AC Circuit Analysis: 1. Apparent Power: 2. Admittance: 3. Alternator: 4. Amplitude 5. Capacitance

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Tuesday, January 12, 2021

AC Circuit Analysis
1. Apparent power: The combination of reactive power and true power is called
apparent power.
2. Admittance: It is measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to
flow.
3. Alternator: Half of cycle is called Alternator. 1 cycle= 2 Alternator.
4. Amplitude: Maximum value by an alternative quantity is called amplitude.
5. Capacitance: The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as capacitance.
𝑸
C= ; Unit is F
𝑽
A capacitor is said to have a capacitance of 1 Farad if a charge of 1 coulomb
accumulates on each plate when a p.d of 1 volt is applied across the plates.
6. Cycle: A Complete set of positive and negative value is called Cycle.
7. Current: Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or
electron-deficient atoms.1A=1c/s.
8. DC Circuit: The closed path followed by direct current is called a dc current.
9. DC Circuit loads maybe connected as 3 ways:
a. Series Circuit
b. Parallel Circuit
c. Series-Parallel Circuit
Series Circuit: The series in which resistances are connected end to end so that
there is only one path for current flow is called a series circuit.
Equivalent resistance, 𝑹𝒕 =𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
Mohammad Tauhidul Islam 17305004 EEN 496

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Parallel Circuit: When are end of each resistance is joined a common point and
the other end of each resistance is joined to another common point so that there
are many paths for current flow as the number of resistance that is called a parallel
circuit.
Total Resistance,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +…+
𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
Series-Parallel Circuit: It is a combination of series and parallel circuits.
The Total Resistance,

𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹𝟏 + ( + )
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑
= 𝑹𝟏 + ( )
𝑹𝟐 ∗𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟐 ∗𝑹𝟑
=𝑹𝟏 + ( )
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟑

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10.Difference between Circuit and Network:
Circuit Network
 It is a close loop.  It is open loop.
 There is a source.  There is no Source.
11.Electric Current: The flow of free electrons is called electric current.
12.Electric Power: The rate at which work is done an electric circuit is called electric
power.
13.Electrical Potential: The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electrical
potential
14.From factor: The ratio of r.m.s value to the average value of an alternating current
is known as from factor
𝑹.𝑴.𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
From factor=
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
15.Free Electrons: Those valance electrons which are very loosely attached to the
nucleus of an atom are called free electrons.
16.Impedance: The total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current is called
impedance (z)
Z=√𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑳
17.Instantaneous Value: The instantaneous value is the value of an alternating
quantity at a particular instant of time in a cycle. The instantaneous value of any
variable quantity is designated by the smaller case letter of its symbol. For
example, V for voltage, I for current etc.
18.KCL: The entering current at node is equal to the current leaving at the node.
19.KVL: The algebraic sum of the voltage in a closed circuit is equal to zero.
20.Kirchhoff’s Law: Guntav Kirchhoff’s an eminent German Physicist he gave his
finding in a set of two laws-
i. First law (KCL): The algebraic sum of currents following towards a junction in
an electric circuit is zero. In short, Incoming Currents=Outgoing Currents
ii. Second law (KVL): In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the
electromotive forces and the voltage drops is equal to zero.
21.Network Terminology:
a. Active element: An active element is one which supplies electrical energy to the
circuit.
b. Passive element: A passive element is one which receive electrical energy and
then either converts it into heat (resistance) or stores in an electric field
(capacitance) or magnetic field (inductance)
c. Node: A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or more
circuit elements are joined. In figure A, B, C, D are nodes.

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d. Junction: A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit
elements are joined B and D are junctions.
e. Branch: A branch is that part of a network which lies between two junction
points. In figure there are 3 junction-BAD, BCD, and BD
f. Loop: A loop is any closed path of a network. In figure are ABDA, BDCD and
ABCDA.
g. Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot further divided
into other loops. In figure-ABDA and BCDB are meshes.
22.Ohms Law: Current through a conductors between two points is directly
proportion to the voltage across the two points. The potential difference across an
ideal conductor is proportional to the current through it. The relationship between
voltage (V) the current (I) and Resistance (R) in a dc current was first discovered
by German Scientist George Simon Ohm.
𝑽
V=𝑰𝑹; 𝑰 =
𝑹
23.Peak factor: The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s value of an alternating
quality is known as Peak factor.
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Peak factor =
𝑹.𝑴.𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
24.Reactive power: The power consumed in L and C is zero because all the power
received from the source in a half cycle is returned to the source in the next half
cycle. This circulating power is called the reactive power.
25.Resistance depends upon the following factors:
a. Length (R⋉ 𝑳)
𝟏
b. Cross sections Area (R⋉ )
𝒂
c. Nature of material
d. Temperature
26.Resistance: Resistance is the opposition to flow of electric current.
27.Resonance: Resonance occurs when a material oscillates at a high amplitude at a
specific frequency. We call this frequency resonant frequency.
28.R.M.S value: It is the effective value of voltage or current.
29.Ripple factor: Ripple factor (γ) may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square
(rms) value of the ripple voltage to the absolute value of the DC component of the
output voltage, usually expressed as a percentage. However, ripple voltage is also
commonly expressed as the peak-to-peak value.
30.Relation between frequency and time period?
We know that the number of complete vibrations of a vibrating particle in one
second is called its frequency. Frequency is denoted by f. Again the time period is
the time of one complete vibration. If the time period is T, than in T second, the
number of vibration is 1

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Therefore, the number of vibration in one second is = 1/T
The number of vibration in 1 second is frequency. So, the frequency, f = 1/T
31.Series AC Circuit: A circuit in which the same alternating current flows through
all the circuit element is called a series ac circuit.
32.Series Resonance: When a circuit in containing reactive element and the circuit
Power Factor is unity i.e. applied voltage and current are in phase. In such a
condition occurs in a series circuit. It is termed as series resonance.
𝟏
Resonance frequency 𝒇𝒓 = 𝑳
𝟐𝝅√
𝑪
33.Short Circuit: When electric current passes through the low resistance path.
 Voltage=0
 Current=High
34.True power: The power which is actually consumed in the circuit is called the true
power or active power.
35.Thevenin Theorem: Thevenin's Theorem states that “Any linear circuit
containing several voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single
voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“.
36.Superposition Theorem: The superposition theorem states that for a linear system
(notably including the subcategory of time-invariant linear systems) the response
(voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having more than
one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each
independent source.
37.Norton Theorem: Norton's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear
circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single current
source and parallel resistance connected to a load.
38.Reciprocity Theorem: In its simplest form, the reciprocity theorem states that if an
emf E in one branch of a reciprocal network produces a current I in another, then
if the emf E is moved from the first to the second branch, it will cause the same
current in the first branch, where the emf has been replaced by a short circuit.
𝑸
39.Unit of current: If Q=1 coulomb, t=1 sec, then I= =1 Amp
𝒕
40.Unit of charge: 1 coulomb of charge is equal on 628*𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 electrons.
1 Coulomb=Charge on 628*𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 electrons
When we say that a body has positive charge of 1 coulomb it means that if has a
deficit of 628*𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 electrons.
41.Voltage: Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that
pushes charged electrons (current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to
do work such as illuminating a light.
42.When resistor R=0(Short circuit) current will flow Infinity.
43.1A of Current: One coulomb of charge flows in one second at a cross section.

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44.1 watt: 1 watt is define as if a p.d of 1v causes 1A current to flow through the
circuit.
i. 1 kW=1000 watts
ii. 1 MW=𝟏𝟎𝟔 watts
45.1kWh: One kilo watt per hour of electrical energy is expended in a circuit if 1kw
of power is supplied for 1 hour.
46.1 Coulomb: One coulomb is equal to the amount of charge from a current
of one ampere flowing for one second. One coulomb is equal to the charge on
6.241 x 1018 protons. The charge on 1 proton is 1.6 x 10-19 C. Conversely, the
charge of an electron is -1.6 x 10-19 C
47.3dB: 3db is the power level, it’s the frequency at which the power is at 3db below
the maximum value and 3dbmeans in normal unit its half the maximum power
so3db frequency means the frequency at which the power is half the maximum
value so it’s decided the cutoff frequency.
Electronics Analysis and Design
1. Advantages of Negative Feedback Voltage:
 The negative feedback reduces noise.
 It has highly stabilized gain.
 It can control step response of amplifier.
 It has less harmonic distortion.
 It has less amplitude distortion.
 It has less phase distortion.
 Input and output impedances can be modified as desired.
 It can increase or decrease output impedances.
 It has higher fidelity i.e. more linear operation.
 It has less frequency distortion.
2. Biasing: Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating
voltage or current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can
be amplified correctly by the transistor.
3. Breakdown Voltage: The breakdown voltage of an insulator is the
minimum voltage that causes a portion of an insulator to become electrically
conductive. For diodes, the breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse voltage that
makes the diode conduct appreciably in reverse. Some devices (such as TRIACs)
also have a forward breakdown voltage.
4. Clipper: A circuit which cut off voltage above or below both at specified level.
5. Clamping: A circuit that clamp either positive or negative peak.

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6. Characteristics V-I Curve Ideal Diode
A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and acts like a perfect
conductor, with zero voltage across it. Similarly, when the diode is reversed biased,
it acts as a perfect insulator with zero current through it. The V-I characteristics
of the Ideal diode are shown in the figure below.
7. Doping: The process of implanting some specific impurities in semiconductor is
called is called doping.
8. Diode: A diode is a semiconductor device that allows the flow of current in only
one direction.
9. Define power amplifier: A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to
increase the magnitude of power of a given input signal. The power of the input
signal is increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output devices like
speakers, headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a
power amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used as a final block in
an amplifier chain.
10.Define input bias voltage of op-amp: An ideal op-amp has no voltage flow at the
inputs. In the real world, tiny amounts of voltage actually do flow into both the
non-inverting and inverting inputs of our component. These voltages are referred
to as the input bias voltage.
11.Define input offset voltage of op-amp: It is the voltage that must be applied
between two input terminals of op-amp to null the output.
12.Define input bias current of op-amp: An ideal op-amp has no current flow at the
inputs. In the real world, tiny amounts of current actually do flow into both the
non-inverting and inverting inputs of our component. These currents are referred
to as the input bias currents.
13.Define input offset current of op-amp: It is the input current which nullifies the
effect of output offset current.

