightly over half
5-item scale (a = .91 and a = .89 for Russian and Chinese
had been promoted at least once in their present organi-
samples respectively) developed by Crossley et al. (2002).
zation (51 %), about a quarter worked in service organi-
Responses to each item were made on a seven-point scale
zations or sector (26 %) and the similar percentage of
(7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). An item was
respondents worked in the education function (21 %).
‘‘I intend to leave my organization soon.’’
Job Performance Job performance ratings were based
Chinese Sample
on a 4-item scale (a = .93 and a = .97 for Russian and
Chinese samples, respectively) also developed by Van
Complete data were provided by 193 respondent-supervi-
Dyne and LePine (1998). Responses were made on the
sor pairs. Slightly over half were female (54 %), were
same 7-point scale as for organizational citizenship
married (52 %), had a undergraduate university degree
behaviors. An item was ‘‘This employee meets perfor-
(55 %), less than half had 5 years or less of work experi-
mance expectations.’’
ence (43 %), over half were 30 years of age or younger
OCB OCB were measured by a 13-item scale (a = .98
(56 %), most had 5 years of less or organizational tenure
and a = .78 for Russian and Chinese samples respectively)
(62 %), most worked 40 h a week or less (90 %), and
developed by Van Dyne and LePine (1998). Supervisors
exactly half had been promoted at least one in their present
indicated their agreement with each item as it applied to the
organization (50 %), about half worked in education/non-
respondent on a 7-point scale (7 = strongly agree,
profit organizations (49 %), and worked in the finance
1 = strongly agree). One item was ‘‘This employee helps
function (42 %).
others in this group with their responsibilities.’’
By including participants with diverse demographics
and work experiences, we attempt to increase the vari-
ability of responses and obtain more generalizable results. Career-Focused Outcomes

Measures Career Satisfaction We assessed career satisfaction by a

Harmonious and Obsessive Passion
Harmonious Passion and Obsessive Passion These vari-
ables were both measured by the 7-item scales created by
Vallerand et al. (2003). Responses were made to all items
on a five-point agreement scale (5 = strongly agree,
1 = strongly disagree). A harmonious passion item was ‘‘I
am completely taken with my job’’; an obsessive passion
item was ‘‘I have almost an obsessive feeling for my job.’’
5-item scale (a = .91 for both Russian and Chinese sam-
ples) created by Judge et al. (1995). Responses were made
on a 7-point scale of agreement. One item was ‘‘I am
satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career.’’
Occupational Commitment We measured this construct
by a 6-item scale (a = .84 and a = .78 for Russian and
Chinese samples respectively) created by Meyer et al.
(1993). Responses were made on a 7-point agreement scale
(7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree). One item was
‘‘I am proud to be in this profession.’’

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Table 1 Confirmatory factor analysis on study constructs in Russia and China

Model v2 df Dv2 p value RMSEA CFI SRMR AIC

Russian sample (N = 233)

1. Hypothesized eight-factor modela 1206.42 608 – \.001 .06 .98 .07 1396.41
2. Alternative model 1b 2052.28 614 845.86 \.001 .10 .94 .09 2230.28
c
3. Alternative model 2 4736.51 629 3530.09 \.001 .17 .85 .14 4884.51
Chinese sample (N = 193)
1. Hypothesized eight-factor modela 573.58 608 – \.05 .02 .99 .09 763.58
2. Alternative model 1b 881.99 614 308.41 \.001 .05 .96 .14 1406.00
3. Alternative model 2a 2743.45 629 2169.87 \.001 .13 .85 .17 2891.44
RMSEA root-mean-square error of approximation, RMSEA root-mean-square error approximation, CFI comparative fit index, SRMR stan-
dardized root-mean-square residual, AIC Akaike information criteria
a
The eight-factor model includes harmonious passion, obsessive passion, job satisfaction, intentions to quit, OCB, job performance, career
satisfaction, and occupational commitment; all factors correlated
b
All items of harmonious and obsessive passion load on one factor; other factors are distinct; cOne-factor model with all items loaded on one
factor

