Climate Change S.O.S: Can Peace Corps Effectively Support Adaptation Projects in the Pacific?

Joey Manfredo Owen Scott May 2011

Abstract The impacts of climate change are already being felt by the people of the Pacific Small Island Developing States (P-SIDS), the grouping of nations that are arguably the most vulnerable to projected long-term climate variability. National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) were created by the UNFCCC to help Least Developed Countries develop priority projects designed to combat the negative effects of climate change, and thus far, five P-SIDS countries have participated in the NAPA creation process. To date, few adaptation projects have been funded, and the time-sensitive NAPAs risk becoming obsolete. This paper couples the results of a survey of local practitioners and experts preferences for foreign aid workers levels of education, experience, language mastery and length of service, with results of a survey of U.S. Peace Corps staff and volunteers, to critically assess whether Peace Corps could effectively support P-SIDS in the NAPA implementation process. Analysis leads the authors to recommend that Peace Corps Volunteers would be effective in this role and concludes by urging P-SIDS governments and Peace Corps to collaborate in support of the implementation of time-sensitive NAPA priority projects across the region. Keywords: vulnerability; climate change adaptation; P-SIDS; National Programmes of Action; Peace Corps. Introduction For millennia the Pacific Islands laid beyond the reach of humanity, specks of land the smallest current day Pacific Island country, Nauru, covers only 8.1 square miles scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean, a vast expanse of water that covers 64 million square miles. Starting in 1200 B.C., seafaring residents of the Bismarck Archipelago embarked from their islands, north of Papua New Guinea, and with only the stars as their guide, settled the islands of modern day Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia1. By the time European explorers entered the Pacific Ocean in the 16th century, the Pacific Islands had been settled for hundreds of years. With no contact with modern society, and only use of local knowledge and practices, Pacific Islanders thrived in an inhospitable environment plagued by frequent cyclones, thin and often brackish freshwater tables, and scarce resources. Despite this tradition of extreme resilience to a harsh climate and environment, current climate models project pervasive climate change impacts that will threaten the

Jared M. Diamond, 55.

fresh water supply, food security, health, and natural resources in Pacific Small Island Developing States (P-SIDS). What traditional skills and knowledge that remain in practice by Pacific Islanders, meanwhile, cannot withstand the combined projected impacts of climate change. In this modern day challenge of navigating a new and hostile environment, the stars will not suffice as a guide for P-SIDS populations. Coupled with increased certainty of climate science and the extreme vulnerability of P-SIDS and other least developed countries, climate change discourse has shifted beyond mitigation to emphasize the need for adaptation to climate change impacts. Initial steps to assess P-SIDS vulnerability and climate change needs, and to propose development projects that require urgent and immediate action have been undertaken by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). While these plans and their 37 priority projects for the P-SIDS have been in place since 2008, as of this writing, only five projects have received implementation funding2. Meanwhile, of the total amount of adaptation funds pledged worldwide, only 44-percent have been approved and 28-percent have been dispersed3. Adding further to the vulnerability of the region, longtime development partner the United States Peace Corps is reassessing its presence in the Pacific, and based on political pressure and funding constraints, is considering the potential to dramatically scale back its operations, perhaps even closing one or more of its five Pacific Island Posts4. Research for this paper seeks to analyze the potential for salvaging the timesensitive NAPAs with support from Peace Corps. Though funding has not matched expectations, an adaptation roadmap for the PacificNAPAsis in place, and Peace Corps has yet to finalize its plans for the region. Reflective of this goal, the authors will strive to

2 3

http://www.gefonline.org/ http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/graphs-statistics 4 United States Peace Corps Administrator, Phone Interview, 9 Mar. 2011.

answer the research question: Considering United States Peace Corps capacities and constraints would its volunteers be effective in assisting Pacific Small Island Developing States (P-SIDS) by supporting implementation of projects proposed in Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatus National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA)? Before addressing the research question and exploring findings and policy recommendations, the authors will provide context that will aid the reader in navigating the issue of climate change adaption in the Pacific. After introducing the climate change outlook for the P-SIDS, the authors will draw linkages between climate projections to local context with a review of vulnerability and regional approaches to adaptation. The following section will provide an overview of the UNFCCC process to assess vulnerability and plan climate change adaptation, and review their current status in countries with completed plans. With this important background on regional vulnerability and current resources and infrastructure, the authors are then able to address the research question to explore the viability of a Peace Corps-P-SIDS partnership to rejuvenate adaptation project implementation while also injecting a sense of purpose into Peace Corps operations in the Pacific. After introducing the research question, the authors will report on the research methodology, take the reader through data analysis and finally, close with policy recommendations based on research findings. Climate Change Projections for P-SIDS The small Pacific Island nations present an interesting problem for climate change modelers: the Atmosphere/Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) that are used to model the potential effects of climate change do not have sufficient resolution to see each Pacific island5. Due to these limitations, the projections that have been made are regional

IPCC Working Group I 2007, 909.

projections that cover the ocean surface, and cannot be applied specifically to individual islands. There is also considerable uncertainty regarding cyclone movement in the Pacific, and ocean level rise. While the existing projections can be used for general policy-making for the region, at the island-level, there is a need for individually tailored responses that take in to account specific differences, cultural norms and current realities. Despite the small physical size of the P-SIDS, the islands that make up Oceania cover a vast area of the Pacific Ocean; excluding Australia and New Zealand, Oceanias Exclusive Economic Zone is 11.5 million square miles, or one-sixth of the earths total surface area6. The weather is primarily affected by the easterly trade winds, the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and the South Pacific Convergence Zone, although the effects of these forces vary widely throughout the P-SIDS, due to the geographical distance between islands. On the whole however, the climate on the islands is characterized by abundant rainfall, and warm, tropical temperatures. These temperatures are expected to increase significantly over the next 70-90 years, in keeping with global trends, with models predicting a 1.5C to 3.7C rise in average temperatures across the region7. Precipitation is predicted to increase as well for areas that currently have heavy annual rainfalls, with a range of -4% to 11% in the northern Pacific, and a range of 0% to 19% in the Southern Pacific8. Perhaps most worrying is that this increase in precipitation is an average annual increase, but the majority of the precipitation flux is expected to occur in the winter and summer months, increasing the threat of drought during dry months, and producing uncharacteristically heavy precipitation during wet months. The two areas where there is less certainty in the models are tropical cyclones, and sea level rise. Tropical cyclones are expected to increase in intensity, however there is still

6 7

Hugh Govan, 13. IPCC Working Group I 2007, 914. 8 IPCC Working Group I 2007, 914.

little work done on the possible increase in frequency of tropical storms due to the complexities of modeling cyclone movement. Sea levels are expected to increase by an average of 0.17m, however there is expected to be a larger increase in the Western Pacific, and a possible decrease in the Eastern Pacific, with the variation due to El Nio-Southern Oscillation events9. It is worth noting however that this average sea level rise does not account for any cataclysmic events, such as major melting and break up of the Greenland and/or Antarctic ice sheets, which could cause a sea level rise of 6m or more.

Literature Review: Vulnerability and Climate Change Adaptation in P-SIDS Vulnerability Assessment of P-SIDS While there is relative uncertainty in the climate chance scenario for the P-SIDS, Oceanias vulnerability to climate change is more difficult to dispute. Resource-scarce small islands have a limited adaptive capacity, and are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, sea-level rise and extreme weather events10. This is due to their small size, low elevation, their reliance on the ocean as a main source of protein and income, their low GDPs, and the high proportion of human settlements and infrastructure in proximity to the coast. Although there is a wealth of traditional knowledge that has allowed P-SIDS populations to be extremely resilient and resourceful, that resilience has been in context of short-term calamities, and is likely to be insufficient in navigating a long-term, increasingly problematic issue such as climate change. Although average sea-level rise appears to be modest at only 0.17m, it is important to remember that the Pacific Islands are, in some cases, only a few meters above sea-level on average: the Marshall Islands, for example, consists of 34 islands and 870 reefs with an average elevation of just 2.13m; Tuvalu has an average elevation of 1.83m with a maximum
9

10

IPCC Working Group I 2007, 915. IPCC Working Group II 2007, 689.

elevation of 4.88m; and Kiribati is almost entirely composed of low lying atolls with an average elevation under 2m11. Sea-level rise could increase erosion, storm surge and the threat of inundation, which directly impacts infrastructure and settlements on many of the Pacific Islands. In the Pacific, approximately 50-percent of the population lives within 1.5km of the coast, and the vast majority of infrastructure is built along the coast: coastal roads that ring the islands, international airports, manufacturing and processing facilities, and settlements, including most of the tourism sector12. Changes in precipitation patterns, coupled with sea-level rise and land degradation, could also lead to very serious water shortage issues. Virtually all of the P-SIDS currently struggle to maintain sufficient freshwater supplies; there is a limited amount of water stored in each islands freshwater lens, and it is already being stressed by demands from the population and agriculture. An increase in sea level could cause a portion of this freshwater lens to be replaced by salt water, and with less rain predicted during the summer months, there is a strong likelihood that water supplies could become taxed beyond their limits, or even irrevocably depleted in some cases. Rainwater catchment and desalination could possibly offset some of this loss, however desalination is a costly alternative, and rainwater catchment programs would need significant funding and manpower inputs13; even with sufficient funding, the viability of water catchment programs is dependent upon regular rainfall patterns which are tenuous based on precipitation pattern projections. Agriculture and food security are also directly threatened by climate change. Most, if not all of the Pacific Islands rely on marine products as their primary source of protein, and as a significant contributor to their GDPs. Climate change is expected to have numerous negative effects on the ocean, particularly on coral reefs. Increased ocean acidity levels,

11 12

Fiu Mataese Elisara, 2-3. IPCC Working Group II 2007, 689. 13 IPCC Working Group II 2007, 689.

ocean temperatures, and tropical cyclones could very likely lead to mass coral bleaching or die-offs, which would have disastrous effects on Pacific fisheries, as well as the tourism industry. On land, increased temperatures, coupled with prolonged periods of dry and wet weather (along with the droughts and flooding that would accompany them), increased soil salinity, and water shortages, could have negative consequences for islands that still engage heavily in subsistence farming. Adaptation measures are possible in this area as well, by investing in new or more resilient crops, new irrigation schemes, upland farming techniques, and diversification of diets14.

Adaptation and the UNFCCCs National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) Over the course of the past decade, the conversation has changed from solely being focused on climate change mitigation, to allowing some discussion about climate change adaptation, in light of new evidence suggesting that some areas are already seeing the effects of climate change. Adaptation in this context refers to an adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, and entails a process (either ex ante or ex post) by which measures and behaviors to prevent, moderate, cope with and take advantage of the consequences of climate events are planned, enhanced, developed and implemented (adapted from UNDP 2005, UKCIP 2003 and IPCC 2001)15. In response to this shift in focus, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) created a process wherein Least Developed Countries (LDCs) could draft an adaptation plan, which could be used to guide adaptation work, as well as secure funding. These plans were meant to be highly participatory and country-directed, in order to build capacity and ensure the plans reflected each countrys needs. As addressed
14 15

IPCC Working Group II 2007, 689. World Bank - Adaptation Guidance Notes - Key Words and Definitions <http://climatechange.worldbank.org/climatechange/content/adaptation-guidance-notes-key-wordsand-definitions>

earlier, Climate Models lack the resolution necessary to make country-level projections. If interpreted solely from these models, it is likely that adaptation efforts would be uniformly approached throughout the P-SIDS. NAPAs play an integral role in bridging this gap from regional phenomenon resulting from climate change to impacts in individual P-SIDS. Even where nations will experience similar climate impacts, vulnerability and resilience is not uniform across the region, or even within countries. These factors depend on social and economic factors that must be assessed at the country level by local stakeholders. NAPAs great value is in their capacity to reflect the heterogeneity of climate change vulnerability and impacts in the P-SIDS and other LDCs. Most importantly, NAPAs have served as a vehicle to express the LDCs needs to the global community16. NAPA Preparation and Implementation Each NAPA typically contains 11 sections17: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Introduction and background information on the country; Synthesis of available vulnerability and adaptation plans and policies; A framework for the adaptation programme; An assessment of main vulnerabilities; Potential barriers to implementation; Identification of priority adaptation needs; Development of a list of adaptation activities and projects; A ranking of priority areas; Identification of the most urgent needs; An implementation strategy; Project profiles for priority activities.

In order to prepare this document, the NAPA process specifies a number of guidelines that countries are recommended to follow. The first step is to establish a multidisciplinary NAPA

16

Frequently Asked Questions about LDCs, the LEG and NAPAs <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/frequently_asked_questions/i tems/4743.php> 17 Frequently Asked Questions about LDCs, the LEG and NAPAs <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/frequently_asked_questions/i tems/4743.php>

team to oversee the preparation of the document18. The multidisciplinary group is envisioned to be made up of national and local experts, in particular those with relevant indigenous knowledge, who then consult with a representative sample of local stakeholders in order to ensure those affected by the projects may contribute to the projects development and implementation. This approach also allows for the inclusion of members of society who are typically excluded from such processes, and aims to inject a measure of accountability in to the process, so that projects are not simply proposed, and then disregarded later due to lack of funds or political will. The UNFCCC stipulates that In the NAPA process, prominence is given to community-level input as an important source of information, recognizing that grassroots communities are the main stakeholders.19 The second step is to synthesize information from climate models, previous projects and existing research assessments, and to conduct a Rapid Participatory Vulnerability Assessment20. This step was created to promote critical thinking within the NAPA team about the countrys vulnerability, to move the conversation from anecdotal to factual, and to critically analyze the issue in order to discover the exact nature of the vulnerability: who is affected by climate change, and how they are affected. This information not only helps initiate the process, but also develops material to be presented to the public in what is perhaps the most important step of the NAPA process, the public consultation. The immediate purpose of stakeholder and public consultation is to collect a short list of ideas for developing into potential NAPA activities.21 After collecting the data regarding vulnerability, the NAPA team presents the data to the public in order to help the

18

UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Overview of Preparation, design of implementation strategies and submission of revised project lists and profiles, 8. 19 UNFCCC, Decision 28/CP.7 20 UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Overview of Preparation, design of implementation strategies and submission of revised project lists and profiles, 11. 21 UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Overview of Preparation, design of implementation strategies and submission of revised project lists and profiles, 12.