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14.Difference between BJT and FET:
BJT FET
 BJT is a bipolar device.  FET is unipolar device.
 BJT are current controlled device.  FET are voltage controlled device.
 BJT consist of three terminals.  FET consist of three terminals.
 Emitter(E),Base(B), Collector(C)  Gate(G), Drain(D), Source(S)
15.Difference between Astable and Monostable multivibrator?

 Astable Multivibrator-In simple words, it produces square waves. As it has no
stable state, it keeps oscillating between two values which produce a square wave
 Monostable Multivibrator-Mono means one so this type of multivibrator produces
an output that has only one state. If you give external trigger then the circuit will
change the state temporarily and after some time output will return back to the
original state.
16.Difference between Astable and Bistable multivibrator?
 Astable–A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave pulses
at a fixed frequency.
 Bistable–A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that produces a single pulse either
positive or negative in value. An external trigger signal is applied; the output goes
from one stable state to another stable state. If no triggering action is applied
thereafter, then it remains in the new stable state.
17.Filter Circuit: A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac component of
rectifier output and allows only dc component.
18.Forward voltage: The forward voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if
the voltage at the anode is more positive than the voltage at the cathode (if you
connect + to the anode). You will be using this value to calculate the power
dissipation of the diode and the voltage after the diode.
19.Frequency: Number of cycle complete in one second is called Frequency.
20.Ideal Diode: An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when
voltage is applied forward biased and like a perfect insulator when voltage is
applied reverse biased. Ideal diode value zero (0).
21.Inverting amplifier: Inverting Amplifier is a normal OP-Amp in which the input
signal is given to the inverted terminal. Inverting amplifier is one in which the
output is exactly 180 degrees out of phase with respect to input (i.e. if you apply a
positive voltage, output will be negative).
22.MOSFET: Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. MOSFET is a
voltage controlled device.

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23.Null Voltage: Offset null voltage definition. Input Offset Voltage: Input offset
voltage is defined as the voltage that must be applied between the two input
terminals of an op amp to null or bring the output voltage to zero.
24.Op amp? Characteristics of Ideal Op amp
Op amp: An Operational Amplifier or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device
designed to be used with external feedback components such as resistors and
capacitors between its output and input terminals. It is a high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and usually a single-ended output. Op-
amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a
vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.
 An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following characteristics:
 Infinite open-loop gain G = vout/ v
 Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current.
 Zero input offset voltage.
 Infinite output voltage range.
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate.
 Zero output impedance R.
25.Oscillator: An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic,
oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators
convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current (AC)
signal.
26.Power amplifier: A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase
the magnitude of power of a given input signal. The power of the input signal is
increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output devices like speakers,
headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a power
amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used as a final block in an
amplifier chain.
27.Pinch off voltage: Pinch off voltage is the drain to source voltage after which the
drain to source current becomes almost constant and JFET. Enters into saturation
region and is defined only when gate to source voltage is zero.
28.p-n junction: A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of
semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of
semiconductor.
29.Peak Inverse Voltage: For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV)
or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum value of reverse voltage which
occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-biased. The portion
of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates itself is known as the cycle.
30.Rectifier: A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or more diodes that
converts alternating current to direct current.

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31.Reverse voltage: The reverse voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if
the voltage at the cathode is more positive than the voltage at the anode (if you
connect + to the cathode). This is usually much higher than the forward voltage.
As with forward voltage, a current will flow if the connected voltage exceeds this
value.
32.Semiconductor: Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor nor
a good insulator.
33.Swing voltage in op-amp: It is the rang of output voltages that allow for linear
operation of output signals. Output swing is also defined relative to the power
supplies. The output signal becomes distorted and non-linear if we exceed the op
amp’s output swing specifications.
34.SCR: Silicon controlled rectifier. A silicon-controlled rectifier or semiconductor-
controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid-state current-controlling device.
35.Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switching.
36.TRIAC: Triac is a bidirectional device.
37.Threshold Voltage: The threshold voltage, commonly abbreviated as Vth, of a field-
effect transistor (FET) is the minimum gate-to-source voltage VGS (th) that is needed
to create a conducting path between the sources and drain terminals. It is an
important scaling factor to maintain power efficiency.
38.Why FET is unipolar device: FETs can be called UNIPOLAR devices because the
charge carriers that carry the current through the device are all of the same type
i.e. either holes or electrons, but not both. This distinguishes FETs from the
bipolar devices in which both holes and electrons are responsible for current flow
in any one device.
39.Why BJT is Bipolar device: BJT is Bi polar transistor it is an active semiconductor
device, formed by two PN junctions, which function is to Amplification of Electric
current, BJT are two types P type and N type.
40.What is voltage?
Electric potential between two points
41.What is operating point?
The operating point of a device, also known as bias point.
42.What is transistor?
A semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification in
addition to rectification.
43.Work: Work is force applied over distance. Examples of work include lifting an
object against the Earth's gravitation, driving a car up a hill, and pulling down a
captive helium balloon. Work is a mechanical manifestation of energy.
The standard unit of work is the joule (J).

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44.Ziner Diode: Current can flow both direction forward direction as well as reverse
direction.
Machine
1. Auto Transformer: An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding
wound on a laminated core. An auto transformer is similar to a two
winding transformer but differ in the way the primary and secondary winding are
interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary sides.
2. Commutator: A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in certain types of electric
motors and electrical generators that periodically reverses the current direction
between the rotor and the external circuit. It consists of a cylinder composed of
multiple metal contact segments on the rotating armature of the machine.
3. Difference AC AND DC motors:
AC motors DC motors
 AC motors are brushless  Speed is controlled
 There is no commutator  Price is less
4. DC generator: operating principle, classifications, constructions, armature
windings, voltage build up, commutation technique, armature reactions,
performance and testing.
5. DC motor: operating principle, types of dc motors, dc motor characteristics,
methods of speed control.
6. Flaming’s Right hand rules: Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction the
current flows. The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle
finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the
diagram. The thumb is pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field.
7. Flaming’s Left hand rules: The direction of the force can be found
using Fleming's left-hand rule. Hold your thumb, forefinger and second finger
at right angles to each other: the forefinger is lined up with magnetic field lines
pointing from north to south. The second finger is lined up with the current
pointing from positive to negative.
8. Faradays Laws: Faraday’s law states that the absolute value or magnitude of the
circulation of the electric field E around a closed loop is equal to the rate of change
of the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop. The equation below
expresses Faraday’s law in mathematical form.
9. Generator: A generator is a dynamo in as much as it converts the mechanical
energy imparted to it in the rotation of the coils into electrical energy that is
supplied to the electrical load.

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10.Generator Principle:
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy (or
power) into electrical energy (or power).The energy conversion in a generator
from mechanical energy to electrical energy is based on the principle of the
production of dynamically induced electromotive force (e.m.f).Whenever a
conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f is produced in it
according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts
of an electrical generator are:
(a) A magnetic field, and
(b) A conductor or conductors, which can so move as to cut the flux.
11.Harmonics: Harmonics are unwanted higher frequencies which superimposed
on the fundamental waveform creating a distorted wave pattern. In an AC circuit,
a resistance behaves in exactly the same way as it does in a DC circuit. That is,
the current flowing through the resistance is proportional to the voltage across it.
12.Ideal Transformer: An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has.
No copper losses (no winding resistance) - No iron loss in core - no leakage flux.
In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input
power.
13.Induction motor: operating principle, structural details, equivalent circuits, speed-
torque relations, circle diagram, losses and efficiency.
14.Lenz Rule: Lenz’s law, in electromagnetism, statement that an induced electric
current flows in a direction such that the current opposes the change that induced
it. This law was deduced in 1834 by the Russian physicist Heinrich Friedrich Emil
Lenz (1804–65).
15.Machine: A piece of equipment with moving parts that is designed to do a
particular job is called machine.
Example: Dynamo
16.Motor: A motor is a dynamo in as much as it converts electrical energy imparted
to it in the rotation of the shaft into mechanical energy that is supplied to the load.
17.Power (P): Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time.

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18.Practical Generator:
Fig. 5 shows a cross-section of a typical commercial DC generator, simplified for

emphasis of the major portions. The basic principle underlying construction and
working of an actual generator which consists of the following essential parts:
1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke,
2. Pole Coils or Field Coils,
3. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes,
4. Interpole (Commutating Pole)
5. Compensating Winding
6. Armature or Rotor Shaft
7. Armature Core
8. Armature Windings or Conductors,
9. Commutator
10.Brushes and Brush Rigging, and
11.Bearing
19.Parallel Operation of Transformer:
 Same Voltage Rating
 Same KVA ratings.
 Same Phase angle shift
 Same Frequency rating.
 Same Polarity.
 Same Phase sequence

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20.Short Circuit & Open Circuit test we finding:
 Core loss
 Copper loss
21.Synchronous Speed: Synchronous means constant. This speed is never change
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
𝑵𝑺 =
𝑷
22.Synchronous generator: operating principle, salient poles and non-salient poles,
armature and field cores, armature windings, voltage regulation, armature
reaction, losses and efficiency, parallel operation of synchronous generators.
23.Synchronous motor: operating principle, vector diagrams, V-curves, losses,
efficiency and starting.
24.Simple Loop Generator:

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A single-turn rectangular copper coil ABCD, as shown in Fig. 24.1a, rotating

about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or
electromagnets. The two end of the coil are joined to slip-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which
are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes
(of carbon or copper) press against the slip-rings. Their function to collect current
induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The rotating
coil may be called “armature” and the magnets as “field magnet.
25.Transformer: A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers
electrical energy from one circuit to another through the process of
electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase ('step up') or
decrease ('step down') voltage levels between circuits.
26.Torque: Torque means the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
27.What is the criteria to make parallel operation of transformer?
 Percentage of reactance
 Current rating
28.When transformer rating in kVA: The copper and iron are the two type of losses
occur in the transformer. The copper loss depends on the current (ampere) flows
through the windings of the transformer while the iron loss depends on the voltage
(volts). i.e., the rating of the transformer is in kVA.