Analyses and Results
Construct Validation
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) served to validate the
factor structure of the eight latent variables included in the
study: harmonious passion, obsessive passion, job satis-
faction, intention to quit, job performance, OCB, career
satisfaction, and occupational commitment (Table 1). The
CFA results yielded an acceptable fit level for both Russian
and Chinese samples [v2 = 1206.42, df = 608, root-mean-
square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .06, compara-
tive fit index (CFI) = .98, standardized root-mean-square
residual (SRMR) = .07, Akaike information criteria
(AIC) = 1396.41, for Russia; and v2 = 573.58, df = 608,
RMSEA = .02, CFI = .99, SRMR = .09, AIC = 763.58,
for China]. As Table 1 shows, the proposed eight-factor
model yielded a better fit than a seven-factor model in
which harmonious passion and obsessive passion were
collapsed into one factor (Alternative model 1), as well as
the model in which all eight constructs were collapsed into
one factor (Alternative model 2). All item loadings were
significant (p \ .01). These findings suggest that the eight
constructs in the study are distinct.
performance and OCB) were based on supervisor respon-
ses, thus mitigating the same-source bias. Third, our data
were collected as a part of a larger study on fit perceptions
in employment settings, meaning that both parts of the
survey also contained other items unrelated to this research
that produced a psychological separation between the
independent and dependent variables. Harman’s single-
factor test on all survey items indicated that no single-
dominant factor existed (Podsakoff et al. 2003). Specifi-
cally, Harman’s test revealed multiple factors (six factors
in Russia and 7 factors in China) with an eigenvalue greater
than 1 that explained approximately 80 % of overall vari-
ance in Russia and 75 % of overall variance in China.
Finally, to reduce possible social desirability bias, we fol-
lowed Tsai and Ghoshal (1998) in explaining to respon-
dents that their responses are anonymous, that the data
would be collected using a server external to and inde-
pendent of the organization, and that the analysis of the
data would be restricted to the aggregated level. Based on
these analyses, we concluded that common method vari-
ance and social desirability may not be a serious problem in
this study.
Descriptive Statistics

Controlling for Common Method Variance and Social
Desirability
To control for common method variance and social desir-
ability effects, we employed a number of methodological
and statistical remedies, as suggested by Podsakoff et al.
(2003). First, data were gathered in a two-step approach
allowing the separation of study predictors and outcomes.
Second, two out of eight dependent variables (job
The means, standard deviations, and correlations for and
among all variables in the Russian and Chinese samples are
presented in Table 2.
Hypothesis Testing
Harmonious passion and obsessive passion were signifi-
cantly and positively correlated in the Russian (r = .67,
p \ .001, n = 233) and Chinese (r = .53, p \ .001,

123
123
Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and correlations in Russia and China
M SD M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Russia China