NAPA team decide where to focus the countrys limited resources and technical skills. They can solicit these ideas through a number of approaches, including surveys and interviews, workshops and meetings, or more technical methods such as rapid rural appraisals and participatory rural appraisals. Regardless of the method, public consultation not only informs the public about the issues, but adds legitimacy and accountability to the process. The final steps before submission involve the NAPA projects themselves. Through the public consultations and their own work, the NAPA team can develop a list of all possible project ideas. From there they prioritize the projects based on the data they have collected, ensuring that projects that meet the most urgent needs are implemented first, helping to remove political pressure from the process. After projects are prioritized, they are ranked using either a cost-effectiveness analysis, or a multi-criteria analysis. Given the limited funds and manpower of many P-SIDS, these analyses ensure that the most effective projects are chosen first, and help the team differentiate amongst a number of programs that seem equally valid after subjective assessment22. After all of the steps have been completed, the NAPA is submitted to the LDC Expert Group (LEG) for comments, and then is submitted to national policy makers, who review the document, and formally submit it to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Report on NAPAs in P-SIDS Within the Pacific Region, as of this writing, Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu have submitted completed NAPAs to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Though there is considerable overlap within these nations NAPAs based on regional climate projections, they represent different sub-regions of Oceania and a range of geographical, economic and socio-political features which impact each P-SIDS degree of vulnerability to specific climate change phenomenon.
22

UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Overview of Preparation, design of implementation strategies and submission of revised project lists and profiles, 16.

The primary differences between these islands are based on their geographical features, which has great bearing on the types of vulnerability identified in each NAPA. Perhaps the most at-risk nations among the P-SIDS, and in the world, are Kiribati and Tuvalu, small, low-lying coral atolls. The remaining nations are of more diverse geography, yet both Solomon Islands and Vanuatu count coral atolls among their many islands. Vulnerability differs in degree, however, because markedly smaller portions of Solomon and ni-Van area are at risk. Samoa, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu are largely of volcanic origins and therefore tend to have more fertile soil and higher elevations above sea level. In addition to the inherent variations among this group of nations, the country-led efforts and community-level consultations required within the implementation guidelines of NAPAs ensure diversity among each nations priorities and proposed projects. Because of this, a brief review of each countrys priority projects is warranted. Kiribati Submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat in December 2008, the Kiribati NAPA is comprised of nine priority projects. Reflective of the atolls low-lying geographythe islands highest point is four meters above sea levelthe limited source of freshwater and reliance on agriculture and fisheries for both subsistence and economic use, projects focus on coastal zone management and food and water security. In order of prioritization, projects include: Water Resource Adaptation; Simple Well Improvement; Coastal Zone Management for Adaptation; Strengthening Climate Change Information and Monitoring; Project Management Institutional Strengthening for NAPA; Upgrading of Meteorological Services; Agricultural Food Crops Development; Coral Monitoring, Restoration and Stock Enhancement; and Upgrading of Coastal Defenses and Causeways (see further information about projects in Appendix 3).

Samoa Though Samoa is a relatively large landmass in comparison to Kiribati and Tuvalu, 70-percent of the nations population and infrastructure are vulnerably located along the coastline; at no point was this vulnerability demonstrated more than on September 29th, 2009, when a tsunami killed at least 150 people and destroyed dozens of coastal villages.23 Dependence on tourism and subsistence agriculture also contributes to the Polynesian nations vulnerability. The Samoa NAPAwhich was submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat in December 2005is comprised of nine projects listed here in order of prioritization: Securing Community Water Resources; Reforestation, Rehabilitation and Community Forestry Fire Prevention; Climate Health Cooperation Program; Climate Early Warning System; Agriculture and Food Security Sustainability; Zoning and Strategic Management Planning; Implement Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans for Highly Vulnerable Districts; Establishing Conservation Programs in Highly Vulnerable Marine and Terrestrial Areas of Communities; and Sustainable Tourism Adaptation (see further information about projects in Appendix 4). Solomon Islands A low-lying coastal country comprised of a double chain of six large islands and nearly 1,000 smaller satellite islands, the Solomon Islands have a range of vulnerabilities to climate change; among these explicitly identified in the countrys NAPA, which was submitted in December 2008, are the agriculture, water security, human health, human settlements, energy, fisheries and marine resources, mining, infrastructure development, education, tourism, trade and industry, forestry and waste management sectors. Seven NAPA projects, listed in order of priority here, were designed to address this wide range of vulnerabilities to climate change: Agriculture and Food Security, Water and Sanitation,

23

Samoa Tsunami Lesson: Early Warning System too Slow

Human Settlements and Human Health, Education Awareness and Information; Low-lying and Artificially Built-Up Islands; Waste Management; Coastal Protection; Fisheries and Marine Resources; Infrastructure Development; and Tourism (see further information about projects in Appendix 5). Tuvalu Settlement patterns, agriculture and freshwater resources that uniformly appear across the relatively homogenous atolls of Tuvaluwhich rarely rise above three meters are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including coastal erosion, saltwater inundation, flooding, drought and rises in sea level and temperature. Through the NAPA compilation process in May 2007, seven projects were identified to respond to the immediate impacts of climate change: Increasing Resilience of Coastal Areas and Settlements to Climate Change; Increasing Subsistence Pit Grown Pulaka (swamp taro) Productivity through Introduction of a Salt-tolerant Pulaka Species; Adaptation to Frequent Water Shortages through Increasing Household Water Capacity, Water Collection Accessories and Water Conservation Techniques; Strengthening of Community Health through Control of Vector-Borne / Climate-Sensitive Diseases and Promotion of Access to Quality Potable Water; Strengthening of Community Based Conservation Programmes on Highly Vulnerable Near-Shore Marine Ecosystems; Strengthening Community Disaster Preparedness and Response Potential; and Adaptation to Near-Shore Coastal Shellfish Fisheries Resources and Coral Reef Ecosystem Productivity (see further information about projects in Appendix 6). Vanuatu Vanuatu is an archipelago of more than 80 volcanic islands with a population of nearly 210,000, 80-percent of which reside rurally in provinces outside the two main population centers or on outlying islands. Although the population is widely dispersed,

community consultations carried out through creation of the NAPA revealed major similarities in perceived vulnerabilities, including coastal erosion and flooding, sustainable water resources and agriculture security. The five projects outlined in the December 2007 NAPA were devised to address these and other national vulnerabilities: Agriculture and Food Security; Water Management Policies / Programmes; Sustainable Forestry Management; Community-Based Marine resource Management Programmes; and Sustainable Tourism (see further information about projects in Appendix 7). Proposed Cycle of NAPA Project Implementation Once NAPAs have been approved at the national level, and submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat, countries are free to begin project implementation. It is important to note that NAPAs are not funding proposals. To access priority project funding, P-SIDS must engage in a lengthy process in which they divest much of the agency that was used in creating the NAPA. In the Pacific, SIDS coordinate with the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP)the environment-focused arm of the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, an intragovernmental body of the independent Pacific Island Statesto prepare a concept note and request an implementing agency of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to partner with them on the project proposal, program management, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Implementing agencies include: the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Environment Programme (UNEP); Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO); and Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); the World Bank; the Asian Development Bank (ADB); the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Inter-American Development Bank; or the International Fund for Agricultural Development. After the GEF Implementing Agency accepts the P-SIDS request, the agency works with the country to develop the concept into a 4-8 page Project Identification Form (PIF)

and submits for approval to GEF Secretariat. The GEF Secretariat has 10 days to approve the PIF and post for approval by the relevant funding body. For proposals submitted to the Least Developed Country Fund (LCDF) (which funds 63-percent of all adaptation projects worldwide24), the LDCF Council has four weeks to review the PIF and approve with no objections. After the PIF is approved, the GEF agency works with the host country to develop a full- or medium-sized proposal for approval to LDCF. This must be completed within 22 months. Completed proposals are submitted to GEF CEO and Council for approval. After 15 days for processing, and two weeks for decision-making, the CEO and Council either approve or reject the proposal. If approved, funding is dispersed through the GEF implementing agency and implementation begins. Over the course of project implementation, the implementing agency submits project implementation reports (M&E) annually, and upon completion, the implementing agency submits a final review within one year for completing project. Depending on the nature of the project, funding schemes vary, and depending on the amount being requested, there are different ratios for matching funds between the GEF and the host country25. The development and submission process is quite lengthy, and much more rigid than the NAPA development process; when applied to dozens of projects, securing GEF funding for an entire countrys NAPA could potentially take many years. Thus far very few projects have made it through the entire GEF process to implementation. Out of 45 submitted NAPAs containing hundreds of projects, some submitted as early as 2004, 72 projects have received funding through the GEF.

24 25

http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/listing/least-developed-countries-fund UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Step-by-Step Guide for Implementing National Adaptation Programmes of Action, 25.

Considering the UNFCCCs characterization of a priority project as a project that focus[es] on urgent and immediate needs - those for which further delay could increase vulnerability or lead to increased costs at a later stage,26 the low rate of project implementation is troubling, especially in the Pacific, the region widely regarded as the most vulnerable in the world to climate change. As of April 12, 2011, only five projects that relate to submitted NAPAs have been or are being implemented in the P-SIDS27. As the process stagnates after NAPA submission, these act now, or face consequence projects are slowly losing relevancy.

Alternative Action - Peace Corps and Support of NAPA Projects As the authors previously addressed, P-SIDS NAPAs collectively represent an imperfect, but working representation of the diverse adaptation needs of the region. Although these UNFCCC-approved documents contain priority projects that comprise urgent plans that require immediate implementation in order to avert increased vulnerability to climate change, only 14-percent of priority project-relevant programs have received funding. It is important to remember that NAPAs were not issued in a static environment. Climate change projections continue to hold, and as mentioned earlier, impacts are already being felt in the Pacific. Because of the adaption funding gap and slow progress of NAPA implementation, alternative action must be taken while the priority projects remain relevant. Although traditionally generalist United State Peace Corps Volunteers do not represent the standard climate change expert profile, the authors will make the case for the viability of the hypothesis that Peace Corps could be an effective adaptation project

26 27

UNFCCC, CP/2001/13/Add.4, 8. http://www.gefonline.org/

implementation partner for P-SIDS based on their history in the region, the nature of the organization, and research conducted. Currently, Peace Corps has posts in two of the P-SIDS that have already submitted NAPAs (Samoa and Vanuatu), and has previously had programs in two other NAPA countries (Kiribati and Solomon Islands). Beyond countries that have submitted NAPAs, Peace Corps also has active posts in three other P-SIDS: Federated States of Micronesia, Tonga and Fiji. Peace Corps has also had posts in four other P-SIDS: Tuvalu, Cook Islands, Niue and the Marshall Islands. Through development assistance to the region dating back to 1966, Peace Corps has a wealth of experience and strong relationships with governments, NGOs and other development organizations. There are 300 volunteers currently serving in the five active Peace Corps countries, while 12,552 volunteers have served in the region over the past 45 years, showing an average carrying capacity of 279 volunteers per year, which is reflective of the current level of PCVs in the region28. Currently, volunteers in the Pacific Region are serving in the capacities outlined in Table 1 below:

Fiji Micronesia Samoa Tonga Vanuatu

Business Development 0 0 0 12 12

Education 0 72 25 27 53

Project Sector Environment 36 1 3 0 10

Health/ HIV 26 0 0 0 15 41

Other 0 0 7 0 4 11

Total 62 73 35 39 94 303

Total: 24 177 50 Table 1 Country-by-country list of PCVs by project sector

28

Pacific Islands Where Do Volunteers Go? Peace Corps <http://www.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?shell=learn.wherepc.pacificislands>

Country

Nature of Peace Corps / Host Country Relationship When undergoing the New Country Entry Assessment, Peace Corps has three primary conditions to establish or maintain a presence in a country: the countrys level of interest in Peace Corps, safety and security, and resources available29. The level of host country interest is Peace Corps main criteria for maintaining a presence in a particular country. Micronesia, Samoa and Tonga have all been Peace Corps posts since 1967, Vanuatu has been a post since 1990, and Fiji has been a post since 1968, with a brief five-year break around the turn of the century relating to political tumult in Suva. This indicates that all current Pacific Peace Corps posts have a history of supporting Peace Corps, and a longstanding relationship with the organization. Given that 24 other Peace Corps posts closed from 2001 2009 alone30, an average length of commitment of 38 years from the five current Peace Corps posts demonstrates a level of support needed to implement a successful program.31 While security encompasses a number of criteria, from political stability and crime rates to the availability of medical care and reliable transportation infrastructure, the five current Pacific countries have little history with PCV-related crime. Though Fiji has experienced a series of presidential coups during Peace Corps service in the country, the Post has maintained operations since the current military junta led a coup in 2006. In fact, Peace Corps continues to hold region-wide staff training events from the Fiji office; a training recently took place in March 2011. Based on these factors, one may conclude that the current Peace Corps posts in the P-SIDS remain ideal candidates for continued operations.

29 30

The Peace Corps: A Comprehensive Agency Assessment Appendices, 16. The Peace Corps: A Comprehensive Agency Assessment Appendices, 19. 31 The Peace Corps: A Comprehensive Agency Assessment Appendices, 16.