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29.Working Principle of Generator:
The coil sides AB and CD now represent by A and B as shown in Fig.2.9. Imagine
the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction. When the coil sides A and B are at
Position 1, the plane of the coil is at right angles to line of flux, the flux linked
with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum. It is so
because in this position, the coil sides A and B do not cut or share the flux, rather
the slide along them i.e. they move parallel to the lines of flux. Hence there is no
induced e.m.f in the coil. As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change
of flux linkages (and hence induced e.m.f in it) increases, till the angle equals
o
90 .At position 2, the voltage induced in the coil is at a maximum because the
conductors are moving at right angles to the lines of flux. In this position, the coil
plane is horizontal i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with
the coil is minimum but rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence
maximum e.m.f is induced in the coil when in this position 2. The direction of
current in the coil can be obtained in accordance with Faming’s right-hand rule.
o o
In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90 to 180 , the flux linked with the coil
gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the
o
induced e.m.f decreases gradually, the angles equals 180 (it is reduced to zero
value).The voltage is again zero at position 3, just as it was at position 1.Coil side
A is now at the bottom instead of at the top. We find the first half revolution of the
coil, no e.m.f is induced in it when in position 1, maximum when in position 2 and
no e.m.f when in position 3 in this half revolution the coil sides A and B are moved
o o
in downward. In the next half revolution i.e. from 180 to 360 , the variations in
the magnitude of e.m.f. are similar to those in the first half revolution. The e.m.f
value is maximum when coil is in position 4 and minimum when in position 5 (or

17

1).The direction of current is opposite of the current which is found for the first
revolution. Due to the direction of motion (upward direction) the current direction
is changed in the next half revolution.
30.Working Principle of DC Motor:

18

To operate a DC machine as a motor, with the field windings excited and the North
and South Pole magnetic fields established in the air gap by the stator poles, a DC
current has to be passed through the armature terminals. The DC current passing
via the armature terminals, brushes and commutator causes the armature
conductors to have the current in such a manner that the conductors coming
under the North pole region carry current in one direction, say, inward direction
while the remaining conductors under South pole region carry current in the
opposite direction, say, outward direction as shown in Fig. 7.1.Current carrying
armature conductors cause additional magnetic field to be set up. Interaction of
this magnetic field with the main magnetic field supplied by the stator poles cause
a force to be developed around the conductors. The direction of this force is given
by Fleming’s Left-Hand rule. Under the North Pole region, the main magnetic
field comes out of the pole and enters the armature core. The magnetic field set
up by the inward current carrying conductor is clock-wise. Hence the force
developed is in the anti-clock-wise direction which can be determined by applying
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule. Under the South Pole region, the direction of the main
magnetic field is reversed from the armature core towards the pole, and the
direction of the magnetic field set up by the outward current carrying conductor
is also anti-clock-wise. The direction of the force developed remains the same as
the force under the North Pole region, anti-clockwise according to Fleming’s Left-
Hand Rule. Therefore, force developed in all the conductors is uni-directional.
These forces acting on the shaft give rise to torque (Torque has been defined as
the product of the force multiplied by a distance measured perpendicularly from
the axis of the force to the center of rotation).If the torque developed is more than
the sum of the frictional torque exerted by the moving parts of the motor and the
torque exerted by the load on the shaft, if any, it will cause the motor rotate in the
anti-clockwise direction (using Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule). In case, clockwise
direction is required, either the direction of the main field or the direction of the
current through the armature conductors is to be reverse.

19
31.Working Principle of Transformer:
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which

electrical power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. It can raise (step up) or lower (step down) the voltage
in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. Physically,
a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common
magnetic flux. It consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated
but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance (Fig. 32.1). The two coils
possess high mutual inductance.
If one coil is connected to a source of AC voltage, an AC flux is set up in the
laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produce
mutually induced emf (according to the faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction e=Mdi/dt). If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and
so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the
second coil. The first coil, in which electrical energy is fed from the AC supply
main, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is
called secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
 Transfers electrical power from one circuit to another
 It does so without a change of frequency
 It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
 Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
20

 For a duplex lap-wound generator: m=2 and A=mP=2P then
ZN P ZN
Eg   volt
60 2 P 120
 For a triplex lap-wound generator: m=3 and A=mP=3P then
ZN P ZN
Eg   volt
60 3P 180
 For a simplex wave-wound generator: m=1 and A=2m=2 then
ZN P
Eg  volt
60 2
 For a duplex wave-wound generator: m=2 and A=2m=4 then
ZN P
Eg  volt
60 4
 For a triplex wave-wound generator: m=3 and A=2m=6 then
ZN P
Eg  volt
60 6
Types of Generator:
DC generators: are classified based on how their fields are excited. There are
three methods of excitation, and thus three main types of DC generators:
 Permanent Magnet DC Generators–Field coils excited by permanent
magnets
 Separately Excited DC Generators–Field coils excited by some external
source
 Self Excited DC Generators– Field coils excited by the generator itself
Self-excited DC generators can further be classified depending on the position
of their field coils. The three types of self-excited DC generators are:
1. Series Wound Generators
2. Shunt Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators
21

Permanent Magnet DC Generator
When the flux in the magnetic circuit is created through the use of permanent
magnets, then it is known as a Permanent magnet DC generator. It consists of
an armature and one or several permanent magnets situated around the
armature. This type of DC generator generates does not generate much power.
As such they are rarely found in industrial applications. They are normally used
in small applications – like dynamos in motorcycles.
Separately Excited DC Generator
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external DC
Source, such as a battery.
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in the figure
below. The symbols below are:
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated EMF (Electromagnetic Force)
22
Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × Ra

1. Series Wound Generators
2. Shunt Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators
Series Wound Generator
In these type of generators, the field windings are connected in series with
armature conductors, as shown in the figure below.
Here:
Rsc = Series winding resistance
Isc = Current flowing through the series field
Ra = Armature resistance
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated EMF
Shunt Wound DC Generators

In these type of DC generators, the field windings are connected in parallel with
armature conductors, as shown in the figure below. In shunt wound generators
the voltage in the field winding is same as the voltage across the terminal.
Here:
 Rsh = Shunt winding resistance
 Ish = Current flowing through the shunt field
 Ra = Armature resistance
 Ia = Armature current
 IL = Load current
 V = Terminal voltage
 Eg = Generated EMF
23
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generators are generators where only the
shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding, as shown in the
figure below.
Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator are generators where the shunt
field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature winding, as shown
in the figure below.
24

Transmission and Distribution
1. AC and DC power system:
DC SYSTEM AC SYSTEM
 One conductor required.  Three conductor required.
 There are no Capacitance and  There is Capacitance and
Inductance effect. inductance effect.
 Loss due to charging Current not  Loss due to charging Current
present. present.
 Potential stress much in insulation is  Potential stress in insulation is
less. much.
 Skin effect is not here.  Skin effect is present.
 No Corona effect.  Corona effect is present.
 Require less copper than ac line.  Require less copper than dc line.
 It is not possible to step up or step  Voltage can be stepped up or
down the dc voltage level. stepped down by means of
transformer.
2. Clearance: The electrical clearance is the electrical isolation between two

conductive components, whereas the creepage indicates the conduction of
electricity across the surface of a nonconductive component. The clearance
and creepage distance are two important parameters while designing an
electrical assembly.
3. Corona: The phenomenon of violet glow hissing noise and production of ozone
gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
4. Effect of wind and ice: During service the conductor will be subjected and
forces due not only its own weight but also to wind pressure of various strength
and, in cold weather to ice forming cylindrical Sheath around the conductor.
Under such conditions the forces acting each unit length of wire are-
 The weight W acting vertically downwards.
 The weight per unit length of the maximum coating of ice likely to from
around the conductor, this also acting vertically downward.
 The Wind pressure per unit length this pressure being assumed to act
horizontally.
Let,
𝒘𝒊 = Weight of ice per unit length of conductor.
𝒘𝒘 =The force per unit length exerted by the Wind.
The total weight of the conductor per unit length,
𝒘𝑻 =√(𝒘 + 𝒘𝒊 )𝟐 +(𝒘𝒘 )𝟐
25

 It is obvious that in all equation W should be represent by 𝒘𝒕 .
 When ice and wind loads are taken into account the approximate formula for
equal level,
Vertical Sag=dcosƟ
𝒘𝒘 =𝝆*(D+2R)*1
=𝝆*D (Without ice)
𝒘𝒊 =πρR (D+R)
𝒘𝒕 𝒙𝟐
d=
𝟐𝑻
𝒘𝒕 𝟐 𝒍𝟑
S=𝒍 +
𝑻𝟐
𝒘 𝒙𝟐
y= 𝒕
𝟐𝑻
5. Elements of distribution system:
The distribution system consists of feeders, circuit breaker and service mains
A) Feeder
Feeders are the conductors which connect the sub-station to the area where the
power is distributed and feeders have the capability of current carrying there is no
tapping in the feeders so the current will remain the same.
B) Distributor
The distributor is a conductor and the current through It is not constant because
of the tapping during the designing of the distributor voltage drop along its length
is the main consideration
C) Service Mains
Service mains connects the distributor to the consumer terminal it is generally a
small cable.
6. Power System: It is a Common practice now a days to interconnect many type of
generating stations by means of a common electrical network and operating them
Electrical network and Operating all in parallel. This combination of generating
station forms what is known as Power system? The power system of generation,
transmission and distribution.
The power system:
The power supply consists of
1) Generation
2) Transmission
3) Distribution
26
7. Sag: The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point of
the conductor is called sag.
8. Sag and tension with supports at equal levels:
𝑻 𝑾
S= 𝟎sinh ( 𝒙)
𝑾 𝑻𝟎
𝑻𝟎
D=-
𝑾
𝑻𝟎 𝑾𝒙
y= [cosh ( )-1]
𝑾 𝑻𝟎
Tension
𝑾
T=𝑻𝟎 cosh ( 𝒙)
𝑻𝟎
𝒘𝒍
T=𝑻𝟎 cosh ( )
𝑻𝟎
𝑻𝟎 𝒘𝒍
𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [cosh ( )-1]
𝑾 𝑻𝟎
𝑻𝟎 𝒘𝒍
Span S= [sinh ( )]
𝑾 𝑻𝟎
Similarly for Unequal level:
𝑾𝒕 ∗(𝑿 )𝟐
𝟏
𝒅𝟏 =
𝟐𝑻
𝑾𝒕 ∗(𝑿 )𝟐
𝟐
𝒅𝟐 =
𝟐𝑻
𝒉𝑻
𝒙𝟏 =𝒍 −
𝟐 𝒘𝒕 𝒍
𝒉𝑻
𝒙𝟐 = 𝒍 +
𝟐 𝒘𝒕 𝒍
x=Particular Length Or Half Spain Length
l=Horizontal Length
27