1. Sex 1.32 .46 1.46 .50 – .12 -.07 -.13 .18 .02 -.03 -.08 -.01 -.06 .01 -.06 -.09 .06
2. Age 38.47 10.59 31.34 7.15 .01 – -.56 -.09 .63 -.09 .17 .11 .21 -.33 .16 .18 .26 .27
3. Marital status 1.39 .48 1.47 .50 -.05 .01 – .15 -.49 .06 -.11 -.20 -.15 .27 -.08 -.10 -.16 -.19
4. Education 3.59 1.02 3.66 1.15 -.08 .13 .04 – -.07 -.14 .03 -.24 .01 -.12 .08 .09 .10 .10
5. Organizational 8.98 8.02 5.02 3.55 -.12 .65 .08 .19 – .03 .09 .17 .15 -.25 .07 .07 .19 .15
tenure
6. Organizational 249.53 209.90 291.43 218.19 .09 -.16 -.04 -.01 -.09 – -.06 .01 -.02 .13 .18 -.03 -.04 -.07
size
7. Harmonious 3.60 1.04 3.32 .62 .14 .02 .05 .11 .11 .07 .94 (.88) .53 .45 -.35 .14 .25 .46 .58
passion
8. Obsessive 2.71 1.08 2.82 .77 .18 .01 -.04 -.05 -.06 .04 .67 .94 (.89) .27 -.10 -.01 .11 .21 .27
passion
9. Job satisfaction .00 1.00 .00 1.00 .12 -.02 .01 .03 -.01 .15 .56 .47 .83 (.81) -.40 .12 .33 .36 .53
10. Intentions to 2.77 1.61 2.82 1.13 -.04 -.09 .02 -.06 -.14 -.09 -.47 -.35 -.54 .91 -.21 -.33 -.40 -.56
quit (.89)
11. Job 4.99 1.33 5.66 1.10 .11 -.07 -.01 -.04 .05 -.06 .30 .24 .27 -.18 .93 (.97) .37 .23 .17
performance
12. OCB 3.56 1.67 5.41 1.07 -.16 -.07 -.02 -.08 -.05 .05 -.20 -.12 -.09 .15 -.24 .98 (.78) .34 .32
13. Career 4.49 1.49 4.86 .96 .21 -.02 -.06 .10 .04 .04 .66 .42 .43 -.39 .27 -.20 .91 (.91) .36
satisfaction
14. Occupational 5.02 1.34 5.12 .75 .08 -.22 -.03 .07 -.13 .17 .60 .53 .55 -.35 .15 -.06 .50 .84 (.78)
commitment

Correlations for the Russian and Chinese samples are reported below and above the diagonal respectively. The reliabilities (alpha coefficients) are reported in the diagonal (Russia/China). Russian Sample.
N = 233. Correlations greater than .13 are significant at p \ .05; correlations greater than .18 are significant at p \ .01. Chinese Sample. N = 193. Correlations greater than .14 are significant at p \ .05;
correlations greater than .19 are significant at p \ .01
OCB organizational citizenship behaviors
J Bus Psychol
J Bus Psychol

Table 3 Work passion outcomes (Russia)

Variable Work passion outcomes
Job- and organization-focused outcomes Career-focused outcomes
Job satisfaction Intentions to quit Job performance OCB Career satisfaction Occupational
commitment
Step 1 Step 2 Step1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step1 Step2 Step 1 Step 2 Step1 Step 2

Personal demographics
Sex .12 .01 -.06 .02 .16* .11 -.17* -.14* .23*** .12* .10 -.02
Age -.03 .01 -.01 -.05 -.21* -.18* -.05 -.08 -.13 -.04 -.22* -.18**
Marital status .02 .01 .02 .04 -.02 -.03 .01 .01 -.07 -.11* -.03 -.05
Education .05 .01 -.02 .01 -.07 -.09 -.07 -.05 .11 .03 .11 .07
Organizational tenure .01 -.06 -.13 -.06 .20* .15* -.01 .02 .13 -.01 -.01 -.07
Organizational size .14* .11* -.09 -.07 -.09 -.11 .05 .06 .01 -.02 .13* .09
Work passion
Harmonious passion .45*** -.41*** .27** -.19* .71*** .45***
Obsessive passion .16* -.08 .02 .01 -.09 .21**
Model R2 .04 .35 .03 .23 .06 .13 .04 .07 .07 .47 .09 .46
Adjusted R2 .02 .33 .01 .21 .03 .10 .01 .04 .05 .45 .07 .44
DR2 .04 .31*** .03 .21*** .06* .08*** .04 .03* .07** .40*** .09** .37***
N = 233
OCB organizational citizenship behaviors
*** p \ .001; ** p \ .01; * p \ .05