Resources available fall under two categories: start-up costs, and volunteer placement costs32. For the start-up of a new program, a sizeable investment is required, making possible expansion difficult in the region, barring a pressing need for a new country to be added to the Pacific portfolio. However, for the five existing posts, costs are limited to PCV monthly and readjustment allowances, staffing costs, and administrative costs (including recruitment, training, medical, airfare and others). Due to the limited amount of funding Peace Corps receives, and the fierce competition for funds, programs must remain viable and cost effective. Although the populations of the P-SIDS countries that are currently being served are small, the absolute population is less of a concern than the relative impact of each PCV. Financial Implications for Host Countries The 2010 program funds for the five Peace Corps posts in the Pacific was $9.904 million33, with no required matching support from host countries, which is reflective of Peace Corps status as a self-sufficient U.S. foreign aid organization. Any inputs from host countries typically come in the form of in-kind contributions: a location for the posts headquarters, tax-exempt status, reduced or waived fees for PCV and staff visas and immigration documents, etc. Each post, depending on the size, also hires a number of host country nationals (HCN) to fill various temporary and permanent programming, administrative, safety and security, and health positions. In this case, the host country not only receives the benefits of having PCVs in-country, but also secures a considerable number of professional opportunities for its people. Contrasting these characteristics with grant money from the GEF, there are numerous benefits to Peace Corps. GEF grant money is capped at $5 million per country, and depending on the size of the grant, the host country contribution can be a significant
32 33

The Peace Corps: A Comprehensive Agency Assessment Appendices, 16. Peace Corps Congressional Budget Justification Fiscal Year 2011, 6-7.

portion of the total project cost. While a project of $300,000 or less can be 100 percent funded by GEF, projects over $16 million only receive 25 percent funding, requiring the host country to pay at least $12 million toward the project34. In the case of the five current GEFfunded projects in the Pacific, 49 percent of the total cost was borne by the GEF, leaving $15.56 million to be covered by the recipient countries35. For countries such as Kiribati and Vanuatu, with 2010 GDPs of $171 million and $607 million respectively36, that kind of expenditure is relatively large, and does not bode well for the future given that four of the five Pacific NAPA countries (not including Vanuatu) have a combined $47.904 million in proposed projects on their initial priority project lists37. Climate Change Discourse and Best Practices in the Pacific Region Outside of financial differences between GEF and Peace Corps projects, the agencys approach to development also differs significantly from standard development agency practice. While GEF-and other bi- or multi-lateral funded projects require time-sensitive use of resources, achievement of complex project outcomes, and detailed use of assessment techniques, Peace Corps defines development in more qualitative terms based on soft project outcomes that relate to capacity building, inclusive (gender and youth) project planning and implementation, and support of small-scale sustainable ventures. Work with Peace Corps requires little bureaucratic navigation for host partners beyond the volunteer application process, which differs significantly from more standard approaches thus far employed by donors that fund climate change adaptation projects; as noted earlier in this
34

UNFCCC LDC Expert Group 2009 Overview of Preparation, design of implementation strategies and submission of revised project lists and profiles, 25. 35 LDCF/NAPA Projects <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal_/ldcf_napa_projects/items/5 632.php> 36 IMF Report for Selected Countries <http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/index.aspx> 37 NAPA Priorities Database <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/napa_priorities_database/ite ms/4583.php>

report, the GEF funding process, for example, requires that aid recipients contract with an implementing agency in order to navigate the complexity of project parameters regarding design, application, management, implementation and acquittal of climate change adaptation projects. Beyond comparison of bureaucratic structures, Peace Corps approach to development aligns closely with previous climate change adaptation trends and programs best practices, as well as the participatory project development methodology espoused by NAPA implementation guidelines. Regarding discourse trends, the climate change paradigm shift from mitigation to adaptation in the Pacific Region has only occurred within the past decade, as noted earlier. Within this period, however, there have been smaller changes in approach based on implementation of climate change research and programming in the Pacific Region. In Climate Change and Small Island States, authors Jon Barnett and John Campbell identify four distinct shifts within the evolving approaches to climate change: in scale from regional to local; in focus from impacts assessments to adaptation; in nature from process driven by experts from outside the region, to processes driven by people within the region; and in cost from expensiveprojects to[less expensive] smaller ones.38 These trends are visible in the assessment and extraction of best practices from the earliest climate change adaptation projects implemented in the Pacific region, in the earlyto mid-2000s. Three projects in particular include evidence of these shifts, and best practice results that align with the Peace Corps approach to development: the Capacity Building to Enable the Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries project (CBDAMPIC), the Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Communities of Fiji project, and the World Wildlife Fund (South Pacific Programme) Climate Witness programme (see

38

Jon Barnett and John Campbell, 136.

Appendix 2 for program descriptions). Case studies of these adaptation projects highlighted components and approaches that were integral to successes, and suggestions for future adaptation programming designed to mitigate shortcomings; among them were: the importance of local language capacity, the need for participatory community-level planning and implementation inclusive of vulnerable populations (including women and youth), and cautions of the considerable time investments required for project implementation. Regardless of the best practices identified above, the appropriate type of development assistance will obviously vary by the focus of each climate change adaptation project. One may expect that NAPA projects calling for upgraded meteorological services, climate early warning systems and desalination plants will require a different level of expertise than more locally-focused projects in community water resources management and food security. Despite this variation, a high percentage of each P-SIDS NAPA projects primarily involve community-level assessment and implementation. For instance: Kiribati: Five of nine projects involve local community action and/or capacity building as a primary or significant mode of project implementation (Water Resource Adaptation; Simple Well Improvement; Coastal Zone Management for Adaptation; Agricultural Food Crops Development; and Coral Monitoring, Restoration and Stock Enhancement). Samoa: Five of nine projects involve local community action and/or capacity building as a primary or significant mode of project implementation (Securing Community Water Resources; Climate Health Cooperation Program; Agriculture and Food Security Sustainability; Establishing Conservation Programs in Highly Vulnerable Marine and Terrestrial Areas of Communities; and Implement Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans for Highly Vulnerable Districts). Solomon Islands: Three of seven projects involve local community action and/or capacity building as a primary or significant mode of project implementation (Agriculture and Food Security, Water and Sanitation, Human Settlements and Human Health, Education Awareness and Information; Coastal Protection; and Fisheries and Marine Resources). Tuvalu: Four of seven projects involve local community action and/or capacity building as a primary or significant mode of project implementation (Increasing Resilience of Coastal Areas and Settlements to Climate Change; Adaptation to Frequent Water Shortages through Increasing Household Water Capacity, Water Collection Accessories and Water Conservation Techniques; Strengthening of Community Health through

Control of Vector-Borne / Climate Sensitive Diseases and Promotion of Access to Quality Potable Water; and Strengthening of Community Based Conservation Programmes on Highly Vulnerable Near-Shore Marine Ecosystems). Vanuatu: Two of five projects involve local community action and/or capacity building as a primary or significant mode of project implementation (Agriculture and Food Security; and Community-Based Marine Resource Management Programme). Although, as noted earlier, not all P-SIDS have implemented NAPAs, based on regional and island geography representativeness of the P-SIDS above, one may reasonably infer that vulnerability and adaptation projects outlined here are at least superficially representative of the region. Based on this and the community-focused nature of most NAPA projects, one may also infer that lessons from early climate change adaptation projects in the Pacific region should be taken into consideration when P-SIDS choose project implementation partners and design specific project frameworks. Peace Corps development philosophy which embraces these lessons further contributes to the case for the Agency to support adaptation in the region. The Peace Corps Philosophy and Approach to Development and Volunteer Training Based on the nature of NAPA projects and the best practices explored above, one may note a synergy between the UNFCCCs approach to climate change adaptation in the Pacific Region and the development philosophy and approach of the United States Peace Corps, which actively builds agency structure, programming, and volunteer training around capacity building, host country language acquisition, extended community immersion and gender inclusiveness. This is, perhaps, most reflective in Peace Corps philosophy, and organizational emphasis, on sustainable development. Although sustainable development has many different definitions, Peace Corps defines it based on an original rubric of criteria39: Cultural Sustainability: Does [the approach/project] fit within and build on local beliefs and traditions, or will it be seen as not acceptable when PCVs leave?
Using Participatory Analysis for Community Action, 10.

39

Political Sustainability: When there is no longer a foreign development worker in the project, will it be sustainable within the sociopolitical context? Economic Sustainability: Will there be sufficient local resource or the capacity to generate them when supportive outsiders, such as PCVs, leave? Managerial Sustainability: Will there be the local management capacity to carry on the work when the PCVs leave? Environmental Sustainability: As the project grows, will the environment be able to sustain the use of resources? Many Peace Corps policies that are central to the Agencys approach to development

flow from this focus. To help ensure political and managerial sustainability, PCVs are provided with extensive pre-service language training, and Peace Corps support personnel continuously reinforce the importance of language proficiency throughout volunteer service. The 27-month volunteer service term is purposefully longer than most similar volunteer programs, presumably so that PCVs are provided sufficient time to build relationships and capacity of project partners that will ensure the viability of locally appropriate development projects. Within this structure, Peace Corps also trains volunteers to apply development practices that are reflective of the agencys approach to sustainable development. One example of the practical elements of Peace Corps approach is Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA), a community entry tool that PCVs are trained to implement in their first months at host sites. Volunteers implement PACA to developinformation together [with host community members], analyz[e] its implications for the community, and planfor action[Through use of the tool] community members and Peace Corps Volunteers collaborate to ensure that the voices of women and men, girls and boys, old and young, are included in deciding how they will committheir time, their energy, and their common future.40 Contrary to common conceptions that these are stand-alone tools
40

Using Participatory Analysis for Community Action, 19.

designed for PCVs to collect information in order to design a project, PACA is used to form a foundation for volunteers to work in equal partnership and empower partners. The final product is a holistic view of community resources, current activities, and priorities for the future that a newly empowered community can work from to design and implement projects with the support of a PCV. Peace Corps Volunteer Training and Recruitment PACA training is commonly a major component of Peace Corps 10-week pre-service training of incoming volunteers. Introduction to PACA and other project design and management tools, and heavy emphasis on intensive language and cross-culture training are reflective of both Peace Corps general capacity-building approach to development and the capacity of the typical volunteer; importantly for this papers argument, this training also reflects the best practices identified in the adaptation project case studies explored earlier. Volunteer backgrounds vary, but most could be classified as generalists, rather than highly specialized technical experts. While all volunteers receive basic technical skills training, a larger emphasis is placed on softer skills in the areas identified above. By deliberately recruiting generalist volunteers for most Posts, and focusing training on language, culture and participatory development techniques, Peace Corps is positioning the majority of its volunteer base to empower communities and build local capacity rather than impart significant and highly technical skills and capacities. Development programs are not static, however, and there is potential for Peace Corps to broaden its strategic focus to include more targeted project goals, aided by volunteers with relevant technical experience. In the 2010 Peace Corps Comprehensive Agency Assessment, the agency recommends focusing on a smaller number of highly specific technical interventions, rather than a diverse range of projects determined at each

Post. Within this recommendation is a call for the Agency to recruit more specialists, and more skilled volunteers who are over the age of 50. Currently, some countries have more specific requirements (e.g. Mexico PCVs must have a Masters degree, while China PCVs must have previous ESL education/experience). If implemented as a complement to Peace Corps current approach to development and training, a recruiting focus on specialists has potential to aid, rather than hinder the agencys ability to support climate change adaptation projects in the Pacific region. These specialist volunteers, with the benefit of Peace Corps training and tools, would likely be more poised than a generalist volunteer to serve in a climate change adaptation capacity.

Research Methodology In recognition of the rather large differences between (primarily) generalist Peace Corps Volunteers in the Pacific Region and technical specialist consultants, who may, for instance serve in a support capacity through one of the GEFs implementing agencies, the authors sought to evaluate whether despite volunteers technical expertise limitations, PCVs could still be successful in supporting the achievement of NAPA project goals. Through the methodology explained below, the research was designed to gauge the relative importance of foreign aid workers technical skills, language capacity, community integration and other qualities in the context of climate change adaptation projects. Peace Corps Volunteer Assignments As discussed previously, the common areas among all five of the P-SIDS NAPAs are: Water resource management Agricultural development and Food security Fisheries and marine resources management Sustainable tourism development and management Community health development and management Natural disaster preparedness Infrastructure development, particularly coastal defenses