9. Skin Effect: The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the
surface of a conductor is known as skin effect.
10.Types of DC Distributors: The most general method of classifying d.c.
distributors is the way they are fed by the feeders. On this basis, d.c. distributors
are classified as:
1. Distributor fed at one end
2. Distributor fed at both ends
3. Distributor fed at the center
4. Ring distributor
11.Uniformly Loaded distribution formula:
𝒙𝟐
 V= ir (lx- )
𝟐
𝟏
 AB= ∗IR
𝟐
12.Why we doesn’t use DC Transmission?
There are many sound reasons for producing power in the form of ac rather than
DC
1) It is possible to construct large high speed ac generators of capacities up to 500
MW. Such generators are economical both in the matter of cost per kWh of electric
produced as well as in operator, But DC generators cannot be built ratings higher
than 5 MW because of commutation problem. Moreover since they must operate
at low Speeds, it necessitates large and heavy machines.
2) AC voltage can be efficiently and conveniently raised or lowered for economic
transmission and distribution of electric power respectively. On the other hand DC
power has to be generated at comparatively low voltage by units of relatively low
power ratings. As yet there is no economical method of raising the Dc voltage for
transmission and lowering it for distribution.
Electric and Magnetic Fields
1. A.B=ABcos𝜽----Dot Product
2. A*B=ABsin𝜽----Cross Product
3. What is characteristics impedance?
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a
uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of
a single wave propagating along the line.
4. Define Current Density?
Current density is the amount of charge per unit time that flow through a unit
area of a chosen cross section.
5. Define magnetic dipole? Potential of a dipole.
Magnetic dipole is consist of two opposite poles having equal magnetic strength
and separated by some distance.
28

6. Pointing Vector?
The Pointing vector represents the directional energy flux (the energy transfer per
unit area per unit time) of an electromagnetic field. The SI unit of the Pointing
vector is the watt per square metre (W/m2). It is named after its discoverer John
Henry Pointing who first derived it in 1884.
7. Solenoid?
A coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current flows through it.
8. Sky Wave: Sky wave is a radio wave reflected back to the earth by the ionosphere,
permitting transmission around the curved surface of the earth Compare ground
wave.
9. Space waves: Space wave are the radio waves of very high frequency (i.e. between
30 MHz to 300 MHz or more). The space waves can travel through atmosphere
from transmitter antenna to receiver antenna either directly or after reflection
from ground in the earth's stratosphere region
10.Ground Wave: Ground wave propagation is a method of radio wave propagation
that uses the area between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for
transmission. The ground wave can propagate a considerable distance over the
earth's surface particularly in the low frequency and medium frequency portion
of the radio spectrum.
11.Store Equation?
𝟏
𝑾𝑽 = 𝑩𝟐
𝟐𝝁
12.Types of Effects?
 Magnetic Effects
 Heating Effects
 Chemical Effects
13.Transmission Line Losses?
The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to distribute
itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the
conductor is greater than that at its core.
14.What is Columba’s Law?
The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is directly proportional
to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
𝟏
F∝ 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 or F∝ 𝟐
𝒅
Limitation of Columba’s Law:
 It is only applicable for point charge at rest.
 It is difficult to apply when the charge are in obituary space.
 Charge in motion
29

 When R=𝜶 then F=0 and R=0 then F=𝜶
15.Derivative of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation?
𝝆
 Poisson’s Equation: 𝜵𝟐 . 𝒗= - 𝒗
𝝐𝟎
 Laplace Equation: 𝜵𝟐 . 𝒗=0
16.What are the co-ordinate used in electromagnetic field?
 Cartesian (x, y, z)
 Cylindrical (𝝆, ∅, 𝒛)
 Spherical (r, 𝜽, 𝝆)
17.What the value of Permittivity in Free Space?
∈𝟎 =8.854*𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 F/m
18.What is Charge?
Charge is the physical properties of matter which is responsible for electrical and
mechanical interactions charge must have mass.
19.What is Electric Current?
An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge past a point or region.
𝒅𝑸
i=
𝒅𝒕
20.What is Divergence, Curl and Gradient with Formula?
Divergence: is a vector operator that operates on a vector field, producing a scalar
field giving the quantity of the vector field’s source of each point.
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
𝜵. 𝑮(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)= (𝑮𝟏 )+ (𝑮𝟐 )+ (𝑮𝟑 )
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛
Curl: It is a vector operator that describes the infinitesimal rotation of a vector
field in three dimensional Euclidian space.
21.What is the electric flux density and Unit of D?

𝒄𝒐𝒍
The quantity of flux per Unit area is called electric flux density. Unit 𝟐
𝒎
𝑸 𝟐
D= =Q/4π𝒓 ; Sometime it is called displacement vector.
𝑨
22.What is Electric flux?
Electric flux is the quantity of energy coming out from a charge. Electric flux is
the rate of flow of the electric field through a given Surface.
30

23.What is dipole?
Two poles at small distance is dipole.
24.What is Gauess Law?
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to total charge
enclosed by the surface.
𝝍 = 𝒅𝝍 = ∮ 𝑫𝒅𝒔 =∈ ∮ 𝑬𝒅𝒔
25.What is Gaussian Surface?
The Surface over which integration is performed.
26.What is Maxwell’s Law?
It states that the electric flux/unit volume leaving a vanishing small volume unit
is exactly equal to the volume charge density there.
27.What is Potential?
The amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a reference point to a
specific point against an electric field.
28.What is Potential Difference?
The difference in electrical potential between two points in an electric field.
29.What is Flux?
The rate of transfer of energy through a given surface, specifically electric flux or
magnetic flux.
30.What is Magnetic flux density?
Magnetic flux density is equal to magnetic field strength times the magnetic
permeability in the region in which the field exists.
31.What is the frequency of the electric field?
0 HZ. The strength of a static electric field is expressed in volts per meter (V/m).
32.What is Magnetic Flux Density?
Magnetic flux density is equal to magnetic field strength times the magnetic
permeability in the region in which the field exists. Unit Web/𝒎𝟐
33.What is Heating Effect?
When current flows through a conductor, heat energy is generated in the
conductor. The heating effect of an electric current depends on three factors: The
resistance, R of the conductor.
34.What is dielectric?
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized
by an applied electric field. Dielectrics are important for explaining various
phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, and cell biophysics.
35.What is Magnetic Effect?
A magnetic effect of electric current is known as electromagnetic effect. It is
observed that when a compass is brought near a current carrying conductor the
31

needle of compass gets deflected because of flow of electricity. This shows that
electric current produces a magnetic effect.
36.What is Permittivity and Permeability?
Permittivity: The ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an electric field.
Permeability: Permeability is a measure of the resistance of a martial against
formation of a magnetic field. μ = B/H, μ =4π*𝟏𝟎−𝟕
Power System Analysis
1. What is power system?
The power system is a network which consists of generation, transmission and
distribution systems with necessary controls.
2. What is per unit system?
The per unit system is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit and the base
or reference value in the same unit.
3. What are the advantages of per unit system?
For the analysis of electrical machines or electrical machine system, different
values are required, thus, per unit system provides the value for voltage, current,
power, impendence, and admittance. The per Unit System also makes the
calculation easier as all the values are taken in the same unit.
4. What is active power?
Active or real or true power do the actual work in the load. Active power is
measured in watts and is the power consumed by electrical resistance.
5. What is reactive power?
Reactive power is the portion of electrical power that helps establish and sustain
the electric and magnetic fields required by alternating current equipment.
6. What is apparent power?
Apparent power is a measure of alternating current (AC) power that is computed
by multiplying the root-mean square (rms) current by the root-mean-square
voltage. S = ErmsIrms=VI
7. What is the necessity of voltage control?
Voltage control in an electrical power system is important for proper operation for
electrical power equipment to prevent damage such as overheating of generators
and motors, to reduce transmission losses and to maintain the ability of the system
to withstand and prevent voltage collapse.
8. What is transformer?
A transformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert alternating current
from one voltage to another. It can be designed to "step up" or "step down"
voltages and works on the mutual induction principle of Faraday.
32

9. What is no load current?
The no load current is the current drawn by the transformer winding when no
external load is connected to the secondary of the transformer that is the
secondary circuit is open.
10.What is the function of working component of no load current of a transformer?
The function of working component is to supply the losses which are eddy current
and hysteresis losses.
11.What are the methods of voltage control?
The following are the methods used in the power system for controlling the
voltage.
 On Load Tap Changing Transformer.
 Off Load Tap Changing transformer.
 Booster transformer
 Shunt Reactors.
 Synchronous condenser
 Shunt Capacitor.
 Static VAR System (SVS) etc.
12.What is booster transformer?
Booster transformer is one which is often used towards the end of a power line to
raise the voltage to the desired value. It is used for controlling the voltage of a
feeder at a point far away from the main transformer.
13.What is synchronous condenser?
Synchronous condenser is actually synchronous motor under a certain condition.
The synchronous condenser is used in power lines to improve power factor, power
factor correction by connecting it along with transmission lines.
14.What is lossless line?
A lossless line has these properties: it does not dissipate any power that is R=G=0.
15.What is characteristics impedance?
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a
uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of
a single wave propagating along the line.
16.What is meant by symmetrical components?
The method of symmetrical components is used to simplify fault analysis by
converting a three-phase unbalanced system into two sets of balanced phasors and
a set of single-phase phasors, or symmetrical components. These sets of phasors
are called the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components.
17.What is symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault?
A symmetrical fault is a fault where all phases are affected so that the system
remains balanced. A three-phase fault is a symmetrical fault. The other three fault
33

types (line to ground, line to line, and two- line to ground) are called
unsymmetrical or asymmetrical faults.
18.What is ‘a’ operator in power system?
The “a” operator is a short-hand method of representing a phase shift difference
of 120 degrees. The “a” operator has a unity value at 120 degrees or: a = 1∠120.
19.What are the 3 types of buses in power system?
Three major types of nodes or buses are identified in the power network.
 Load Bus, or P-Q Bus. ...
 Generator Bus, or P-V Bus.
 System Slack, or Swing Bus.
20.What is zero sequence reactance?
The unbalanced current flows in the circuit during the earth fault is known as the
zero sequence current or the DC component of the fault current.
21.What is bus in power system?
A bus in a power system is defined as the vertical line at which the several
components of the power system like generators, loads, and feeders, etc., are
connected. The buses in a power system are associated with four quantities.
22.Current Limiting Reactors.
In electrical engineering, current limiting reactors can reduce short-circuit
currents, which result from plant expansions and power source additions, to levels
that can be adequately handled by existing distribution equipment
23.What is synchronous condenser?
Synchronous condenser is actually synchronous motor under a certain condition.
The synchronous condenser is used in power lines to improve power factor, power
factor correction by connecting it along with transmission lines.
24.What is positive sequence reactance?
It is a reactance of a synchronous machine under steady state condition in the
direct axis.
25.What is Negative sequence reactance?
Negative sequence can arise whenever there is any unbalance present in the
system. Their effect is to setup a field rotating in opposite direction to the main
field.
26.What is the phase sequence?
Phase rotation, or phase sequence, is the order in which the voltage waveforms of
a polyphase AC source reach their respective peaks. For a three-phase system,
there are only two possible phase sequences: R-Y-B and B-R-Y, corresponding to
the two possible directions of alternator rotation.
34