n = 193) samples. The strength of correlations between
two types of passion reflect previous findings (r = .63,
Forest et al. 2010; r = .46, Vallerand et al. 2003). Fur-
thermore, the abovementioned confirmatory factor analyses
with alternative models support the distinctiveness of the
harmonious and obsessive work passion constructs.
The mean for harmonious passion was significantly
higher than the mean for obsessive passion in Russia
(M = 3.6, SD = 1.04 vs M = 2.71, SD = 1.08) and China
(M = 3.32, SD = .62 vs M = 2.82, SD = .77). The mean
for harmonious passion fell between 4.0 (Somewhat agree)
and 3.0 (Neither agree nor disagree) suggesting relatively
high levels of harmonious passion in both cultures. The
mean for obsessive passion fell between 3.0 (Neither agree
nor disagree) and 2.0 (Somewhat disagree) suggesting
relatively moderate levels of obsessive passion in Russia
and China. Higher levels of harmonious passion as opposed
to obsessive passion well reflect previous research findings
(Vallerand et al. 2003).
Harmonious and Obsessive Work Passion Outcomes
To test Hypotheses 1 and 2, we undertook a series of hierar-
chical regressions. The work outcomes were separately
regressed on two blocks of predictors. The first block of pre-
dictors consisted of six control variables (sex, age, education,
marital status, organizational tenure, and organizational size).
The second block of predictors included the two measures of
passion, harmonious, and obsessive.
Job- and Organization-Focused Outcomes of Work
Passion Hypothesis 1a predicted that harmonious passion
will be positively related to job satisfaction, job perfor-
mance, and OCB and negatively related to intentions to
quit, whereas Hypothesis 2a stated that obsessive passion
will be negatively related to job satisfaction, job perfor-
mance, and OCB and positively related to intentions to
quit. The left half of Table 3 (Russia) and Table 4 (China)
presents the results of the hierarchical regression analyses.
Russia At a general level, the measures of harmonious
and obsessive work passion accounted for a significant
increment in explained variance on all four job- and
organization-focused outcomes (Table 3). As initially
hypothesized, respondents indicating higher levels of har-
monious work passion also reported greater job satisfaction
(b = .45, p \ . 001), higher levels of performance
(b = .27, p = .003), and less intent to quit (b = -.41,
p \ .001). However, although the link between harmonious
work passion and OCB was statistically significant, it was
in the opposite direction (b = -.19, p = .04). Contrary to
our prediction, respondents indicating higher levels of
obsessive work passion also reported greater job satisfac-
tion (b = .16, p = .04). Furthermore, no significant rela-
tionships were observed between obsessive work passion
and intentions to quit (b = -.08, p = .35), obsessive work

123
 J Bus Psychol

Table 4 Work passion outcomes (China)

Variable Work passion outcomes
Job- and organization-focused outcomes Career-focused outcomes
Job satisfaction Intentions to quit Job performance OCB Career satisfaction Occupational
commitment
Step Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2 Step 1 Step 2
1

Personal demographics
Sex -.01 .01 -.05 -.04 -.01 -.02 -.06 -.06 -.07 -.07 .08 .09
Age .16 .12 -.19* -.14* .21* .17 .23* .19 .21* .15 .27** .19
Marital status -.07 -.02 .16 .16 -.05 -.07 -.04 -.02 -.09 -.07 -.11 -.08
Education .02 .01 -.14* -.09 .06 .01 .09 .07 .13 .10 .14 .10
Organizational .01 .03 -.05 -.08 -.13 -.10 -.11 -.10 .05 .08 -.10 -.07
tenure
Organizational .01 .03 .06 .05 .20** .20** -.01 .01 .01 .01 -.02 .01
size
Work Passion
Harmonious .40*** -.32*** .17* .25** .42*** .55***
passion
Obsessive passion .03 .14 -.18 -.03 -.06 -.03
Model R2 .05 .22 .14 .22 .06 .09 .05 .11 .11 .26 .10 .38
Adjusted R2 .01 .18 .11 .18 .03 .05 .02 .06 .08 .22 .07 .35
DR2 .05 .17*** .14*** .08*** .06 .03 .05 .06** .11** .15*** .10** .28***
N = 233
OCB organizational citizenship behaviors
*** p \ .001; ** p \ .01; * p \ .05