After applying to Peace Corps, Peace Corps recruiters assign applicants program numbers related to their education and experiences; these indicate Peace Corps project area(s) in which the applicant possesses the capacities to serve. When a Peace Corps post plans for a new intake of volunteers, they request volunteers with specific program numbers that relate to the posts in-country projects. Using the list of program numbers and an interview with the Peace Corps Vanuatu Country Director and Director of Programming and Training, the authors analyzed whether P-SIDS Peace Corps posts were currently requesting volunteers with capacities to serve in support of NAPA projects. Peace Corps Project Records Through contact with Peace Corps Office of Overseas Programming and Training Support (OPATS), the authors obtained Project Status Reports (PSR) from 2009 and 2010 for all five Peace Corps Pacific countries. All posts require their volunteers to submit quarterly or tri-annual reports detailing the projects they have completed, the projects they are working on, who they are working with, and how many people each project affected. This data is then compiled at the country level into a PSR and sent to OPATS. Through an analysis of the 702 listed projects, the authors determined whether Peace Corps is currently engaging in projects that match up with the NAPA priority sectors. Survey Assessment: Environment-Related Government Ministries and EnvironmentFocused NGOs Based on an Elite Interview framework, the authors created an online survey designed to gauge the opinions of local and regional leaders regarding the potential effectiveness of foreign aid workers in assisting with implementation of climate change adaptation projects (a copy of the Adaptation Expert / Practitioner Survey can be found in Appendix 14). Due to the imprecise nature of the term effectiveness, the authors note the following within the survey: One may define effectiveness in numerous ways. For the

purpose of this survey, please define it as a foreign aid workers capacity to add value and support host country groups to achieve the goals of NAPA projects. From the summaries of the NAPA projects common to P-SIDS, the authors suggested a list of core skills either expressly required in the NAPA project(s) or that will likely be essential for a foreign aid worker to succeed in a support role for the various projects. The authors based this normative judgment of these core skills/capacities on personal development experience in the region and case studies of previously implemented adaptation projects in the Pacific Region, which were addressed earlier in the study (see Appendix 2). The survey asks for the organization in which the individual is employed and the country in which he or she resides in order to allow for comparisons to be made between countries and across the region. The following sections cover a range of project sectors common to Pacific region NAPAs (Water Resource Management, Agriculture and Food Security, Fisheries and Marine Resources Management, Sustainable Tourism, and Community Health), with each section containing identical questions designed to gauge respondents opinions of the knowledge, skills and background required to be effective in those project sectors. In particular, as relevant to Peace Corps volunteers possible skill sets, the authors ask respondents about the minimum level of education and/or development experience required, local language capacity, and amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals; the authors also ask respondents to compare a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity to a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language, and ask them if the less experienced person would be less, equally or more qualified to work on a project in that sector. Lastly, the authors ask respondents who have previously worked with Peace Corps and/or Peace Corps volunteers to rate them in the following areas: local resource assessments, participatory and/or community-based planning; project

implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. With this survey, the authors are targeting a select group of individuals who serve in roles in which they have knowledge in and/or experience with country-specific climate change adaptation. The survey was distributed to entities throughout the Pacific region, including: Government-Based: o Federated States of Micronesia Division of Environment and Sustainable Development o Fiji Ministry of Environment o Kiribati Ministry of Environment o Samoa Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment o Solomon Islands Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Meteorology o Tonga Ministry of Environment and Climate Change o Tuvalu Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment o Vanuatu Department of Environment and Conservation Regional Organizations and Programs: o Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme o GEF-SGPSamoa o GEF-SGPVanuatu Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programmes Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Focal Points, Implementing Agency Heads and Coordinators in: o Fiji o Federated States of Micronesia o Palau o Samoa o Solomon Islands o Tonga o Tuvalu o Vanuatu

The authors received 19 responses to the survey-based interview, with representation from eight P-SIDS countries as well as two regionally based organizations, and at least one response from all Peace Corps host countries and NAPA submitting countries.

Survey Assessment: P-SIDS Peace Corps Staff and Volunteers The authors created a survey designed to gauge the opinions of current PCVs, Returned Peace Corps Volunteers (RPCVs) from the past five years and Peace Corps Post staff (Country Director [CD], Programming and Training Unit [PTU]) from current Pacific Peace Corps posts (Federated States of Micronesia and Palau, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu) regarding the potential effectiveness of volunteers in assisting with implementation of climate change adaptation projects (see Appendix 15 for copy of survey). In this survey, the authors also define effectiveness using the same wording as the Adaptation Expert/Practitioner survey, however, unlike the survey respondents within highly specialized organizations and environment ministries, Peace Corps personnel may not be knowledgeable about NAPAs or climate change adaptation. To address this, the authors define adaptation in the survey as reducing the sensitivity of the system exposed to climate change, altering exposure of a system or group to climate change, and increasing adaptive capacity. The survey goes on to provide background on NAPA and a link to further information on NAPA and NAPA project sectors. While the background information on NAPAs might be useful or interesting to the survey respondents, reading the documents provided is not essential to the survey. The survey asks for the respondents status as a PCV, Returned PCV (RPCV) (a Peace Corps alumna within the past five years) or Peace Corps staff (CD or PTU), and his or her country of service. The authors then ask respondents to rate PCVs in the following areas: local resource assessments, participatory and/or community-based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; connecting project partners to resources for development projects. This section is designed to gauge PCVs broad, cross-sector skills that could potentially be applied to a variety of NAPA projects.

The following section asks survey respondents to rate the potential effectiveness of PCVs, based on their personal experience, in a range of project sectors common in Pacific region NAPAs: Water Resource Management, Agriculture and Food Security, Fisheries and Marine Resources Management, Sustainable Tourism, Community Health, and General Capacity Building Across Adaptation Sectors. Due to different adaptation projects being designed to take place in a range of work settings with varied levels of formality and requirements of technical expertise, in the final section the authors ask respondents to reflect on their experience with Peace Corps and offer opinions on PCV effectiveness in various settings, including formal education, nonformal education, local community-based organizations, international NGOs, local or regional governments, and national governments. The authors applied a variety of approaches to achieve survey distribution, including: emailing contacts in the Pacific, the Pacific Desk Officer, and CDs for distribution support; emailing PCVs directly and asking for their assistance with distribution; and contacting RPCVs who closed their service in a P-SIDS country after 2006. The authors received 114 responses to the survey: 2 CDs, 12 PTU Staff, 32 PCVs and 68 RPCVs. Peace Corps in all five countries were represented by respondents, from a low of 3 responses from Fiji, to a high of 64 responses from Tonga. While response was strong, due to the ad-hoc approach and reliance on third party distribution via social networking, the authors are unable to determine the number people who received an invitation to complete the survey, and thus are unable to provide a response rate. Given the data collected, the research authors will base analysis of whether Peace Corps volunteers can be effective in assisting P-SIDS as capacity builders to support implementation of projects proposed in P-SIDS NAPAs based on the four criterion listed below.

Criterion One: HCN respondents assessment of a Peace Corps Volunteers capacity to support climate change adaptation projects Analysis will be conducted within each NAPA project sector addressed in the interviews, based on respondents direct assessment of previous work with Peace Corps Volunteers, and their answer to the following interview question: Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much Less Capable, Less Capable, Comparable, More Capable, Much More Capable. The question asking respondents to compare a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity to a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language was designed to elicit a comparison of a Peace Corps Volunteer, and a more traditional foreign technical consultant in terms of relative effectiveness in support of climate change adaptation projects. The less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language represents the Peace Corps Volunteer, based on Peace Corps program structure and PCVs traditional generalist background and training. This question is posed at the end of a series of questions relating to each NAPA Project Sector. Recommendations will be determined within each NAPA Project Sector, based on whether 75-percent of respondents rate the less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language as either Comparable, More Capable, or Much More Capable. Considering this, there is potential for Peace Corps to be recommended as effective in supporting climate change adaptation in some NAPA Project Sectors, but not others. The reader will note that this item will be assigned a higher threshold for recommendation to be given75-percentthan other criteria. This follows Peace Corps criterion for opening and maintaining a Post in a host country: the host

countrys level of interest in Peace Corps. It is only appropriate, therefore, that host country nationals (HCNs) assessment of Peace Corps Volunteer capacity be afforded primacy in this assessment. Respondents direct assessment of previous work with PCVs is communicated through their answers to the series of questions asking them to rate PCVs in terms of effectiveness in local resource assessments; participatory and/or community-based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. Responses to these questions will inform recommendations on how PCVs may most effectively be leveraged within each appropriate NAPA Project Sector. To recommend that Peace Corps Volunteers could effectively support climate change adaptation projects in these various capacities, the average rating of all who indicated that they currently or have in the past worked with Peace Corps or Peace Corps Volunteers must fall within the range of 4.0 4.99 on the seven-point scale of effectiveness, with one being not effective and seven being extremely effective. To earn a strong recommendation, the average rating must be a 5.0 or above. Criterion Two: Matching HCN Preferences with Peace Corps Volunteer Capacity, Based on Peace Corps Recruiting and Placement Practices HCNs preferences for characteristics of individuals to support climate change adaptation projects within each NAPA Project Sector was evaluated in terms of minimum level of education and/or development experience required, local language capacity, and amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals. For this criterion, recommendation of Peace Corps will be based on HCNs preferences compared to the characteristics of the Peace Corps approach to development and Peace Corps qualifications for volunteers within various technical sectors.

Rather than recommend PCVs based on capacity, this criterion will be assessed based on degree of compatibility between HCN preferences and PCV capacity. Because all PCVs will fall within the local language capacity ratingsfrom none to fluentand all, barring unexpected early termination of service, will spend the minimum amount of time working with local partners to meet project goalsone weekit is appropriate to rate PCVs based on degree of compatibility, rather than capacity. Peace Corps grassroots approach to development differs from many development organizations in terms of length of service and emphasis on language acquisition. The PCV term of service is 24 months preceded by 10-weeks of intensive pre-service language training. Based on the host country language acquisition emphasis placed on PCVs by Post staff, the authors are assuming that PCVs can be expected to fall within the range of beginner and advanced, with the majority of volunteers earning minimum assessments of Intermediate on the Language Proficiency Interview rating scale (according to reports from Post staff within the region)41. Based on this, the authors are assuming that none and fluent language capacity would not apply to PCVs; with none being reflective of a visiting foreign technical expert, and fluent representing a host country national. Based on Peace Corps 24-month term of service, the authors are assuming that 612 months and 1-2 years would be the amount of time to support climate change adaptation projects most appropriate for PCVs; following this, 1 week, 1-6 months, and 2+ years time periods would be less appropriate for PCVs, based on the length of Peace Corps service. Therefore, to rate PCVs as compatible with HCN preferences, at least 50-percent of respondents must rate: Ideal Local Language Capacity as Beginner, Intermediate, or Advanced.

41

United States Peace Corps Administrator, Phone Interview, 9 Mar. 2011.

Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals as 6-12 Months, or 1-2 Years.

To rate PCVs as highly compatible with HCN preferences, at least 75-percent of respondents must rate: Ideal Local Language Capacity as Beginner, Intermediate, or Advanced. Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals as 6-12 Months, or 1-2 Years. Responses to the question of the minimum level of education and/or development experience required for a foreign aid worker to effectively assist with NAPA Project Sectors will also be assessed within each NAPA Project Sector. These responses will not be rated based on recommendation or compatibility because Peace Corps minimum qualifications for volunteer positions is fungible. Responses will be assessed, however, based on whether HCN preferences match current Peace Corps qualifications for volunteers as prescribed by Peace Corps Program Numbers. Criterion Three: P-SIDS Peace Corps Staff and Volunteers Assessment of their Own Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation Projects This criterion will be assessed from data collected through the survey sent to current Peace Corps Volunteers, CDs and PTU staff serving in P-SIDS Posts, and from Returned PCVs (RPCVs) who served in P-SIDS Posts in the past five years. Data from this survey is broken into three sections: General Volunteer Effectiveness, Sector Specific Effectiveness, and Work Setting Effectiveness. Responses to questions of Sector Specific Effectiveness will be used to determine specific NAPA Project Sectors within which PCVs may be recommended as effective, while responses from the remaining two sections General Volunteer Effectiveness and Work Setting Effectivenesswill inform recommendations on how PCVs may most effectively be leveraged within each appropriate NAPA Project Sector.

Like the HCN Survey, all respondents were asked to rate PCVs effectiveness on a seven-point scale, with one being not effective and seven being extremely effective in supporting the following types of NAPA Project Sectors: Water Resource Management, Agriculture and Food Security, Fisheries and Marine Resources Management, Sustainable Tourism, and Community Health. In assessing which NAPA Project Sectors PCVs could effectively support, recommendations will be determined within each NAPA Project Sector, based on whether the average rating of PCV effectiveness falls between 4.0 4.99 on the seven-point scale. A strong recommendation will be issued if the average rating of PCV effectiveness is a 5.0 or above. Considering this, there is potential for Peace Corps to be recommended, or strongly recommended, as effective in supporting climate change adaptation in some NAPA Project Sectors, but not others. Within the analysis, responses will be broken down by position (CD, PTU, current PCV, RPCV), but in making a recommendation, all responses will be aggregated. For those NAPA Project Sectors in which recommendations are made for PCVs effectiveness, the remaining survey sectionsGeneral Volunteer Effectiveness and Work Setting Effectivenesswill be analyzed in order to make recommendations on the capacity in which PCVs may be leveraged most appropriately within those sectors. To earn recommendations, the same system of analysis used for Sector Specific Effectiveness will be applied: Recommendations will be issued for each subsection if the average rating of PCV effectiveness is 4.0-4.99 on the seven-point scale. A strong recommendation will be issued if the average rating is 5.0 or above. The General Volunteer Effectiveness survey section is designed to gauge PCVs broad, cross-sector skills that could potentially be applied to a variety of NAPA projects. PCVs will be recommended, strongly recommended, or not recommended as effective within the following areas: local resource assessments, participatory and/or community-

based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. As climate change adaptation projects can be supported in a number of capacities, assistance may also be carried out from a number of work settings that are characterized by varying levels of formality. To make recommendations on the work settings in which PCVs may serve most appropriately, respondents were asked to rate PCV effectiveness in various settings, including formal education, non-formal education, local community-based organizations, international NGOs, local or regional governments, and national governments. Within each NAPA Project Sector in which PCV effectiveness is recommended, further recommendation will be made based on analysis of the various work settings listed above. Criterion Four: Does Peace Corps Currently Engage in Projects that fall within NAPA Project Sectors? By analyzing PCV projects in the Pacific from 2009 and 2010, as reported in each Posts annual Project Status Report, the authors will extract examples of projects supported by PCVs that are related to the NAPA Project Sectors assessed through this research projects surveys. Because Peace Corps does not employ a rigorous evaluation method, the authors will not attempt to judge PCV effectiveness within these sectors. Based on the data available, the authors will, however, provide a description of past projects supported within each NAPA Project Sector, as well as relevant information on tasks completed. While no recommendations will be made based on this data, it may still be useful in deepening any case for PCV capacity within NAPA Project Sectors.