27.What is short circuit current?
Short circuit current reduces the effect of impedance in the circuit while the
current in the circuit rises.
28.What is no load current?
The no load current is the current drawn by the transformer winding when no
external load is connected to the secondary of the transformer that is the
secondary circuit is open.
29.What is the function of magnetizing component of no load current of a
transformer?
Magnetizing current is used to set up magnetic flux in core of Transformer.
30.What is the function of working component of no load current of a transformer?
The function of working component is to supply the losses which are eddy current
and hysteresis losses.
31.Why no- load current of transformer is very low?
Because there is no load in secondary in that case.
32.Power system stability: is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial
operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being
subjected to a physical disturbance, with most of the system variables bounded so
that practically the entire system remains intact”
33.Balance: A balanced polyphase system is one where all line voltages are equal to
each other, and all line currents are also equal to each other.
34. Unbalanced: Unbalanced conditions usually stem from unsymmetrical loads,
although severe imbalances may be caused by faults in the system.
35.What is load flow studies?
In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a numerical
analysis of the flow of electric power in an interconnected system.
36.The equal area criterion: is a simple graphical method for concluding the
transient stability of two-machine systems or a single machine against an infinite
bus. This principle does not require the swing equation for the determination of
stability conditions. ... Hence the name equal area criterion.
35

37.Infinite bus: Infinite bus whose voltage and frequency remains constant even after
the variation in the load is known as the infinite bus. The alternators operating in
parallel in a power system is the example of the infinite bus. The on and off of any
of the alternator will not affect the working of the power system.
Microprocessor and Interfacing
1. 1 MB=1048576 Bytes, 1 byte is 8 bits, 1 nibble is 4 bits.
2. Starting Address-00000h
3. Ending Addrss-FFFFFh
4. Morris Law- The law states that processor speeds, or overall processing power for
computers will double about every 18 months.
5. Microprocessor-Microprocessor is a nothing but CPU on a chip.
6. Computing components-CPU+Input+output+Memory
7. 1st Microprocessor-2300 transistors
8. Today’s Microprocessor-6 Billions, Semiconductor device and Quantum
Computer.
9. Today’s Microprocessor- Xeon and Speed 3.2 GHz, 64 bit
10.Intel 4004-The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel
Corporation in 1971. It was the first microprocessor, and the first in a long line
of Intel CPUs. Speed is 740 kHz and Data width 4 bits.
11.Applications of Microprocessor-Stations, Server, Mobile phone, Desktop, Laptop
etc.
12.System Buses:
Address bus-Unidirectional, transfer memory address, transfer I/O address.
Data bus-Bidirectional, send and receive data, transfer binary data and
instructions.
Control bus-Memory read and write signal, I/O read and write signal.
13.Languages Hierarchy-Classification of Languages.
14.High Level Languages-High level languages are written in a form that is close to
our human language, enabling to programmer to just focus on the problem being
solved.
15.Examples include: C++, Java, Pascal, Python, and Visual Basic.
16.Low Level Languages-They are closer to the native language of a computer
(binary), making them harder for programmers to understand.
17.Machine Language/opcode-Machine language /opcode (0, 1) is called machine
language.0s and 1s combination is called machine language.
36

18.Assembly Language-Differs from assembly language of other processor
 High level
 Medium level
 Low level
19.16 Bit Microprocessor-16 Bit means it has 16 data lines exposed to outside and all
Internal registers are 16 bit long
20.Peripheral device-is defined as a computer device, such as a keyboard or printer
that is not part of the essential computer. These auxiliary devices are intended to
be connected to the computer and used.
21.EU (Execution Unit)-Execution unit gives instructions to BIU stating from where
to fetch the data and then decode and execute those instructions. Its function is to
control operations on data using the instruction decoder & ALU. EU has no direct
connection with system buses as shown in the above figure, it performs operations
over data through BIU.
22.BIU (Bus Interface Unit)-BIU takes care of all data and addresses transfers on
the buses for the EU like sending addresses, fetching instructions from the
memory, reading data from the ports and the memory as well as writing data to
the ports and the memory. EU has no direction connection with System Buses so
this is possible with the BIU. EU and BIU are connected with the Internal Bus.
23.General purpose register-There are 8 general purpose registers, i.e., AH, AL, BH,
BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL. These registers can be used individually to store 8-bit
data and can be used in pairs to store 16bit data. The valid register pairs are AH
and AL, BH and BL, CH and CL, and DH and DL. It is referred to the AX, BX,
CX, and DX respectively.
24.ALU-It handles all arithmetic and logical operations, like +, −, ×, /, OR, AND,
NOT operations
25.Flag Register-It is a 16-bit register that behaves like a flip-flop, i.e. it changes its
status according to the result stored in the accumulator. It has 9 flags and they are
divided into 2 groups − Conditional Flags and Control Flags.
26.Instruction queue − BIU contains the instruction queue. BIU gets upto 6 bytes of
next instructions and stores them in the instruction queue. When EU executes
instructions and is ready for its next instruction, then it simply reads the
instruction from this instruction queue resulting in increased execution speed.
27.Pipelining-Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is
called pipelining.
37

28.Eight Registers in 8086-The 8086 has eight more or less general 16-bit registers
(including the stack pointer but excluding the instruction pointer, flag register and
segment registers). Four of them, AX, BX, CX, DX, can also be accessed as twice
as many 8-bit registers (see figure) while the other four, SI, DI, BP, SP, are 16-bit
only.
29.Memory Locations-In computing, a memory address is a reference to a specific
memory location used at various levels by software and hardware. Memory
addresses are fixed-length sequences of digits conventionally displayed and
manipulated as unsigned integers.
Linear Circuit Analysis
1. Fourier series: A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function in
terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines. Fourier series make use of the
orthogonality relationships of the sine and cosine functions.
Ao=Dc Components
A1Coswt=Fundamental AC Components
A2Cos2wt=Second Order Harmonics
A3Cos3wt=Third order Harmonics
2. What is Laplace transform?
Laplace transform is a technique that solves the circuit in complex frequency
domain instead of time domain.
3. What is inverse Laplace theorem?
Once a problem has been solved in the Laplace Domain, it is often necessary to
transform the solution back to the time domain; this is the Inverse Laplace
Transform.
4. How many ways we can solve the sum of rational fraction and what are they?
1. Distinct Real Poles
2. Repeated real poles
3. Complex poles
4. Exponential numerator
5. Improper function method when m>n
5. What is shift function theorem?
Shift theorem is a theorem about polynomial differential operators (D-operators)
and exponential functions. It permits one to eliminate, in certain cases, the
exponential from under the D-operators
6. What is poles?
Roots of denominator are called poles.
38

7. What is zeros?
Roots of numerator are called zeros.
8. What is the meaning of convolution?
A function derived from two given functions by integration that expresses how the
shape of one is modified by the other.
9. What is Laplace domain?
In the Laplace domain both signals and systems are represented by functions of s-
domain is known as Laplace domain.
10.What is s-domain?
S-domain is the domain without loss of the information of originating signal. It's
the generalization of power series formula.
Harmonics: The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current
and voltage are distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
The function f(t) is said to be an even function if
f(-t) =f(t)
In this type of signal, the coefficient bn is zero. Also only half period can be counted
for integration of the signal.
The function f (t) is said to be an odd function if
f(-t) =-f (t)
In this type of signal, the coefficients a0 and an are zero.
Step #1:
Whenever see a continuous function signal, identify the symmetry
Condition such as even function or odd function symmetries
If even function bn is zero, don’t need to calculate bn at all.
If odd function a0 and an are zero, don’t need to calculate a0 and an at all
Step #2:
Whatever be the period of the given function, take a complete cycle
For finding the terms of a0, an and bn
Step #3:
If there is no symmetry then find the terms of a0, an and bn and put all
Coefficients into the series and simplify.
39
Digital Logic Design

1. What is DE Morgan’s Law?
Measurement and Instrumentation

1. Megger: The Megger is the instrument uses for measuring the resistance of the
insulation.
2. Difference between Current Transformer and Potential Transformer?
40

3. Damping Torque (Tdamp): If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and
controlling torques alone, then due to inertia, the pointer will oscillate about its
final deflected position for some time before coming to rest. This oscillation makes
it difficult to obtain quick and accurate reading. In order to avoid these oscillations
of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected position, a damping
torque is provided in the indicating instruments. The damping do not affect the
stationary pointer, as the damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion
and always opposes the motion.
The behavior of the moving system is decided by the degree of damping. The
fig. given below shows the graph for under damping, over damping, and critical
damping.
 Under damped moving system: The pointer will oscillate about the final
position for some time, before coming to rest.
 Over damped: The pointer will become slow and lethargic.
 Critically damped/ dead beat: The degree of damping is so that, the pointer
comes up to the correct reading quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating
about it.
4. PMMC: The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the
stationary magnetic field between which the coil moves is known as the permanent
magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. It operates on the principle that the
torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the permanent magnet.
The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC measurement.
 Advantages:
 The PMMC has uniformly divided scale. The scale may be very long, over
about 250 degree.
 It has a very high torque to weight ratio.
 The PMMC has consumes low power.
 The PMMC has a very high accuracy.
 The PMMC is free from hysteresis error.
41