passion and job performance (b = .02, p = .79), and
obsessive work passion and OCB (b = .01, p = .85) in
Russia.
China Similarly to the analyses conducted in the Rus-
sian sample, four job- and organization-focused outcomes
were regressed on the two blocks of predictors in the
Chinese sample. At a general level, the measures of har-
monious and obsessive work passion accounted for a sig-
nificant increment in explained variance on three out of
four job- and organization-focused outcomes (Table 4).
Respondents indicating higher levels of harmonious work
passion also reported greater job satisfaction (b = .40,
p \ .001), higher levels of job performance (b = .17,
p = .04) and OCB (b = .25, p = .004) and less intent to
quit (b = -.32, p \ .001). Interestingly, obsessive work
passion was unrelated to any of the four hypothesized
outcomes.
Career-Focused Outcomes of Work Passion Hypothesis
2a predicted positive relationships between harmonious
work passion and the two career-focused outcomes, career
satisfaction, and occupational commitment. Hypothesis 2b
stated that obsessive work passion will be negatively
associated with career satisfaction and positively associ-
ated with occupational commitment. The right half of
Table 3 (Russia) and Table 4 (China) presents the results
of hierarchical regression analyses.
Russia At a general level, the measures of harmonious
and obsessive work passion accounted for a significant
increment in explained variance on both measures of
career-focused outcomes in Russia (Table 3). As initially
hypothesized, respondents indicating higher levels of har-
monious work passion also reported greater career satis-
faction (b = .71, p \ .001) and occupational commitment
(b = .45, p \ .001). Also, as predicted, obsessive work
passion was positively and significantly related to occu-
pational commitment (b = .21, p = .002). However, con-
trary to our expectations, no statistically significant
relationships were observed between obsessive work pas-
sion and career satisfaction in Russia (b = -.09, p = .20).
China Harmonious and obsessive work passion
accounted for a significant increment in explained variance
on both career satisfaction and occupational commitment
(Table 4). Respondents indicating higher levels of harmo-
nious work passion also reported greater career satisfaction
(b = .42, p \ .001) and occupational commitment
(b = .55, p \ .001). Contrary to our predictions, no links
were found between obsessive work passion and either of
the career-focused outcomes in China (b = -.06, p = .44