Research Constraints Because only five of the of the 14 SIDS member states of the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat have submitted completed NAPAs to the UNFCCC Secretariat, we can provide neither full nor representational coverage of regional climate change adaptation needs. Further confounding the data as a representation of regional needs, one may assume selection bias in that countries with NAPAs self-select in applying for NAPA implementation funding. Further constraining capacity to ensure that climate change adaptation needs identified in Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatus NAPAs are true results of a participatory process that accurately reflect local stakeholders assessments of urgent needs and priorities, the authors were unable to objectively assess the validity of each countrys participatory processes utilized to form their NAPA. The authors must, therefore, assume that NAPA implementation guidelines are a true representation of participatory planning and a reflection of host country nationals perceived urgent needs to address climate change. Despite these constraints, by including all NAPAs available from P-SIDS in this research, the authors do ensure diversity in island geographic makeupfrom volcanic to coral atolland account for wide cultural-geographical representation from inclusion of Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian countries. Based on this, and correlation between each countrys NAPA project profile and scientifically-backed adaptation methods advanced in SIDS-focused UNFCCC, SPREP and academic resources, the authors are confident that projects outlined in P-SIDS NAPAs are sufficient representations of the diverse needs of all P-SIDS. As referenced earlier, the authors are unable to provide response rates for surveys. It is important to note, however, that surveys were not designed to generate statistically

significant results, but were instead used as a format from which the authors could conduct elite interviews with subjects currently working or serving in Oceania. This study represents a qualitative assessment based on targeted experts assessment of survey questions. Analysis Analysis of Criterion One: HCN respondents assessment of a Peace Corps Volunteers capacity to support climate change adaptation projects The authors were able to conduct 19 elite interviews of Pacific Region climate change experts/practitioners via Web-based surveys. Responses were collected from each P-SIDS that hosts a Peace Corps Post and/or submitted a NAPA to the UNFCCC. Details on those surveyed may be found in the table below. Country of Service Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Organization [N/A] Quantity 1

Department of Environment 1 PACC 1 Kiribati Ministry of Environment, Land and 2 Agriculture Samoa Ministry of Natural Resources and 1 Environment Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock 1 Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change / 1 Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Kingdom of Tonga Ministry of Environment and Climate 1 Change Tuvalu Department of Environment 1 PACC 1 Vanuatu Government 1 Vanuatu Vanuatu Association of Non-Governmental 1 Organizations (VANGO) Regionally-Based Secretariat of the Pacific Regional 5 Organizations Environment Programme (SPREP) United Nations Development Programme 1 (UNDP)-Samoa Table 2 Breakdown of Climate Change Expert/Practitioner Survey Respondents by Place of Employment

Within each NAPA Project Sector, the 19 respondents compared a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity to a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language. As the latter choice represents the characteristics of a Peace Corps Volunteer, to be recommended 75-percent of respondents must have indicated that an individual of this background would be either Comparable, More Capable, or Much More Capable than the former option. Responses by sector are listed in the table below. % of Respondents Who Indicated that compared to a visiting foreign technical expert, a less experienced foreign person who resides locally is: Much Less Comparable More Much Less Capable Capable More Capable Capable

Water 0% 5% 42% 42% 11% Resource Mgmt. Agriculture 0% 6% 47% 42% 5% 95% & Food Security Fisheries & 0% 10% 53% 32% 5% 90% Marine Resource Mgmt. Sustainable 0% 10% 58% 32% 0% 90% Tourism Community 0% 16% 42% 37% 5% 84% Health Table 3 Comparison of Foreign Aid Worker Effectiveness Based on Relative Importance of Language, Technical Background, and Knowledge of Local Context NAPA Project Sector

Total Comparable or Favorable: 95%

As indicated in the table above, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language was rated Comparable, More Capable, or Much More Capable to a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity by more than 75-percent of respondents for each category. Opinions were particularly strong in the Water Resource Management and Agriculture & Food Security

sectors in which 95-percent of respondents rated the less experienced foreign person favorably. A smaller number of respondents were considered for the second segment of this criterion. Of the 19 respondents, seven indicated that they currently, or in the past have worked with Peace Corps Volunteers. This leads to a concomitant decrease in the level of representation within the Pacific Region. Respondents who work/worked with PCVs indicated that they currently serve in the following countries/organizations: Fiji Department of Environment, Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture & Livestock (two responses), Kingdom of Tonga Ministry of Environment & Climate Change, and SPREP. Responses were not collected from the following NAPA-submitting or Peace Corps host countries: Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Samoa, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Respondents were asked to provide a direct assessment of previous work with PCVs by rating the PCVs in terms of effectiveness in local resource assessments; participatory and/or community-based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. Respondents rated PCVs on a seven-point scale, with one being not effective and seven being extremely effective. Average ratings, and percentage of respondents who rated PCVs a 5 or above broken down by question are indicated in the table below.

Volunteer Capacity Questions

Local Resource Assessment Participatory and/or Community-Based Planning Project Implementation Non-Formal Education

Avg. Rating 5.3 5.3 5.7 5.6

% of Respondents Rating PCVs 5 or Above 86% 100% 86% 86% 86%

Training project partners to 5 draft and submit successful funding proposals Connecting project partners to 6 resources for development projects Table 4 Ratings of Peace Corps Volunteer Capacity

100%

As illustrated in the table above, respondents average rating of PCVs effectiveness within each category was above 5; reflective of this, the authors will provide a strong recommendation that PCVs can be effective in supporting each of the following activities: local resource assessments; participatory and/or community-based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. Based on these findings, the authors recommend that a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language, the characteristics of a traditional Peace Corps Volunteer, would have comparable or more success in effectively supporting climate change adaptation projects in P-SIDSin the following sectors: Water Resource Management, Agriculture and Food Security, Fisheries and Marine Resources Management, Sustainable Tourism, and Community Healththan a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity. The authors also strongly recommend that within each NAPA Project Sector, PCVs can be effective in supporting each of the following activities: local resource assessments; participatory and/or community-

based planning; project implementation; non-formal education; training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals; and connecting project partners to resources for development projects. Analysis of Criterion Two: Matching HCN Preferences with Peace Corps Volunteer Capacity, Based on Peace Corps Project Assignment Practices. To collect relevant data that would enable the authors to gauge whether PCVs could meet the local language capacity requirements for development workers, the individuals surveyed were asked the local language capacity necessary for a foreign aid worker to effectively assist with climate change adaptation projects. Responses by NAPA Adaptation Project sector are listed in the table below. Ideal Local Language Capacity Intermediate Advanced Fluent

None

Beginner

Water 16% 37% 26% 11% 11% Resource Mgmt. Agriculture 16% 37% 26% 16% 5% 79% & Food Security Fisheries & 21% 37% 21% 16% 5% 74% Marine Resource Mgmt. Sustainable 11% 42% 16% 26% 5% 84% Tourism Community 11% 44% 28% 11% 6% 83% Health Table 5 Ideal Local Language Capacity Ratings by NAPA Adaptation Project Sector NAPA Project Sector As reflected in the table, for each NAPA Project Sector, the percentage of

% Rating Beginner Advanced 74%

respondents who selected the language capacity parameters representative of PCVs met the minimum 50% requirement in order for the authors to designate PCVs language capacity as compatible with HCN preferences. In fact, in three NAPA Project SectorsAgriculture and Food Security, Sustainable Tourism, and Community Healththe percentage of

respondents met the 75-percent threshold, thus earning designation that PCVs language capacity is highly compatible with HCN preferences. Within the same NAPA Project Sectors, respondents were asked to indicate the time required for a foreign aid worker to effectively support projects. Responses by sector are listed in the table below. Time Required to Effectively Support NAPA Projects 1 1-6 6-12 1-2 2+ % Selecting 6-12 Wk. mo. mo. yrs. yrs. mos. or 1-2 yrs. Water Resource Mgmt. 0% 0% 26% 42% 32% 68%

Agriculture & 0% 5% 21% 47% 26% 68% Food Security Fisheries & 0% 5% 16% 47% 32% 63% Marine Resource Mgmt. Sustainable 0% 0% 38% 25% 38% 63% Tourism Community 0% 11% 26% 37% 26% 63% Health Table 6 Time Required to Effectively Support NAPA Projects by Adaptation Project Sector As reflected in the table, for each NAPA Project Sector, the percentage of respondents who selected the time parameters representative of PCVs met the minimum 50% requirement in order for the authors to designate PCVs terms of service as compatible with HCN preferences. Based on these findings, the authors suggest compatibility between Peace Corps approach to developmentin terms of host country language acquisition policy and practice, and terms of volunteer serviceand HCNs assessments of language and time requirements to effectively support NAPA Project Sectors. With confidence in Peace Corps structure, the authors now turn to HCNs assessments of the education and/or experience qualifications indicated as necessary to

NAPA Project Sector

effectively support NAPA Project Sectors. Respondents answers are listed by NAPA Project Sector, as percentages, in the table below. Minimum Level of Education/Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Degree Grad. Degree Uni. Degree Degree + + Dev. Degree Degree in 3 mo. Experience Project Training Field 5% 0% 11% 11% 63% 11%

Water Resource Mgmt. Agriculture 5% 0% 16% 11% 58% 11% & Food Security Fisheries & 0% 5% 16% 16% 58% 5% Marine Resource Mgmt. Sustainable 5% 0% 21% 21% 42% 11% Tourism Community 0% 0% 33% 11% 44% 11% Health Table 7 Minimum Level of Education/Experience Required to Effectively Support NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors NAPA Project Sector

As indicated in the table, a minority, 5-percent, of respondents indicated that No Degree, or a General University Degree, would be sufficient for a foreign aid worker to support any NAPA Project Sector. Similarly, few respondents indicated that the qualifications of a true generalist PCV (general university degree and three months of Peace Corps Pre-Service Training) would be effective in any sector; the average percentage who indicated that this minimum level of education and experience was sufficient across all NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors was 14-percent, ranging from 11-percent (Water Resources Management, Agriculture & Food Security, and Community Health) to a high of 21-percent in Sustainable Tourism. Within each NAPA Project Sector, the majority of respondents indicated that a University Degree and Previous Development Experience were necessary for a foreign aid

worker to play an effective support role. It is important to note that while the majority of Peace Corps Volunteers could be categorized as generalists, Peace Corps does maintain qualifications for each project sector in which PCVs engage in technical work; within each, there is a range of qualifications in terms of education and experience. These volunteer qualifications will provide a barometer of whether PCVs who are designated to serve in projects that relate to NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors meet HCN preferences for education and experience. Peace Corps Assignment Guide Review The Peace Corps Assignment Guide contains a comprehensive listing of Peace Corps Project Numbers. The authors reviewed all Project Numbers for compatibility with NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors and found that Peace Corps does recruit volunteers to serve in capacities relevant to each sector. Relevant Project Numbers are listed by NAPA Adaptation Project Sector in the table below (a complete listing of relevant Peace Corps Project Numbers with an accompanying report on volunteer responsibilities and minimum qualifications, and a compatibility assessment with NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors can be found in Appendices 9-13): Water Resource Management AA-124: Water and Sanitation Extension AA-131: Environmental & Water Resource Engineering Agriculture & Food Security AA-104: Environmental Education AA-110: Applied Agricultural Science AA-114: Farm Management-Agribusiness AA-117: Agriculture & Forestry Extension

Fisheries & Marine Resource Sustainable Tourism Management AA-103: Protected Area Management AA-103: Protected Area Management Community Health AA-154: Public Health Education AA-155: Health Extension Table 8Peace Corps Project Numbers with Relevance to NAPA Adaptation Project Although responsibilities of Peace Corps Volunteers assigned the Program Numbers above are reflective of the NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors, the minimum qualifications

required of volunteers did not meet the preferences of survey respondents. In two cases, AA-103: Protected Area Management and AA-154: Public Health Education, the authors were unable to determine compatibility between Peace Corps qualifications and respondent preferences, based on currently available data. Within the Sustainable Tourism and Community Health NAPA Adaptation project sectors there was no clear majority who indicated a particular education and experience requirement for a foreign aid worker to effectively support these projects. For the remaining Project Numbers reviewed, all were deemed incompatible with respondent preferences for the Water Resource Management, Agriculture and Food Security and Fisheries and Marine Resource Management NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors. A minimum 60-percent of respondents indicated that a university degree and prior development experience were necessary for a foreign aid worker to effectively support each sector. None of the remaining program numbers met the prior development experience component of this requirement. Although many current Peace Corps Project Numbers reflect activities that are appropriate for each of the NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors analyzed, the large majority do not reflect minimum education and experience requirements indicated by respondents. Based on responses, for Peace Corps to effectively support each of these NAPA Adaptation Project Sectors in the Pacific, each Program Number above would need to be amended, or replaced by new Project Numbers created to reflect the preferences of survey respondents. Analysis of Criterion Three: P-SIDS Peace Corps Staff and Volunteers Assessment of their Own Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation Projects Based on the 114 collected responses to the Peace Corps survey, the overall impression of Peace Corps staff and volunteers opinions of their compatibility with NAPAtype projects and skills is favorable.