 The PMMC has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray
magnetic field.
 Extension of instrument range is possible with the help of shunt and series
resistances.
 Disadvantages:
 It has comparatively high cost.
 The PMMC has only suitable for D.C. measurements.
 Aging of permanent magnets and control springs introduces errors.
5. Wheatstone bridge: This Bridge was first proposed by Wheatstone for measuring
the value of an unknown Resistance.
Here,
𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑿
PX=QR
Unknown Resistance,
𝑸
X= *R
𝑷
Switchgear and Relay Protection

1. ACSR: Aluminum conductor steel Reinforced.
2. Arc: Luminous discharge of current between two contacts of little gap is called
Arc
 Gap  Discharge  Light emit
3. Arc Horn: Horn is a mechanical arrangement of metallic conductor to perform
flashover in a guided way in order to protect Insulator.
42

4. How to Arc Produce:
 When current conducting circuit is opened, instantaneous high voltage is
produced across the contacts.
 If produced high voltage is higher than dielectric strength of gap medium,
avalanche break down occurs and the medium is ionized.
 This allows the current to flow between the apart contacts.
5. Arc resistance
 The resistance that an arc experience between contacts.
 Arc current depends upon arc resistance.
 Arc resistance depends upon following.
(i) Degree of ionization: Arc resistance increases with the decrease of the number
of ionized particles between the contacts.
(ii) Length of arc: Arc resistance increases with the increase of the length of the
arc.
(iii) Cross-section of arc: Arc resistance increases with the decrease in area of X-
section of the arc.
6. Factor of arc existence:
(i) Potential difference: Sufficient potential difference should prevail across the
contacts to sustain arc.
(ii) Ionized particles: Adequate ionized particles should present in the medium
between the contacts for arc existence.
7. Factor of arc extinction:
(i) Arc is extinguished when potential difference across the contacts becomes
sufficiently low.
(ii) Arc is extinguished when medium between the contacts is deionized.
8. Restriking Voltage: At current zero arc is extinguished naturally for a moment. If
sufficient ions prevails in the medium after current zero, at the beginning of the
next half cycle, due to restriking voltage arc is produced and sustains throughout
the half cycle. If after current zero, dielectric strength of the medium builds up
rapidly, restriking voltage cannot breakdown the medium, arc is extinguished
permanently.
9. Transformer Oil: The oil is used in the transformer is called transformer oil. It is
Hydrocarbon Compound CxHyNz.
10.Dielectric Strength: The amount of voltage that a medium can withstand before
start ionizing.
11.Accept of Transformer:
 Stable at high temperature and has excellent electrical insulation.
 Dielectric strength is around 24 MV/m (RMS).
 Thermal conductivity is very high, so dissipates heat easily by conduction.
43

 Maximum pour point is around −6 °C, so dissipates heat easily by convection.
 Minimum Flashpoint is around 140 °C and hence not flammable.
 Low density, Low viscosity, low moisture.
12.Isolator: It is a knife type switch operated manually. Operated when no current
flow through the circuit. Used at the both sides of switches or circuit breakers for
replace or maintenance purpose. They have no arc quenching capabilities.
13.Transformer Oil Source: It is extracted from crude mineral oil by partial
distillation;
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
14.Dielectric Strength: The amount of voltage that a medium can withstand before
start ionizing.
15.Earthling Screen: Metallic earthing screen is set over the whole arc to protect the
equipment’s from direct lighting stroke.
16.Fuse:
 A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip.
 It melts and blown up when excessive current flows through it for sufficient
time.
 It is used in series in the circuit.
 It protects the circuit from damage due to over current caused by short circuit
or overload.
 A fuse performs both detection and interruption function.
17.Isolator: Isolator is a knife type switch operated man operated when no current
flow through the circuit.
18.Insulation: Insulation is a material device which press sound or neat.
19.Switchgear: The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the
electrical circuits and equipment is known as called switchgear.
20.Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch
designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from
an overload or short circuit.
21.Air blast circuit breaker: An Air Circuit Breaker (also known as an Air Blast
Circuit Breaker or ACB) is an automatically operated electrical switch that uses
air to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an
overload or short circuit.
22.Protective Relays: A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates
the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest
of the system. The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits
by constantly measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal
and fault conditions.
44

23.Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying
In order to render prompt service protective relay system should have some
essential qualities. They are:
Selectivity, Speed, Sensitivity, Reliability, Simplicity, Economy
24.Basic Relays
* Most of the relays in service on electric power system today are of electro-
mechanical type.
* They work on the following two main operating principles:
(i) Electromagnetic attraction
(ii) Electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armature being attracted
to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid.
* Such relays may be actuated by d.c. or a.c. quantities.
* The important types of electromagnetic attraction relays are Circuit
(i) Attracted armature type relay
(ii) Solenoid type relay
(iii) Balanced beam type relay
Induction relay formula:
φ1= φ1max Sin wt
φ2= φ2max (Sin wt+α)
25.Pickup Current: It is minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts
to operate is called pickup current.
26.Lightning: An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between clouds or
between the charges centres of the same cloud is known as lightning.
27.Lightning arresters or surge diverters: A Non-linear Resistor
28.A lightning arrester: A Lightning arresters or a surge diverter is a protective device
which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the ground.
29.Types of Lightning Arresters
1. Rod gap arrester 2. Horn gap arrester 3. Multigap arrester 4. Expulsion type
lightning arrester 5. Valve type lightning arrester
30.PSM: It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pickup current.
Plug setting multiplier: (Fault current in relay coil)/(pickup current)
31.Busbar: A bus bar is a metallic strip or rod where multiple connections of same
potential is made. No power dissipates in busbar. No voltage drop is considered in
the busbar. Incoming current and outgoing current is same.
45

Bus-bar arrangements are of three types
1. Single Bus-bar System.
2. Single bus-bar system with Sectionalization.
3. Duplicate bus-bar system.
32.Fuse: A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip. It melts and blown up when
excessive current flows through it for sufficient time.
33.Circuit breaker: A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a
circuit under all conditions viz. no load, full load
34.Flashover is defined as high intensity arc between two conductors over insulation.
35.Horn is a mechanical arrangement of metallic conductor to perform flashover in
a guided way in order to protect insulation.
36.Bushing is the arrangement of insulating material between or around high voltage
conductor and surrounding earthed metallic plate. * The function of Bushing is
to prevent breakdown between high voltage conductor and surrounding earthed
metallic plate. * Breakdown occurs in the form of puncture or Flashover.
37.Puncture damages the insulating material and renders it incapable of
withstanding even the normal working voltage.
38.Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for
protection against all kinds of faults.
* It is named after its inventor, Buchholz.
* It is used to give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e. slow-developing) faults in the
transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of
severe internal faults. In case of serious fault, due to gas pressure, oil rushes
towards the conservator through the Buchholz relay and in doing so tilts the flap
to close the contacts of mercury switch.
* This completes the trip circuit to open the circuit breaker isolating the
transformer.
Advantages:
(i) It is the simplest form of transformer Protection.
(ii) It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than being damaged
seriously.
Disadvantages:
(i) It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped with conservator
tanks.
(ii) The device can detect only faults below oil level in the transformer. Therefore,
separate
39.Protection of Lines: The probability of faults occurring on the lines is much more
due to their greater length and exposure to atmospheric conditions the
requirements of line protection are:
46

(i) In the event of a short-circuit, the circuit breaker closest to the fault should
open, all other Circuit breakers remaining in a closed position.
(ii) In case the nearest breaker to the fault fails to open, back-up protection should
be provided by the adjacent circuit breakers.
(iii) The relay operating time should be just as short as possible to preserve system
Stability, without unnecessary tripping of circuits. The common methods of line
protection are:
(1) Time-graded overcurrent protection
(2) Differential protection
(3) Distance protection
40.Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity. It is a function of the volt-amperes input to the coil of the relay necessary
to cause its operation.
41.What is surge? What do you understand by 1/50 µs surge?
Switching surges can occur during the operation of circuit breaker and line switch
opening (tripping) and closing at the same substation
 A sudden rise in voltage for a very short duration on the power system is
known as a voltage surge
 A 1/50 μs surge is one which reaches its maximum value in 1μs and decays to
half of its peak value is 50 μ
42.What is mercury switch?
A mercury switch is an electrical switch that opens and closes a circuit when a
small amount of the liquid metal mercury connects metal electrodes to close the
circuit.
43.Types of Lightning Strokes: They are
1. Direct stroke
2. Indirect stroke
Direct stroke Indirect stork
Heavy charges in cloud discharges to overhead When the cloud discharges to another
line when dielectric strength of air is broken down cloud, the negative charge on the wire is
isolated and rushes along the line to both
directions in the form of travelling waves.
This excess charge at overhead line causes Away from the negative charge near the
flashover over insulator and makes its path to the poles positive charges accumulates and
ground through the pole. leaks the insulator towards the ground.
Generally direct stroke happens at the top most Under the positive charge cloud negative
element near the charger cloud charge accumulates
47