123
J Bus Psychol
and b = -.03, p = .66, for career satisfaction and occu-
pational commitment, respectively). Overall, the above
evidence provides support for Hypotheses 2a in both
countries. However, Hypothesis 2b received only partial
support in Russia and failed to render any support in China.
Discussion
We examined a variety of job-, organization-, and career-
focused outcomes associated with harmonious and obses-
sive work passion in Russia and China. We hypothesized
that harmonious work passion would generally lead to more
positive outcomes, whereas obsessive work passion would
result in more negative outcomes. We found considerable
support for the hypothesized relationships between harmo-
nious work passion and work outcomes. In general, these
findings align with previous research that demonstrates
positive attitudinal and behavioral consequences of har-
monious work passion (Burke and Fiksenbaum 2009;
Vallerand et al. 2003). It is also important to note that,
contrary to our initial predictions, a number of obsessive
work passion–outcomes relationships were not significant.
These results may not be surprising given the contradictory
evidence on the consequences of obsessive work passion
reported by previous research. For example, although
Vallerand and Houlfort (2003) expected obsessive work
passion to be negatively related to need satisfaction, results
showed that the two were unrelated. Similarly, Forest and
colleagues (2011) failed to empirically support the negative
link between obsessive work passion and affective com-
mitment and vitality. The lack of consistency in the findings
may be due to the fact that the outcomes of obsessive work
passion may not be consistent in the short term (Vallerand
and Houfort 2003). Future longitudinal research is needed to
examine effects of obsessive work passion.
Although our study lends support to the assertion that
the work passion construct is generalizable across cultures,
several cross-cultural differences are worth noting. Our
results suggest that, in general, obsessive work passion was
more directly linked to work outcomes in Russia than in
China. Russian employees with higher levels of obsessive
work passion are more satisfied with their jobs and are
more committed to their occupations. For Chinese
employees, these relationships were not significant. Cul-
tural differences between Russia and China may account
for the above findings. Russia scores higher on masculinity
than China (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). As previously
noted, masculinity is associated with higher work propen-
sity and work enjoyment. This may explain why Russians
are more likely to have positive work outcomes despite
evidence of obsessive work passion (Hofstede and Hofst-
ede 2005).
Interestingly, harmonious passion is positively associ-
ated with OCB in China, but negatively associated with
OCB in Russia. One possible explanation for this may be
that in Russia, in order to preserve a healthy work balance,
employees may compensate for increased work engage-
ment by reducing involvement in OCB, given that OCB is
not directly job-related. In China, on the other hand, cul-
tural peculiarities may not allow for this same pattern of
adjustment. In China, quanxi has strong implications for
interpersonal and inter-organizational dynamics (Park and
Luo 2001). Quanxi refers to the concept of drawing on a
web of connections to secure favors in personal and
organizational relations. Implicit mutual obligations,
assurances, and understanding that are implied by quanxi
are likely to result in employees feeling a greater moral
obligation to engage in OCB despite increased demands on
their time. Furthermore, the positive relationship between
harmonious work passion and OCB in China may be
explained by a great emphasis on preserving harmony
across all life domains. Indeed, keeping balance or main-
taining harmony is respected as one of the highest virtues
by Confucius (Kim and Markus 1999). Chinese employees
with harmonious passion will continue engaging in OCB
because the latter will facilitate their goal of harmoniously
fitting in with others and maintaining harmony and piece in
the workplace.
Implications for Research and Practice
Our study makes several valuable contributions to
advancing work passion research. To date, it is the first
study that examines a wide range of job-, organization-,
and career-focused outcomes of work passion in non-
Western contexts. By providing empirical support for the
duality of the work passion construct in Russia and China,
our research offers further evidence of the construct gen-
eralizability. Our findings are consistent with the most of
the studies that support the general universality of work
passion (Ho et al. 2011). Our study is also a response to the
call to examine a variety of work outcomes of harmonious
and obsessive work passion (Ho et al. 2011) which may
shed light on how either type of passion manifests in the
workplace.
Our results offer new insights into the observed heter-
ogeneity of relationships between work passion and dif-
ferent outcomes. While previous social psychological
studies have demonstrated that harmonious and obsessive
passion for non-work activities are associated with differ-
ent affective outcomes and patterns of psychological
adjustment (Zigarmi et al. 2009), our study shows that
these two types of passion also exist in the work environ-
ment and are related to different job-, organization-, and
career-focused outcomes. The examination of a variety of
123