As seen in Table 9, in all six skill categories the overall assessment was well over the score of 4 necessary to indicate Peace Corps staff and volunteers have confidence in their abilities in these skill areas. In four of the six categories (local resource assessment, participatory and/or community-based planning, non-formal education, connecting project partners to resources), the average score was over 5, which indicates a high level of confidence in their abilities. There is slight variation in the scores between countries; variation was not, however, sufficient to indicate that one country differs substantially from the others (with the exception in Fiji of training project partners), and in between Peace Corps staff and PCVs. Training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals 3.33 5.83 4.25 4.08 5.06 4.44

In which Participatory country do and/or you work Local communitywith Peace resource based Project Corps? assessment planning implementation Fiji 5.00 4.67 5.00 Micronesia 4.83 5.33 5.00 Samoa 5.13 4.63 5.00 Tonga 4.64 4.88 4.63 Vanuatu 5.69 5.64 5.25 Average 4.99 5.10 4.86 Table 9 Country-by-Country Skills Comparison

Non-formal education 5.33 5.67 5.13 5.25 6.00 5.48

Connecting project partners to resources 5.00 5.67 5.13 4.70 5.58 5.04

As seen in Table 10, the variation between staff and PCVs is all on the positive side (i.e. there is no category in which PCVs believe they lack a particular skill), however the staff in particular the Programming and Training staff have a significantly higher opinion of PCV abilities in the skill areas, rating the skill level almost a full point higher in all but one category, and rating the skill at least a 6 in three of the six categories. Although there are no follow up questions in the survey to explain why the PTU staff is more confident in the skills of the PCVs, it likely has to do with their role in training. The PTU staff train PCVs in many of

these skill areas and most likely believe they do a good job, and they also have more experience seeing the level of work PCVs engage in, which could explain their higher scores. Training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals 5.00 5.50 4.06 4.41 4.44

What is Participatory your role and/or with Local communityPeace resource based Project Corps? assessment planning implementation CD 4.50 5.50 5.50 PTU 6.00 6.00 5.83 PCV 4.84 4.88 4.75 RPCV 4.90 5.03 4.72 Average 4.99 5.10 4.86 Table 10 Intra-Peace Corps Skills Comparison

Non-formal education 5.50 6.17 5.19 5.50 5.48

Connecting project partners to resources 5.00 5.58 4.91 5.01 5.04

Illustrated in Table 11, the results of the sector specific survey questions are also favorable for Peace Corps involvement with NAPA projects. These five sectors, as well as a sixth general sector, are common to all of the submitted NAPAs, and thus can be thought of as being important to the entire region. In all six sectors, Peace Corps staff and volunteers rated their capability above the established threshold of 4, indicating they believe themselves to be effective in accomplishing projects within the listed sectors. One sector, community health projects, received a score of 5.41, indicating a strong capability in that sector. In the other four sectors, while they received scores between 4 and 5 indicating capability, the percentage of scores between 5 and 7 were 61.4%, 57%, 57.9% and 61.4% respectively, indicating in all cases that a clear majority of PCVs and staff believe themselves to be highly effective in those sectors. In the sixth category, a catchall category intended to gauge opinions about climate change adaptation work, the average score was 4.46, with 48.2% of respondents rating their abilities between 5 and 7. This indicates a belief that PCVs would be effective in accomplishing adaptation projects.

In which Fisheries and country do Water Agriculture marine you work resource and food resources Sustainable Community with Peace management security management tourism health Corps? projects projects projects projects projects Fiji 4.33 5.00 5.33 4.00 4.67 Micronesia 5.00 5.33 5.33 5.67 5.67 Samoa 4.13 4.75 3.88 3.13 4.75 Tonga 4.24 4.02 4.24 4.65 5.27 Vanuatu 5.61 4.67 5.03 4.81 5.85 Total 4.67 4.36 4.53 4.63 5.41 Table 11 Country-by-Country Sector Comparison

General capacity building in various sectors related to climate change adaptation 4.00 5.67 4.00 4.31 4.67 4.46

The results of the survey also show that certain sectors in certain countries may be better fits, as indicated by the scores they received. In the cases of Fiji and Micronesia, it may be more difficult to make generalizations due to the low number of survey responses from those countries (3 and 6, respectively), however Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu can be discussed with more confidence. In Samoa, fisheries and sustainable tourism projects would not be a good match for Peace Corps, due to the low score of 3.88 and 3.13 respectively. However, in the case of Vanuatu, water resources, fisheries and community health projects are a very good fit for the country, all receiving scores over 5. The average score over four indicates that Peace Corps would be a good match for climate change projects (as outlined in the NAPA) in the area, and country-by-country can allow for a more specific recommendation. Between Peace Corps staff and volunteers, a similar pattern to the skills comparison emerges, with staff giving higher score to PCV abilities over the PCVs themselves. In all cases however, the PCVs have rated each sector above a 4, indicating an acceptable level of self-confidence in their ability to accomplish projects in these sectors. In addition, in all five sectors, over 50% of respondents rated effectiveness in the 5-7 range, indicating a belief by

the majority that PCVs would be highly effective in these sectors. There is a substantial difference between staff and RPCV, and PCV opinions of the effectiveness of volunteers in climate change adaptation work, with ratings of 5.05 and 5.39, and 4.31 respectively. This most likely is due to PCVs not being engaged in adaptation work at the moment, and thus have a lower opinion of their effectiveness, whereas staff might have previous experience with PCVs working on environmental projects, and RPCVs are able to reflect critically on their abilities now that they have completed Peace Corps. It is also interesting to note that the CD from Samoa rated PCV effectiveness in the community health sector at 6, despite the fact that Samoa has no health volunteers (see Table 1). This would seem to suggest that there is an area in which Peace Corps might be highly effective that is not being addressed. General capacity building in various sectors related to climate change adaptation 5.00 5.09 4.31 5.39 4.46

Fisheries and What is Water Agriculture marine your role resource and food resources Sustainable Community with Peace management security management tourism health Corps? projects projects projects projects projects CD 5.50 4.50 5.00 4.50 6.00 PTU 5.12 5.17 5.11 5.39 4.90 PCV 4.31 4.22 4.47 4.25 5.06 RPCV 5.01 4.64 4.26 4.38 4.73 Average 4.67 4.36 4.53 4.63 5.41 Table 12 Intra-Peace Corps Sector Comparison Work setting plays an important part in PCV effectiveness, and as such PCVs are

generally placed in sub-national offices, with Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) or with local NGOs (infrequently with international NGOs). While the reasons for not typically placing PCVs in national ministries may or may not have to do with PCV effectiveness in that setting, it is a fact that PCVs are not often placed in national level offices. This is reflected in the work setting scores (Table 13), with an average score of 3.82, indicating that overall, PCVs do not believe themselves to be effective at the national level. The two notable

exceptions are Micronesia and Vanuatu, with scores of 4.83 and 4.21 respectively, possibly indicating that national level placement could be possible in those two countries. Fijis extremely low rating of 2.67 at the national level is most likely attributable to national government upheaval over the last 10-15 years, with a history of military coups. Local and regional government placements, on average, have been rated as a good fit for PCVs, except in the case of Samoa and Tonga, with ratings of 3.88 and 3.97 respectively. Beyond those two areas, however, the other four settings have all been rated as highly effective, with scores over 5 (with the exception of formal education in Fiji). The three settings that are likely to be focal points of PCV engagement in adaptation projects non-formal education, CBOs and NGOs all received rating over 5, and saw the vast majority of respondents rating them in the 5-7 range, at 83.3%, 71.1% and 71.1%, respectively. This indicates an extremely strong belief that PCVs would be highly effective in those work settings in all P-SIDS. In which International country do Local nonyou work Educational Educational community governmental with Peace setting: setting: development organization Corps? formal non-formal organization (NGO) Fiji 3.33 5.33 4.33 4.67 Micronesia 5.67 5.67 6.00 6.00 Samoa 4.88 5.13 4.86 4.43 Tonga 5.08 5.31 4.84 5.03 Vanuatu 5.45 5.94 5.44 5.36 Total 5.16 5.50 5.06 5.13 Table 13 Country-by-Country Work Setting Comparison

Local or regional government 4.00 4.83 3.88 3.97 4.72 4.22

National government 2.67 4.83 3.50 3.63 4.21 3.82

As illustrated by Table 14, the ratings from Peace Corps staff are characteristically higher than PCV ratings. Most notable are the differences in opinions regarding placements in local and national government offices; PTU staff and CDs rated effectiveness over 5, with the PTU staff registering a rating of 5.67, and having 92.3% of the ratings in the 5-7 range. Although difficult to understand, the higher scores follow the pattern thus far, and it is worth nothing that PTU staff (and all Peace Corps staff apart from the CD, Program and

Training Officer, and the Financial Officer) typically are HCNs, which would indicate that they either have more faith in their national governments, or they know more about the inner workings of national government offices than the PCVs. What is your International role Local nonwith Educational Educational community governmental Local or Peace setting: setting: development organization regional National Corps? formal non-formal organization (NGO) government government CD 5.50 5.50 5.50 4.50 4.50 5.00 PTU 6.25 5.92 5.92 5.92 5.67 5.67 PCV 4.97 5.41 5.13 5.09 4.03 3.78 RPCV 5.04 5.47 4.86 5.03 4.04 3.49 Total 5.16 5.50 5.06 5.13 4.22 3.82 Table 14 Intra-Peace Corps Work Setting Comparison The low rating for PCV effectiveness at the national level is troubling in the context of NAPA projects, due to the fact that in virtually every case, a national level office or ministry is the lead implementing agency. However, in most cases, while a national ministry is the lead agency, they are directed in the NAPAs to work with local communities, CBOs and NGOs. In the case of Tuvalu, CBOs and NGOs are listed as secondary implementing agencies, or in the case of Samoa, ministries are instructed to work in close collaboration with identified vulnerable communities42. In reality, it is likely that a considerable portion of the planning and implementation will be devolved from the national level to the local, or to CBOs and NGOs, due to the local nature of many of these projects, and limited manpower and funding at the national level. While it would remain to be seen if PCVs could be effective at the national level, there will still be substantial work at the local level, in settings in which PCVs would be highly effective. Analysis of Criterion Four: Does Peace Corps Currently Engage in Projects that fall within NAPA Project Sectors?

42

Samoa: NAPA Project Profile, 6.

Although only Peace Corps Fiji has a specific environment sector for volunteers, analysis of the 702 listed projects for 2009 and 2010 showed that 223 projects in the Pacific were related to the common themes within the NAPAs, including: water resource management (25 projects), agriculture (21 projects), fisheries & marine resources (20 projects), sustainable tourism (17 projects), community health (136 projects) and natural disaster preparedness (4 projects). Micronesia and Tonga have primarily education and business sectors (see Table 1), however Samoa, Vanuatu and Fiji can illustrate the type of environmental work PCVs are capable of, through a variety of different sectors: Integrated Environmental Resource Management in Fiji; Village Based Development in Samoa; Resource, Enterprise and Agro Business in Vanuatu; and Community Health in Fiji and Vanuatu. The following are examples of projects that relate to NAPA goals: Fiji o o o PCVs and community partners trained communities on formulation of environment management plan focused on marine and terrestrial resources. PCVs and community partners worked with communities to identify specific areas for MPA's on district levels, set by-laws and monitoring plans for protected areas. PCV and community partner developed a community development committee to help with writing proposal, researching funding options, developing a five year action plan, etc. Leaders from all community committees were involved. PCVs and community partners obtained funding to improve quality and quantity of water through the construction of water tanks, bore hole and additional piping and taps. Volunteers and community partners built fish houses and started coral farming on marine protected areas.

o o

Samoa o Three PCVs advised more than 15 communities about environmental security and waste management (large emphasis on youth participants). o Two PCVS taught more than 80 individuals effective management, monitoring, and conservation of marine protected areas, and assisted 1 village to secure funding to expand their marine conservation activities. o One PCV advised and assisted his village Peace Corps Committee in building 22 water tanks as part of the UNDP "rainwater harvesting" grant. o One PCV, working with over 100 students and teachers in a rural primary school, developed a school garden to serve as both an agricultural demonstration project and environmental education tool.

One PCV conducted a tutorial to train staff at the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in MapInfo, a mapping program used to organize data within a geographic reference system. Vanuatu o [PCV] worked with MPA staff to conduct two Village Conservation Management Plan workshops, training leaders from 7 villages on how to create this management plans for their villages. o [PCV] managed completion of east Gaua water project, to create new 25,000 liter storage tank and extend the current pipeline down to an additional 3 communities comprised of 400 people. As was noted in the criterion section, these projects are included not to be analyzed

for their effectiveness, but to serve as an illustration of the type of work already being undertaken by Peace Corps in the Pacific. There is no set number of NAPA related projects that need to have been completed in order for the authors to recommend further action, however it is worth noting that 223 projects over two years (32% of all reported Peace Corps projects in the region) is not an insignificant number. Past success is not an indicator of future ability, but completing over 100 NAPA-related projects a year does strengthen the case for Peace Corps involvement in adaptation projects in the Pacific. It also helps give a factual foundation to the opinions expressed by HCNs and Peace Corps staff and volunteers regarding their effectiveness in this field of work; one only need look back at the many relevant projects that have already been completed.

Recommendations Analysis of the research criteria allows the authors to state that despite a lack of technical expertise, Peace Corps Volunteers can meet the preferences of local practitioners in supporting climate change adaptation projects. Pacific-based climate change adaptation expert / practitioners and Peace Corps assessment of their own capacity in NAPA Adaptation Project sectors further corroborates the authors belief that Peace Corps Volunteers may be employed in this capacity.