Direct stroke may be happens on any subject other When the cloud discharges to another
than top most one when stroke originates due top cloud, the negative charge on the wire is
mutual influence of number of charged clouds isolated and rushes along the line to both
directions in the form of travelling waves
Transmission of Information
1. Why need modulation?
Process of adding message signal and carrier signal.
2. What is a Modulation Factor?
The ratio of change amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier
wave is called modulation factor.
Modulation Factor (ma) = amplitude change of carrier/ normal carrier amplitude
 Over modulation-m>1-Message is higher than carrier signal
 Under modulation-m<1- Carrier is higher than message signal
 Critical modulation-m=1-Carrier=Message
3. What is Modulation?
Modulation is a process of changing signal of properties of carrier wave depends
on intensity of main signal.
4. What is Demodulation?
Is the process retrieving the process signal from the modulated single is the
process of the retrieval message signal from Am.
5. Guided transmission medium: used in point to point communication between a
single transmitter and a receiver. Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable.
6. Unguided transmission medium: There are large number of receiver
corresponding to a single transmitter. Radio, microwave, satellite
7. Transceiver- in bidirectional system transmitter and receiver replaced by
transceiver because at same time data is received and sent at both end.
8. Carrier signal C (t) - Carrier signal is high frequency and uniform amplitude
9. There are three main system- TX , medium, Rx
10.Three communication notes- Simplex, Half duplex , Full duplex
11.Simplex- data is sent or receive at one time one direction – like TV, radio.
 Unicast- (1 TX & 1Rx) TV, radio.
 Multicast- data can be sent a group of receiver where sender can choice its
receiver.
 Broadcast- From the sender end the data will receive by that receiver who is
range with in the signal. so many receiver FM radio
Tuesday, January 12, 2021 48
12.Half duplex- data can be sent or receive from the way but at one time only. Walkie-
talkie.
13.Full duplex- can be sent or receive at same time.
14.Transducer: A device/arrangement which converts one form of energy into
another. For example Microphone converts speech sound signals into electrical
signals. Loudspeaker converts electrical signal into sound signal.
15.Transmitter: It is an arrangement that converts the message signals into a form
suitable for transmission and then transmits it through some communication
channel.
16.Communication Channel-is a link through which information’s/ message signal
17.Receiver: A receiver is an arrangement that picks up the transmitted signal at the
channel output and processes it to reproduce the message signal in the suitable
form.
18.Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength during its
propagation through the communication channel Band.
19.Multiplexing- two signal sent together through same medium called composite
signal (behind is purpose) But in Noise (impairment extra signal added.
20.Repeater: Repeaters are erected at suitable locations in between the transmitter
and the receiver.
21.Range: It is the largest distance between transmitter and receiver where the signal
is received in due strength.
22.SNR: Signal to noise Ration.
SNR= (Average signal power) / (Average noise power)
23.Ground Wave-The radio waves which travel through atmosphere following the
surface of earth are known as ground waves or surface waves.
24.Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers usually to the range of frequencies over which the
communication system works.
25.Difference between AM and FM?
AM Modulation FM Modulation
 Amplitude of carrier change with  Amplitude of carrier remain
modulation. constant with modulation.
 The carrier signal in KHz.  The carrier signal in MHz
 The carrier frequency remain  The carrier frequency change
constant with modulation. constant with modulation.
 AM is less complicated System.  FM is more complicated System.
 No filtering process for removing  Limiter remove the noise.
the noise.

26.Signal: It is a single valued function of time that carries the information. It is

usually in electrical form and is suitable for transmission.
(a) Analog signal: Analog signal is that in which current or voltage value varies
continuously with time. [AM, FM, PM]
E= Eosin(ωt + Φ),
(b) Digital signal: Digital signal is the discontinuous function of TI Egg. Output
of digital computer, Fax, letters printed on books etc. [ASK, PSK, PCM, PSK]
27.Basic communication system?
Input signal> Input transducer> Transmitter > communication medium>
receiver> Output transducer> Original from.
28.FM transmitter has five parts- Microphone, FM modulator, RF AMF, Oscillator,
Transmitting antenna.
RF Receiver has 4 parts- antenna, Limiter, discriminator, speaker
29.Sampling-This is the process which helps the collect data at Instantaneous value
of message signal so as to reconstruct the original signal. Example-a,b,c
30.Sampling Rate-The number of slide per second is called Sampling rate.
31.Quantizing-Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and indicate the
data by a number. Example-a=1,b=2
32.Quantizing error-The difference between an original signal value and its
quantized digital representation.
33.Encoding-The digitation of analog signal done by the encoder. It quantizing
number convert in binary number. Example-a=1-0001,b=3-0011
34.Nyquist Theorem-At first we are regenerated the signal at receiving. end
,according to Nyquist Theorem the sampling rate must be atleast two times greater
the maximum frequency of the message signal
35.Important of Modulation-Size of antenna, Effective power radiated by antenna,
Mixing up to signal from different transformed.
36.PCM-Steps of pulse code modulation.
37.CDMA-When all message send at by using code it’s called CDMA [Bandwidth]
38.FDMA-When at a time transfer more than one message by dividing the number
of sender it’s called FDMA [Bandwidth Low]
39.TDMA-When send the message one by one in separated time that is called TDMA.

40.Difference between FDMA, TDMA, CDMA?

FDMA TDMA CDMA
Data rate Low Medium High
Capacity Low Medium Low
Technique Sharing of overall Sharing of time Sharing the time
band width of of Satellite and bandwidth
Satellite trans- trans-ponder
ponder
Power Efficiency Its power efficiency Full is Possible Full is Possible
is reduced
41.Critical angle-If the incident ray is increased beyond the critical angle, the light is
no longer reflect.
42.Critical Frequency-It is a highest frequency above which the waves the ionosphere
and below which the waves are reflected back from the ionosphere that is called
Critical frequency.
43.Optical fiber-An optical fiber is a thin layer of glass or plastic that can carry high
light from one end to other
 Core-Very very transferred and high density.
 Cladding-Cladding is supported core for the total internal back into core.
 Buffer-It is a protecting layer.
 Jacket-Outer layer to save the fiber cable.
Types of Optical Fiber-1.Construction, 2.Based on Mode
1. Construction-i. Step Index (Coupling difficult, high data rate, less model
dispersion)
ii. Graded Index (Easy coupling, Cost is high, Attenuation is low)
2. Based on Mode-i. Single mode, ii. Multimode
Step index multimode Step index single mode Graded Index
Easy coupling Coupling difficult Easy coupling
Low data rate High data rate High data rate
Model Dispersion Less model dispersion No model dispersion
Advantages-(Long distance signal transmission, Long bandwidth and weight
small diameter, Non conductivity, High security, High SNR )
Disadvantages-(Cost is high, Maintenance is high, Coupling is difficult)
Optical Fiber Communication- Sample and hold>ADC>Driver>Light source>
Photo detector> Digital Storage>DAC>Filter and Amplifier>

Total Internal Conditions-(Light must be high density to low density, Critical

angle)
44.Light of sight- Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and
receive data only where transmit and receive stations are in view of each other
without any sort of an obstacle between them. FM radio, microwave and satellite
transmission are examples of line-of-sight communication.
45.Ground Wave-The radio waves which travel through atmosphere following the
surface of earth are known as ground wave(2-3)MHz
46.Sky Wave-The sky waves are the radio waves of frequency between (2-30 MHz)
47.Space Wave-The space waves are the radio waves of very high frequency that is
(30-300)MHz
48.Network-Inter connected computer is called network.
49.Internet-Network of Networks.
50.Roaming-Refers to a wireless network service extension in an area that differs
from the resisted home network location.
51.Hand off- In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refer to
the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel
connected to the core network to another channel.
52.PSTN-Public Switch Telephone Network.
53.Why we use Hexagon-Hexagon has better efficiency.
54.Frequency Reuse-Cluster, Distance D=√𝟑𝑵𝑹,Reuse factor-√𝟑𝑵
55.Method 1- Time Shifting>Time Scaling>Inverse
56.Method 2-Time Scaling>Time Shifting>Inverse
57.GSM Architecture
1. MSS-Mobile Station Subsystem
 SIM-Subscriber Identity Module
 RIM-Removable Identity Module
 IMSI-International Mobile Subscriber Identity
 IMEI-International Mobile Equipment Identity
2. BSS-Base Station Subsystem
 BTS-Base Transceiver Station
 BSC-Base Station Controller
3. NSS-Network Switching Substation
 MSC-Mobile Switching Center-Core Network
 HLR-Home Location Resister-Last known location registered
 VLR-Visitor Location Resister-Offer,FNF
 EIR-Equipment Identity Resister-IMEI

 AUC-Authentication Center-Authentic
 GMSC-Gateway Mobile Switching Center
 SMS-G-Short Message Service Gateway
4. OSS-Operation and Support Subsystem
5. Difference between 1G-5G
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Year 1980-1990 1991-2000 2000-2010 2010-2020 2021-2030
Frequency 150/300MHz 1.8 GHz 1.6-2.0 GHz 2-8 GHz 3-300 GHz
Bandwidth Analog(0- 9 MHz 100 MHz 100 MHz
30) KHz
Capacity 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps- 100Mbps- 1Gbps-Un.
2Mbps 1Gbps
Technology Analog Digital CDMA,UMTS Compared
cell with 4G
Chateristics First Wire- Digital Digital BW High 10-10x
less Speed Speed
Feedback and Control System

1. What is signal flow graph?
The graphical representation of the variables of a set of linear algebraic equation
representing the system
2. What is node in signal flow graph?
In signal flow graph by small circles is called node
3. What is branch in signal flow graph?
The line joining the node are called branches
4. What is transfer function?
Transfer function represents the input output relationship of a system
TF = Output/ Input
5. What transfer function does in signal flow graph?
6. What is the task of arrow in signal flow graph?
The arrow indicates the flow of signal and signal can travel only along an arrow
7. Draw signal flow graph for Ohm’s law.

8. State the task of branch in signal flow graph?

The number of branches leaving a node does not affect the value of variable
represented by that node
9. What is branch gain?
The branch transfer function is called branch gain.
10.SGF is applicable to Linear time invariant systems and nonlinear time invariant
system- true or false
False
11.Signal gets multiplied by the branch gain when it travels along it as well as travels
opposite of it- true or false
False
12.How to measure the value of variable represented by any node in SFG?
Is an algebraic sum of all the signals entering the node.
13.How does number of branches leaving a node affect the value of variable?
Represented by that node
14.What is source node?
The node having only outgoing branches is called source node or input node.
15.What is sink node?
The node having only incoming branches is call sink node.
16.What is chain node?
A node having incoming and outgoing branches is called chain node.
17.What is forward path?
A path from the input to the output node is called forward path.
18.What is feedback loop?
A path which originates from a particular node and terminating at the same node
travelling through at least one other node is called feedback loop.
19.What is self-loop?
A feedback loop consisting of only one node is called self-loop.
20.Define path gain
The product of branch gain while going through a forward path is called path
gain.
21.What do you mean by non-touching loops?
If there is no node common in between the two or more loops such loops are said
to be non-touching loops.
22.Define loop gain
The product of all the gains of the branches forming a loop is called loop gain.