work outcomes allows for a more fine-grained approach
that reveals unique links between each type of passion and
work outcomes (Ho et al. 2011). These findings are sig-
nificant not only because they augment the nomological
framework of the work passion construct but because they
also pave the way for future research that may use these
relationships as building blocks to address different con-
tingencies and boundary conditions of the work passion–
outcome relations.
Our study also contributes to the literature by moving
beyond the traditionally held assumption that harmonious
passion is inherently ‘‘good’’ and is associated solely with
positive outcomes, whereas obsessive passion is inherently
‘‘bad’’ and is only associated with negative outcomes (Ho
et al. 2011; Vallerand et al. 2010). Our analysis suggests
that these assumptions may be incorrect, particularly in
different cultural contexts. For example, in Russia harmo-
nious passion negatively predicts OCB, whereas obsessive
passion is positively associated with job satisfaction. These
findings are significant because they support a contingency
view of work passion by highlighting differences in work
passion–outcome relationships that depend on a cultural
context.
Several implications for practice can be drawn from this
research. First, given the positive consequences of har-
monious passion for work outcomes, managers should
consider nurturing employees’ harmonious passion for
their jobs. Because a core characteristic of harmonious
passion is employees’ valuation and voluntary internali-
zation of the job, managers may encourage harmonious
passion by engaging employees’ in evaluation of their jobs
and by fostering conditions that make workers feel that
they and their contributions matter (Ho et al. 2011). These
conditions may include empowering employees, providing
constructive feedback and making their jobs interesting and
stimulating (Vallerand and Houlfort 2003).
At the same time, managers should make every attempt
to discourage obsessive work passion in order to mitigate
its negative outcomes. Although obsessive work passion
was not associated with any negative outcomes in China,
and was, in fact, associated with several positive outcomes
in Russia, we believe that obsessive work passion should
be managed with caution. Negative consequences of
obsessive passion may not be apparent in the short run
(Buelens and Poelmans 2004). Because work obsession is
associated with negative beliefs, fears, and perceptions of
work-life imbalance (Buelens and Poelmans 2004), these
negative outcomes may manifest themselves over time. To
discourage obsessive work passion, organizations should
promote balanced work environments, manageable time-
lines, and equal opportunities for growth. Obligatory
internalization of work tasks can be mitigated by creating a
supportive organizational culture.
123
J Bus Psychol
Furthermore, the differences in passion–work outcome
relationships among in Russia and China suggest that
Russian and Chinese employees, although they belong to
the Asian culture, are not the same. For example,
employers’ efforts to encourage harmonious passion to
increase OCB may be fruitful for Chinese but not Russian
employees. Similarly, an obsessively passionate employee
in Russia may be very committed to his/her occupation,
whereas in China, obsessive passion may not be related to
occupational commitment. These differences should be
taken into consideration during recruitment, selection and
ongoing employment to maximize employee and organi-
zational success.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Despite the contributions of our work, we are aware of its
several shortcomings. As we call attention to the potential
issues, we simultaneously offer suggestions for future
research. First, although we attempted to obtain diverse
samples from both Russia and China, only slight over a half
of the participants in each sample have a college degree.
Given their education level, study participants may occupy
lower-skilled jobs which are less paid, and are less intrin-
sically interesting and enjoyable, i.e., the conditions which
may constrain their work passion. Although this may have
a potentially negative impact on obsessive work passion,
harmonious work passion will most likely remain unaf-
fected. Harmonious passion tends to be free from external
contingencies because harmoniously passionate people are
not only intrinsically motivated, but they also autono-
mously internalize activities into their identities (Vallerand
et al. 2003). As such, individuals may be passionate about
their jobs regardless of the job level they occupy but simply
because this is what they personally enjoy. This non-con-
ditional nature of harmonious passion is supported by
empirical evidence. For example, Astakhova et al. (2010)
showed that workers in the Milan fashion industry,
although generally underpaid and overworked, consider
their work gratifying and express high levels of work
passion. Furthermore, research indicates that people in
low-level jobs are ambitious and eager to prove them-
selves, and are often interested in training and development
hoping for successful advancement (Shabana 2010). This
suggests that lower-level jobs may also drive an individ-
ual’s obsessive passion which in this case may be condi-
tional upon the possibility of successful advancement in the
organization. Indeed, the means for harmonious and
obsessive work passion in both Russian and Chinese