In the face of this potential, Peace Corps is currently exploring the possibility of contraction of its Pacific posts. Despite President Barack Obamas promise to double the size of Peace Corpsby 201143, current austerity measures enacted through U.S. federal budget negotiations resulted in $71m in cuts to Peace Corps funding allotments44. For an Agency forced to make cuts, the Pacific Island region could very well become the low-lying fruit. Because of the low population density of P-SIDS, the region has the highest number of PCVs per capita in the world. Where other Peace Corps Regions have clear goals or even mandateslike HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention in Africa, Business Development and English Education in Eastern Europe, or Community Health Education in Central and Latin Americathe Pacific Islands region is not addressing an acute regional concern. These issues have combined to contribute to Peace Corps recent actions to assess its Pacific Islands region operations and explore options for contracting and/or closing Posts. With assessments complete, Peace Corps in the Pacific Islands will likely require an urgent call to action to emerge in the coming year to prevent Post closings or consolidation. Similarly, despite widespread coverage of climate change scenarios for the P-SIDS in the international media45, based on funding gaps and low implementation percentage, NAPAs have failed to generate the sense of urgency that the proposal of priority projects was designed to cultivate. Both Peace Corps and NAPAs have limited shelf lives; Peace Corps, due to budget pressure and recent Pacific Post assessments, and NAPAs, because they were issued in a fluid environment of changing socio-political and economic conditions and difficult-to-

43 44

Jacobson, Lewis Rogin, Josh 45 Could People from Kiribati be Climate Change Refugees? National Public Radio, 2/17/11; Nauru will use UN Spotlight to Confront Developed World Over Climate Change, The Guardian, 4/26/11; Raising the Profile of Climate Change Issues, Radio Australia, 3/4/11.

predict climate scenarios. Through the recommendations to follow, the authors will offer policy options formulated to apply research findings to create a viable partnership between Peace Corps and P-SIDS in climate change adaptation project implementation. Based on the survey conducted, PCV skill levels in language and their length of service currently match up with the stated preferences of local experts and practitioners, with a minimum of 74-percent indicating they would prefer language proficiency between beginner and advanced, and a minimum of 63-percent indicating their preferred length of service with a project be between six months and two years. The area of concern from this survey is with PCV education and experience requirements, as the current requirements do not match with the stated preferences of local practitioners. Recommendations regarding this incongruity will be discussed later in the recommendation section. Based on findings and analysis, there are multiple channels through which Peace Corps can begin to formally partner with host country governments and organizations to support climate change adaptation projects in the Pacific Islands region. Recommendations will be based on three broad approaches to forge this partnership: Advocacy for a Renewed Peace Corps Commitment to the Pacific Island Region; Embrace of Peace Corps Host Country-Directed Approach to Service; and Programmatic Approaches to Meet Adaptation Needs Based on Research Findings. 1. Advocacy for a Renewed Peace Corps Commitment to the Pacific Island Region In recognition of the challenges of climate change that P-SIDS face now, and are projected to experience in the future, the authors encourage all stakeholdersPeace Corps Post staff, PCVs, and HCNsto advocate for Peace Corps to make a renewed commitment to the Pacific Island region. As described earlier, Peace Corps is primarily driven by the expression of host country needs. In completing NAPAs or otherwise engaging in climate change adaptation programs such as PACC, host country nationals have demonstrated their

substantial needs for support in this sector, while this research was the first to show that Peace Corps has the capacity to meet these needs. Based on the compatibility of host country needs and Peace Corps capacity, the authors urge all stakeholders to advocate for Peace Corps renewed commitment to the region in service to the climate change adaptation sector. Depending on local context and the status of relationships, Peace Corps Posts, PCV, and HCNs may approach advocacy collaboratively or through their own channels directed to Peace Corps Headquarters, United States foreign missions and United States congressmen and women. 2. Embrace of Peace Corps Host Country-Directed Approach to Service From direct invitation for Peace Corps to serve a country, to development of Peace Corps Project Plans, to Peace Corps Volunteer Requests, Peace Corps is a host countrycentered development agency. Primarily, however, HCNs engage in a weaker leveraging of this power by concentrating more on PCV requests. Given projected climate change impacts and P-SIDS commitment to adaptation, however, the authors encourage HCNs to exercise their role through higher-level levers of influencing Peace Corps Project Plans; for those PSIDS that do not host current Peace Corps Posts, we urge HCNs to concentrate their leverage to request that Peace Corps support a Post in their nation. Currently, Peace Corps Posts in the Pacific Islands region are engaged in a range of project sectors, with more than 50-percent of all active PCVs in the region supporting education. Assuming that these projects are true representation of HCN-identified needs, the authors are not advocating for their closing. Rather, P-SIDS may consider requesting that Peace Corps meet adaptation needs as a complement to current efforts in the region. Through this research, the authors demonstrated that PCVs can meet local preferences to support climate change adaptation in all sectors held in common by the

NAPAs: Water resource management, Agriculture and food security, Fisheries and marine resources management, Sustainable tourism, Community health and General Capacity building in various sectors related to climate change adaptation. Based on findings, the authors are particularly confident in PCV capacity to support the community health sector. For more detailed requests, based on research findings, HCNs may be confident in requesting volunteers to support adaptation sectors in the following capacities: local resource assessment, participatory and/or community-based planning, non-formal education, connecting project partners to resources, project implementation, and training partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals). HCNs can have even stronger confidence in advocating for PCV roles in local resource assessment, participatory and/or community-based planning, non-formal education, and connecting project partners to resources. Lastly, the authors strongly recommend that HCNs request for PCVs to contribute to the adaptation sectors above through the capacities just explored in the following work settings: educational setting (either formal or non-formal), with a CBO, or with an NGO (either local or international). The authors have less confidence in general recommending placing PCVs with local or provincial government units, due to variations among countries, but could recommend placement of PCVs at this level in Vanuatu, and other countries as well possibly, given further study. Given the needs of each country, the placements could well vary, depending on the effectiveness of these organizations country-by-country. The authors, however, can recommend that PCVs not be placed at the national government level. As noted previously, these ministries tend to be the lead in NAPA projects; this does not limit PCVs ability to support adaptation, however, as there are many opportunities for engagement with secondary organizations like CBOs or NGOs. Armed with

these findings, the authors urge HCNs to begin collaboration with Peace Corps to request that the Agency commit to supporting the adaptation sector. For P-SIDS without a Peace Corps Post, if HCNs can demonstrate the host countrys ability to provide for PCV safety and security (including the provision for safe and reliable transportation between islands), the authors urge interested parties to request that Peace Corps open a Post to serve primarily in the adaptation sector. By referring to findings of this research and reporting on urgent climate change adaptation needs specific to the country of interest, HCNs can make a compelling case that warrants Peace Corps consideration. 3. Programmatic Approaches to Meet Adaptation Needs Based on Research Findings Programmatically, by using research findings as a guide, Peace Corps may begin to conduct additional research and design programs through the following approaches: Peace Corps Project Plans, Peace Corps Secondary Projects, and Peace Corps Response. Peace Corps Project Plans Based on research findings, PCVs can be expected to be effective in the climate change adaptation-driven sectors focused on Water resource management, Agriculture and food security, Fisheries and marine resources management, Sustainable tourism, and/or Community health. As reported earlier, the authors have particularly high confidence in PCVs capacity to support the community health sector. Given these findings, Peace Corps Posts in the Pacific Islands may confidently design projects in any of these sectors. Given the nature of vulnerability, however, there are likely to be different priorities based on the local geographical, socio-political and economic contexts; therefore, further research should be conducted within the host P-SIDS to determine the most appropriate sector of adaptation that Peace Corps may support.

Although the authors are unable to offer detailed guidance for navigating the intricacies of Peace Corps Project Plans, we may offer general guidelines for designing adaptation projects. Regardless of adaptation project sector, based on research findings, Project Plans should stipulate for PCVs to serve primarily in educational settings (either formal or non-formal), with a CBO, or with an NGO (either local or international). It will also be worthwhile for Peace Corps to include parameters for PCV capacity within each Project Plan. While many adaptation needs could be classified as communitybased, low-tech interventions, others require high degrees of technical specialization in a range of sectors from meteorology to engineering. Limited by the range of work capacities that the authors researched, we can only recommend that PCVs serve in the capacities measured in HCN and Peace Corps surveys. These include: local resource assessment, participatory and/or community-based planning, non-formal education, connecting project partners to resources, project implementation, and training partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals. The authors are especially confident in PCV capacity in supporting local resource assessment, participatory and/or community-based planning, non-formal education, and connecting project partners to resources. We urge Peace Corps Posts to incorporate these activities into project plans and to conduct research into HCN needs and PCV capacities to determine additional areas in which the Project Plan may stipulate for PCVs to serve. After putting Project Plans in place, it will be necessary for Peace Corps to manage recruiting with Peace Corps Headquarters. Research findings show that HCNs believe that a University Degree and Previous Development Experience are necessary for a foreign aid worker to support each NAPA Project Sector. Although many current Peace Corps Project Numbers reflect activities that are appropriate for each of the NAPA Adaptation Project

Sectors analyzed, the large majority do not reflect minimum education and experience requirements indicated by respondents. Before acting to amend project numbers or create new numbers based on these indicated preferences, the authors advocate for additional research to be undertaken to clarify HCN preferences. Within the Sustainable Tourism and Community Health NAPA Adaptation project sectors there was no clear majority that indicated a particular education and experience requirement for a foreign aid worker to effectively support these projects. HCN preferences in these adaptation sectors must be reassessed for Peace Corps to make appropriate actions to meet preferences. For the remaining sectors in which HCNs indicated a preference for foreign aid workers with a general university degree and previous development experience, Peace Corps would need to conduct additional research that stipulates more clearly defined parameters of development experience. Individual definitions of development experience are likely to differ widely across survey respondents. Some may define development in strictly international service terms, while others may see development more loosely, categorizing domestic service under this term. Opinions may also differ in terms of the length or depth of service required to be classified as development experience. New research with greater clarity will aid Peace Corps in parsing out these differences and will thereby better position Posts to meet HCN needs and preferences through Peace Corps Project Number requests or revisions. Peace Corps Secondary Projects As outlets for passion and/or as emerging needs arise over the course of a volunteers service, Peace Corps actively encourages PCV engagement in secondary projects as an unofficial complement to primary assignments. In fact, there are a number of global Peace Corps initiatives supported primarily through PCV engagement in

secondary projects, including HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention, Food Security, and the empowerment of women (through Girls Leading Our World [GLOW] camps). Using these global initiatives as a framework, Peace Corps Posts in the Pacific Island region may consider developing a new secondary project initiative in climate change adaptation. Even without a formal initiative, however, Peace Corps Posts may still encourage volunteers to seek out opportunities in adaptation, facilitating the process by guiding PCVs into appropriate work settings to support relevant sectors and activities, based on the findings of this research. Peace Corps Response A program for individuals who have completed a minimum of one-year of Peace Corps service, Peace Corps Response engages RPCVs in short-term assignments in disaster response, humanitarian assistance, disaster preparedness and mitigation, post-conflict reconstruction, HIV/AIDS activities, and other areas. Like traditional Peace Corps Programming, Peace Corps Response is a host country-directed service, but instead of operating within a specific Project Plan, Response is designed to serve a range of initiatives. To apply for Peace Corps Response Volunteers, interested host agencies must make a volunteer request through the in-country Peace Corps Post. Functioning like a job posting, requesting agencies stipulate position parameters, required qualifications, and desired length of service, which can range from three months to one year. Based on the flexibility of Peace Corps Response, there is great potential for Peace Corps Posts and P-SIDS governments to collaborate in meeting climate change adaptation needs. In order to qualify for positions, RPCVs must have successfully completed one year of service in an international development context with Peace Corps, which satisfies HCN preferences for foreign aid worker qualifications.

Length of Response volunteer service, however, may limit the efficacy of Response in addressing adaptation. Within each NAPA adaptation project sector examined, no more than 38-percent of respondents indicated that one- to -12 months was sufficient for a foreign aid worker to effectively support adaptation projects (Sustainable Tourism), while the lowest percentage of respondents were in the Fisheries and Marine Resource Management sector (26-percent). Based on findings, the authors recommend that Posts promote Peace Corps Response to climate change adaptation stakeholders; however, Peace Corps should assume that interest will likely be constrained due to length of service constraints.

Conclusion While modern society can only postulate about the reasons for the original seafaring migrants settlement of the Pacific Islands, discussions at the presidential level in Kiribati are already preparing for worst-case climate scenarios that would force the i-Kiribati from the atolls theyve lived on for millennia. Called migrating with dignity, Kiribati President Anote Tong approaches this post-adaptation strategy as an insurance plan for his people: "It's not nice to be planning the demise of your country. Who wants to lose his national identity? Nobody wants to do that. But can you give me any other option, given the rising tide? No, you cannot.46" Current impacts of climate change and new researchlike the recently released report from the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP) that advises that sea level rise is now expected to be much higher than previously thought (between 0.9 and 1.6 meters by the end of this century)47make Tongs approach seem prescient. These reports and

46 47

Reed, Preparing for Sea Level Rise, Islanders Leave Home Cubby, Ben

Kiribatis program should also be viewed as urgent calls for support for the vulnerable group of Pacific Island Countries. Peace Corps commitment to the Pacific Islands region in this time of need would be a true embodiment of its mission to promote world peace and friendship. The authors three recommendations comprise different processes of engagement and illustrate the need for all involved to be proactive in addressing climate change adaptation needs in the Pacific: Peace Corps Headquarters, with a new commitment to regional development; P-SIDS governments, with a new approach to leverage their relationship with Peace Corps; and Peace Corps Pacific Posts, with new strategies to engage their volunteers in local development efforts. Participatory-designed NAPAs provide a road map for adjusting to the changing realities of life in the Pacific wrought by climate change. There is a limited amount of time for action, however. NAPAs are time-sensitive, and if ignored, at a certain point in the future, migrating with dignity may be islanders only option. For now, there is hope. For the United States Peace Corps, a reoriented programmatic focus on climate change adaptation would be a noble cause for being, and this research study shows that it can be effective.