23.What is the equation of mason gain formula?
24.What K represents in mason gain formula?
25.What Tk represents in mason gain formula?
26.What  represents in mason gain formula?
27.What k represents in mason gain formula?
28.When the value of k becomes 1 in MGF?

When all loops touching the kth forward path  k=1
29.When the value of  becomes 1 in MGF?
When all the feedback and self-loop gain = 0 then  = 1
30.Each element represented by a node in block diagram- True or False
True
31.Summing points and takeoff points are same in block diagram- True or False
False
32.Concept of self-loop is existing in block diagram- True or False
False
33.What is the formula of minor feedback loop in block diagram?
34.What is pole?
Value of s that makes transfer function equal to infinity

35.What is zero?
Value of s that makes transfer function equal to zero
36.In s-plane what x-axis and y-axis represents?
X axis real axis and Y axis imaginary axis
37.What is stable system?
38.What is unstable system?
39.What is marginally stable system?
40.What will be the state of stability if pole is positive?

Unstable
41.What will be the state of stability if pole is negative?
Stable
42.What will be the state of stability if pole is zero?
Marginal Stable
43.What is time constant?
Time to get to about 63 % of the final value
44.What is rise time?
Time to go from 10% to 90% of final value
45.What is settling time?
Time to stay within +-2% of final value
46.What is overshoot?
The difference between the max pick and the final value of a system
47.If a system has a quick response, it will typically have a lower overshoot value-
True or false
False

48.What is peak value for a system which has 15% overshoot and steady state/ final
value is unity.
1.65
49.Where two poles will be located in 2nd order over-damped system?
Poles on real axis but in different location
50.Where two poles will be located in 2nd order under-damped system?
Poles has both real and imaginary components
51.Where two poles will be located in 2nd order critically-damped system?
Both poles on real axis at the same location
52.Where two poles will be located in 2nd order un-damped system?
Both poles on imaginary axis
53.What is natural frequency?
The naturel frequency is the rate at which an object vibrates when it is not
disturbed by an outside force.
54.What is the effect of zero on stability?
As s approaches a zero, the numerator of the transfer function approaches the
value 0
55.For a second order system if input is step response, which damping type will
provide the best output?
Critically damping
56.What is the relationship between natural frequency, speed of vibration and
wavelength of an object?
Frequency is equal to the vibration / wave length
57.Each degree of freedom of an object has different natural frequency- True or
False
False
58.What is damping ratio?
The damping ratio is a measure describing how rapidly the oscillations decay from
one bounce to the next. Denoted by zeta
59.What is the value of damping ratio in under-damped system?
Zeta<1
60.What is the value of damping ratio in un-damped system?
Zeta=0
61.What is the value of damping ratio in critically-damped system?
Zeta= 1
62.What is the value of damping ratio in over-damped system?
Zeta>1

63.What is the equation of transfer function of a second order system in terms of

damping ratio and natural frequency?
G(s) = b/ s2+as+b
64.What is PID controller?
A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to
regulate temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other process variable
65.In what kind of tasks PID controller is used?
PID controller reduce the steady state error of a system
66.What is the equation of transfer function of a PID controller?
G(s) = kp+ ki/s+ skd
67.What is step input? What is its relationship with time?
A step input described as a change in the input from zero to a finite value,
T=0
68.PID controller reduces the steady state errors of a system response while it
increases the transient response- True or False
False
69.What are the rules of sketching rootlocus?
1. Number of branches =Number of closed loop poles
2. RL stands at poles and end at zeros of G(s)H(s)
3. Symmetry about real axis
4. Real axis RL exists of left of odd number of poles or zeros of G(s)H(s)
5. RL approach straight line asymptotes
6. Sigma= summation of finite poles- summation of finite zero/ # finite poles-
#finite zero
7. Fi = (2k+1)*180/# finite poles- #finite zero
70.What is the formula of centroid (alpha/sigma) calculation in rootlocus sketching?
Sigma= summation of finite poles- summation of finite zero/ # finite poles- #finite
zero
71.The intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis is known as centroid. What
is the formula of centroid (alpha/sigma) calculation in rootlocus sketching?
Sigma= summation of finite poles- summation of finite zero/ # finite poles- #finite
zero
72.What is the formula of asymptotes (theta/fi) calculation in rootlocus sketching?
Fi = (2k+1)*180/# finite poles- #finite zero
73.Number of branches != Number of closed loop poles- True or False
True
74.Rootlocus start at zero and ends at poles of G(s)H(s)- True or False
False

75.Rootlocus is symmetry about real axis- True or False

True
76.Real axis root locus exists to the right of odd number of poles and zeros of
G(s)H(s)- True or False
False
77.Root locus approaches straight line asymptotes as rootlocus approaches 0- True
or False
False
78.What is electric circuit analog?
The equivalent electrical circuit of a mechanical circuit is called circuit analog
79.What is series analog?
Equation of motion of mechanical system is compared with mass equation the
resulting electrical circuit is called series analog
80.What is parallel analog?
Equation of motion of mechanical system is compared with nodal equation the
resulting electrical circuit is called series analog
81.What are the properties of a linear system?
Homogeneous, Nonhomogeneous and Superposition
82.If f(t) equal u(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) = 1/s
83.If f(t) equal tu(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) = 1/s2
84.If f(t) equal e^-2tu(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) = 1/s+2
85.If f(t) equal sinwtu(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) = w/s2+w2
86.If f(t) equal coswtu(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) = s/s2+w2
87.If f(t) equal d/dt*c(t), what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s)=S*Cs
88.If f(t) equal  c(t )dt , what will be the value of F(s)?
F(s) =Cs/s
89.What is open loop system?
Open loop system means the output of the system is free from input
90.What is closed loop system?
The output of a system depends on input

91.What are the advantages of closed loop system over open loop system?
Advantage of close loop system:
1/plant provides system output,
2/provides control output
3/all are connected by arrows
92.Input is also known as actual response- True or False
False
93.Output is also known as desired response- True or False
False
94.What is control system?
Control system is the mechanism that after the future behavior or state of a system
Tuesday, January 12, 2021Tuesday, January 12, 2021
95.What are the three parameters are there in a simplified control system’s block
diagram?
Controller, Sensor, Plant
96.In terms of number of input and output what are the classification of systems?
Open loop system, Closed Loop system
97.What are the design steps of control system?
1) Identification of the problem 2)proper representation 3)creating schematic
4)mathematical modeling 5)solution technique 6)analyze and design
98.Derivative control action is also called rate control- True or False
True
99.For the given figure calculate C(s)/R(s)
5(s+1)/s2+5(s+1)
100.A system has its two poles on the negative real axis and one pair of poles lies
on jω axis. The system is unstable or stable or Limitedly stable?
Limitedly stable
101. Branches parameter-Transfer Function and arrow-Arrow indicates the flow
of signal.

Power Station
1. Primary energy: The source of energy which are available in nature is called
 Fossil fuel
 Renewable sources
 Biomass
 Nuclear fuel
2. Fundamental forces: The force which are not produce from other forces is called.
 Gravitational force
 Electromagnetic force
 Nuclear force
3. True: Electricity is most preferred form of energy.
4. There are too basic forms of energy:
 Potential &
 Kinetic
5. Reserve: are those accuranees of energy sources which have been identified
technicaly and economically.
6. Resources: are those accuracy of energy source which have been quantified but
not exploitable.
7. Delivered energy: The energy which have been explored Refined, transported and
delivered to the users.
Example- Petrol, Octane
8. Power Station: is a place where bulk electricity is generated from primary Sources
of energy to meet the electricity demand of the consumer.
9. Power system: is a network which consists generation, distribution and
transmission.
10.Energy system: define as all activities starting from the explanation of Primary
energy sources to the end.
11.Fission: In nuclear fission a heavy nucleus break into 2 lighter nucle, and 200 m
energy.
12.Heat equivalent of gas: 5500k Kj/kg.
13.Fundamental force for hydropower: Gravitational force.
14.Nuclear power contributes: 15% (old) or 11.7% (new) of global electric
15.True: solar energy is the outcome of fusions.
16.Renewable energy excluding hydro-contributes: 4% (old) or 4.5 (New) global
energy. If wind velocity doubles then Power product: increases 8 times
17.B.Th. U: Amount of heat required to rise the temperature of 11b water
18.True: 1 kWh=860 kcal

19.Demand factor ≤1=Peak demand cannot best be equal to connected load.

20.Group Diversity factor: GDP= sum of the individual max demand/ max demand
of the group
21.Utilization factor: U.F=max load/rated capacity
22.World proven oil reserve: 171 billion tons (old) on 235.8 billion tons
23.Average solar energy received in tropical Region is: 6-8 kh/m^2/day.
24.True: Preferred energy form is electricity.
25.Acid Rain: Burning of fossil fuel-re
26.Energy released by fission: 17.6 Mev
27.Energy release oxidation by C: 4Mev
28.Global warming is due to: cox
29.Source is geothermal energy: Fission.
30.Largest gas reserve: Middle East.
31.Heat equivalent of oil: 45000 to 49600 kj/kg
32.Heat equivalent of coal: 8000 to 32600 kj/kg.
33.Heat equivalent of gas: 55000 kj/kg
34.Cleanest fossil fuel: Gas.
35.Greenhouse gas emitter: 38 billion ton
36.Importance of electrical energy:
 Convenient form
 Easy control
 Cheapness
 Cleanlines
37.Generation of electrical energy: The conversion of energy available in different
forms in nature into electrical energy is known.
38.What are the sources of energy?
 The sun  Water  Nuclear energy
 Wind  Fuels
39.Primary sources of electrical energy:
 Water
 Fuel
 Nuclear Energy
40.Nuclear energy: During 2nd world war we know fussion of reductive materials
can produce large amount of heat energy is called Nuclear Energy.
41.Capacity factor: C.F= Utilization factor*Load Factor
42.System Reserve S.R=Rated capacity of all generating unit - peak demand.
43.For ideal load curve: Load factor is 1

44.Diversity factor of a group of consumer≥1

45.Higher Diversity factor: is good.
46.Plan factor on capacity factor lower than load factor.
47.Unity energy: The capacity of an agent to do work is known as
48.Calorie: Amount of heat required to rise the temperature of 1gm
Water by 1°𝑪

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