samples were around the scale mid-point (Table 2), which
indicates that, despite low education and potentially low-
level jobs, the study participants were passionate about
their work. Yet, future studies should further examine
J Bus Psychol
whether or not work passion is contingent on one’s edu-
cation or job level.
Second, although this study examined the relationship
between work passion and different outcomes in two dis-
tinct cultures, it should be noted that there may be signif-
icant cultural variation within a culture. While
homogeneity or convergence within a nation holds true for
some cultures, other cultures may manifest ‘‘subtractive
multiculturalism’’ (Triandis 1994) and include clearly
defined cultural subgroups due to unique historical and
economic conditions (Astakhova et al. 2010). These cul-
tural subgroups have different values which may differ-
entially influence an individual’s work attitudes and
behavior. For example, the cultural subgroups of Junior
Westernized Russian managers are characterized by higher
masculinity values, are more dedicated to work, and are
more open to work-related training than the cultural sub-
group of Senior Local Russian managers (Astakhova et al.
2010). Similarly, the Chinese cultural subgroups of ‘‘cos-
mopolitan’’ managers are more exposed to the Western
culture and value work more than ‘‘local’’ managers
(Ralston et al. 1996). Given these differences, it is more
likely that Junior Westernized Russian managers and
‘‘cosmopolitan’’ Chinese managers will manifest higher
levels of work passion than their respective comparison
groups. Future research should examine both across and
within cultural differences in work passion and its relations
with work outcomes.
Third, although we engaged in back-translation to
minimize translation errors (McGorry 2000), and our cross-
cultural CFAs indicated highly similar underlying factor
structures in the two countries, there is some evidence that
certain constructs may have both etic (i.e., country-
invariant) and emic (i.e., country-specific) meaning (e.g.,
Lam et al. 1999). To overcome these limitations, most of
the measures included in this study constructs have dem-
onstrated a high level of cross-cultural construct validity
and reliability in a variety of culturally distinct contexts
(e.g., [harmonious and obsessive passion], Vallerand et al.
2007; [performance and OCB], Botero and Van Dyne
2009). Nonetheless, our findings should be interpreted in
light of the fact that all of the measures in our study were
developed primarily in North American contexts.
Fourth, we capture a snap-shot of the work passion link
to work outcomes; we do not examine these relationships
longitudinally. However, because identity construal pro-
cess is not static and may change over time (Ethier and
Deaux 1994), both harmonious and obsessive work passion
and their internalization into one’s identity may also
change. Harmonious passion tends to remain in balance
with other aspects of the individual’s life and other aspects
of one’s identity (Vallerand et al. 2007). For example, if
the person’s situation changes and family life requires
more attention, individuals will most likely adjust the space
work occupies in the identity, while reserving more space
for family. Such re-balancing is more in line with harmo-
nious passion than obsessive passion, but it still might
diminish the harmonious passion–outcome relationship
over time. Future longitudinal research could reveal the
impact of such change.
Fifth, we have examined the effects of harmonious and
obsessive passion on a variety of job-, organization-, and
career-focused outcomes, but numerous other outcomes
may also be important, including one’s positive and neg-
ative effect, life satisfaction and well-being (Vallerand
et al. 2003). Given the spillover effects of work attitudes
(Edwards and Rothbard 2000), it is essential to simulta-
neously examine work passion outcomes in both work and
non-work domains.
Finally, there may be additional contingencies and
boundary conditions that affect the relationships between
harmonious work passion, obsessive work passion, and dif-
ferent work outcomes. These relationships may be attenu-
ated in situations in which organizational cultures are
supportive or non-supportive of work-life balance or situa-
tions in which a national culture places a high or low value on
family involvement and leisure. Boundary conditions may
also include various personality characteristics (e.g., self-
esteem) or organizational conditions (e.g., job autonomy,
organizational constraints, and organizational support)
which may either enhance or impede the relationships
between work passion and various outcomes.
In conclusion, our study adds to the body of research
that examines passion at work (Ho et al. 2011; Vallerand
and Houlfort 2003). Our results corroborate past research
that discriminates between harmonious and obsessive work
passion, but also suggest that the traditionally held
assumption that harmonious passion relates to solely
positive outcomes and obsessive passion relates to solely
negative outcomes may be challenged in other cultural
contexts. A wide nomological framework of work passion
which encapsulates multiple job-, organization-, and
career-focused outcomes suggests the complexity of the
construct. Promotion and maintenance of passion at work
are perhaps equally as complex.
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