Bibliography "Adaptation Guidance Notes - Key Words and Definitions." The World Bank - Climate Change. Web. 6 May 2011. <http://climatechange.worldbank.org/climatechange/content/adaptationguidance-notes-key-words-and-definitions>. Barnett, Jon, and John R. Campbell. Climate Change and Small Island States: Power, Knowledge, and the South Pacific. London: Earthscan, 2010. Bjrklund, Gunilla, Hkan Tropp, Joakim Harlin, Alastair Morrison and Andrew Hudson. Water Adaptation in National Adaptation Programmes for Action: Freshwater in Climate Adaptation Planning and Climate Adaptation in Freshwater Planning. Publication. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009. Coutts, Geraldine. "Pacific Beat Story: Raising the Profile of Climate Change Issues." Radio Australia. 4 Mar. 2011. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/pacbeat/stories/201103/s3154899.htm>. Cubby, Ben. "Sea Levels Rising Higher and Faster." Sydney Morning Herald. 4 May 2011. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.smh.com.au/environment/sea-levels-rising-higher-and-faster20110504-1e8j7.html>. Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New York: Norton, 2005. Elisara, Fiu Mataese. Effects of Climate Change on Indigenous Peoples: A Pacific Presentation. International Expert Group Meeting on Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change. United Nations. Darwin. 2-4 Apr. 2008. Financing Climate Adaptation and Mitigation in Rural Areas of Developing Countries. Publication. Washington, D.C.: United States Agency for International Development, 2009. "Frequently Asked Questions about LDCs, NAPAs and the LEG." United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Web. 19 Mar. 2011. <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/frequent ly_asked_questions/items/4743.php>. Govan, H. et al. Status and potential of locally-managed marine areas in the South Pacic: meeting nature conservation and sustainable livelihood targets through widespread implementation of LMMAs. SPREP/WWF/WorldFish-Reefbase/CRISP. 95pp + 5 annexes, 2009. "Graphs and Statistics." Climate Funds Update. Web. <http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/graphs-statistics>. Jacobson, Louis. "PolitiFact | The Obameter: Double the Peace Corps." PolitiFact | Sorting out

the Truth in Politics. St. Petersburg Times, 18 Feb. 2010. <http://www.politifact.com/truth-ometer/promises/obameter/promise/221/double-the-peace-corps/>. "LDCF/NAPA Projects." United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Web. 17 Mar. 2011. <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal_/ldcf_na pa_projects/items/5632.php>. "Least Developed Countries Fund." Climate Funds Update. Web. <http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/listing/least-developed-countries-fund>. The Least Developed Countries National Adaptation Programmes of Action: Overview of Preparation, Design of Implementation Strategies and Submission of Revised Project Lists and Profiles. Publication. Bonn: Least Developed Countries Expert Group, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2009. The Least Developed Countries Step-by-Step Guide for Implementing National Adaptation Programmes of Action. Publication. Bonn: Least Developed Countries Expert Group, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2009. Marks, Kathy. "Samoa Tsunami Lesson: Early Warning System Too Slow." Christian Science Monitor [Boston] 1 Oct. 2009, World / Asia-Pacific sec. Moses, Marlene. "Nauru Will Use UN Spotlight to Confront Developed World over Climate Change." The Guardian. 26 Apr. 2011. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/apr/26/nauru-unitednationsdeveloped-world>. "NAPA Priorities Database." United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Web. 8 May 2011. <http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/napa_pri orities_database/items/4583.php>. National Adaptation Programme of Action: Samoa. Publication. Samoa: Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Meteorology, 2005. PACA: Using Participatory Analysis for Community Action. Washington, DC: Peace Corps, 2005. "Pacific Islands | Where Do Volunteers Go? | Learn About Volunteering." Peace Corps. Web. 20 Mar. 2011. <http://www.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?shell=learn.wherepc.pacificislands>. Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, eds. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

The Peace Corps: A Comprehensive Agency Assessment Appendices. Publication. Washington D.C.: Peace Corps, 2010. Peace Corps Congressional Budget Justification Fiscal Year 2011. Publication. Washington D.C.: Peace Corps, 2010. The Peace Corps Performance and Accountability Report Fiscal Year 2010. Publication . Washington D.C.: Peace Corps, 2010. Project Database - GEF. The Global Environment Facility. Web. <http://www.gefonline.org/>. Project Status Reports for the Pacific: Peace Corps 2009, 2010. Reed, Brian. "Could People From Kiribati Be 'Climate Change Refugees?' : The Two-Way : NPR."NPR: National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. National Public Radio, 17 Feb. 2011. Web. 10 May 2011. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwoway/2011/02/17/133848076/could-peoplefrom-kiribati-be-climate-change-refugees>. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Seventh Session, Held at Marrakesh from 29 October to 10 November 2001. Rep. no. FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.4. Bonn, Germany: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2002. Republic of Kiribati National Adaptation Programme of Action. Publication. Tarawa: Environment and Conservation Division; Ministry of Environment, Land, and Agricultural Development, 2007. Republic of Vanuatu National Adaptation Programme of Action. Publication. Port Villa: National Advisory Committee on Climate Change, 2007. Rogin, Josh. "Appropriators Cut $8 Billion from State Department Programs | The Cable." The Cable | FOREIGN POLICY. Foreign Policy, 12 Apr. 2011. <http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/04/12/appropriators_cut_8_billion _from_state_department_programs>. Samoa: NAPA Project Profile. Publication. Samoa: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2005. Solomon Islands National Adaptation Programme of Action. Publication. Honiara: Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Meteorology, 2008. Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller, eds. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Tuvalus National Adaptation Programme of Action. Publication. Tuvalu: Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment, Agriculture and Lands; Department of Environment, 2007.

United States Peace Corps Administrator. Phone interview. 9 Mar. 2011. "World Economic Outlook Database April 2010." IMF -- International Monetary Fund Home Page. Web. 8 May 2011. <http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/index.aspx>.

Appendices Appendix 1 Peace Corps Volunteer Request Codes AA 100 - Forestry AA 103 - Protected Areas Management AA 104 - Environmental Education AA 110 - Applied Agricultural Science AA 114 - Farm Management/Agribusiness AA 115 - Animal Husbandry AA 117 - Agriculture and Forestry Extension AA 122 - General Construction AA 124 - Water and Sanitation Extension AA 131 - Environmental & Water Resources Engineering AA 134 - Urban and Regional Planning AA 140 - Business Advising AA 143 - Information Technology AA 144 - Business Development AA 145 - NGO Development AA 154 - Public Health Education AA 155 - Health Extension AA 162 - Community Development AA 164 - Youth Development AA 170 - Primary Teacher Training AA 171 - Secondary Education English Teaching AA 172 - University English Teaching AA 173 - Secondary Education Math Teaching AA 175 - Secondary Education Science Teaching AA 177 - Special Education Teacher Training AA 191 - Secondary Education English Teacher Training

Appendix 2 CBDAMPIC Funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), CBDAMPIC was implemented from 2003-6 by the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) through national climate change teams engaged in eight communities in the Cook Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Vanuatu. With a budget of US$1.39m, the project was designed to develop and implement a capacity-building program to increase the ability of countries and communities to adapt to climate change. CBDAMPIC assessments illustrated that climate change adaptation through stakeholder empowerment is possible, but also provide valuable cautionary information regarding project pacing at the community level in the P-SIDS: CBDAMPIC has shown that community-based approaches can take a long time- for example the three years of the project was considered to be barely adequate and in the future project cycles will need to adjust their expectations of rates of progress when working with communities in the region.48 Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Communities of Fiji project The ongoing Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Communities of Fiji project is being implemented by the University of the South Pacifics Institute of Applied Science and the Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (PACE-SD). Commencing in 2006 with a US$310,000 budget, the project is designed to pilot an integrated community-based approach to climate change adaptation in rural communities in Fiji, focused on water resources and coastal management. Project assessments report the following, which may have deep significance for future adaptation project planning, include the following reflections: Firstly, the significance of working in the [native] language has been highlighted. The project notes, for example, that there is only one Fijian word for both climate and weather, which raises the possibility that discussions of climate change have hitherto been misconstrued as being about weather by many Fijians. Secondlycommunity-based approaches are effective in generating widespread community supportFinallyengaging women in the community-based process is constrained by village gender roles.49 Climate Witness Programme Implemented with four villages on Kabara, in the Lau Group of eastern Fiji between 2004-5, the World Wildlife Fund South Pacific Programmes Climate Witness programme was designed to demonstrate the social implications of climate change by interviewing diverse people from vulnerable nations about their climate change observations and the effectiveness of adaptation programs. As secondary goals, the project also endeavored to increase community awareness and understanding about the intersection of climate change and local vulnerability, and to facilitate the creation of community-based climate change adaptation strategies. Similar to previous examples, the Climate Witness programme noted that projects that engage local communities in assessment and decision-making are timeconsuming, warning that the pace is slower than that with which implementing agencies might be comfortable. Addressing this, the project assessment team noted that the alternative to working directly with local communities would produce less widespread commitment to the projects and its goals.50

48 49

Barnett and Campbell, 129. Barnett and Campbell, 131. 50 Barnett and Campbell, 134.

Appendix 3 Kiribati NAPA: List of NAPA Project Profiles (NAPAs: Index of Projects by Country, 13)

Appendix 4 Samoa NAPA: List of NAPA Project Profiles (NAPAs: Index of Projects by Country, 26-7)

Appendix 5 Solomon Islands NAPA: List of NAPA Project Profiles (NAPAs: Index of Projects by Country, 29)

Appendix 6 Tuvalu NAPA: List of NAPA Project Profiles (NAPAs: Index of Projects by Country, 31)

Appendix 7 Vanuatu NAPA: List of NAPA Project Profiles (NAPAs: Index of Projects by Country, 32)

Appendix 8 Samoa Small Grants Programme Projects NAPA Project GEF-SGP Project Securing community water resources Upgrading coastal spring for the village of Vailoa-Palauli Establishment of a village water supply system to service the needs of village household communities and the conservation of natural springs in the village Restoration of the Lepa Village natural spring and development of water catchment for village drinking water Rainwater Harvesting Project Tufutafoe Village

Implementation Body CBO CBO

CBO

CBO, with PCV Support

Reforestation, rehabilitation and community forestry fire prevention Agriculture and food security sustainability Climate health cooperation program Climate early warning system Zoning and strategic management planning Implement coastal infrastructure management plans for highly vulnerable district(s)

N/A

Soil Rehabilitation Project - Rakahanga Island

CBO

N/A

N/A

N/A

Aofaga Project for Protection Against Negative Climate Impact

CBO, with support from UNDP, GEF-SGP and government personnel

Climate Change Impacts the Village of Utulaelae

CBO, with support from UNDP, GEF-SGP and government personnel

Establishing conservation programs in highly vulnerable marine and terrestrial areas of communities.

Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystem in Matafaa Village

CBO

Replanting of the degraded Vaiusu Bay to improve the mangrove ecosystem biodiversity for food security and also to protect the community from storm surges Vaovai Village Coastal Rehabilitation Programme Fasitootai: Reduce impacts of climate change driven erosion through protection and conservation of Mangroves, Ecosystems and Coral Reefs Satoalepai Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise Lelepa Community Based Adaptation Fagamalo Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise Saleia Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise Avao Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise Vaipouli Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise Safai Community Based Adaptation against flooding and sea level rise

CBO

CBO CBO

CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO

Appendix 9 Water Resources Management NAPA Adaptation Project Sector Overview of Survey Responses Minimum Level of Education & Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Degree Grad. Degree Uni. Degree Degree + + Dev. Degree Degree in 3 mo. Experience Project Training Field 5% 0% 11% 11% 63% 11%

Relevant Peace Corps Program Numbers AA-124: Water and Sanitation Extension Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Peace Corps Water and Sanitation Extension volunteers serve in a broad range of projects, including organizing and mobilizing communities to provide health and hygiene education, tapping springs, constructing wells, building latrines, improving potable-water storage facilities, and doing community outreach to heighten health, water and sanitation and environmental awareness.51 Minimum Qualifications of AA-124 Volunteers

NAPA Project

Water Resource Mgmt.

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 30 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary)

51

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 30.

Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Water and Sanitation Extension prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience.

AA-131: Environmental and Water Resource Engineering Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Increasing access and capacity to manage water and sanitation services.52 Minimum Qualifications of AA-131 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 33 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Environmental and Water Resource Engineering prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree (or experience commensurate with a general university degree) and prior development experience.

52

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 31

Appendix 10 Agriculture and Food Security NAPA Adaptation Project Sector Overview of Survey Responses Minimum Level of Education Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Grad. Degree Uni. Degree in Degree + Degree + Degree Degree Project 3 mo. Dev. Field Training Experience Agriculture 5% 0% 16% 11% 58% 11% & Food Security NAPA Project

Relevant Peace Corps Program Numbers AA-104: Environmental Education Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Environmental Education volunteers work at the grassroots level to assist and involve people in resolving and preventing environmental issues that are in conflict with a communitys basic needs for farming and income generation.53 Minimum Qualifications of AA-104 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 12

53

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 10.

Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Environmental Education prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience. AA-110: Applied Agricultural Science Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Applied Agricultural Science volunteers help rural families produce, use, store, and sell the food they need by increasing agricultural productivity, improving nutrition awareness, and organizing income-generation activitiesand serve as a technical advisor to government agriculture extentionists, community members, and other volunteers in seeking appropriate solutions to complex agriculture problems.54 Minimum Qualifications of AA-110 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 15 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Applied Agricultural Science prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience. AA-114: Farm Management-Agribusiness Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Farm Management-Agribusiness Peace Corps Volunteers contribute, specifically toward food security and agriculture-based income generation.55 Minimum Qualifications of AA-114 Volunteers

54 55

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 13. Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 16.

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 18 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Farm Management-Agribusiness prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience. AA-117: Agriculture and Forestry Extension Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Agriculture and Forestry Extension volunteers are likely to support food crop productionspecifically in support of local staplesand food storage and preservation56 Minimum Qualifications of AA-117 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 24 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary)

56

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 22.

Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience.

Appendix 11 Fisheries and Marine Resource Management NAPA Adaptation Project Sector Overview of Survey Responses Minimum Level of Education Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Grad. Degree Uni. Degree in Degree + Degree + Degree Degree Project 3 mo. Dev. Field Training Experience 0% 5% 16% 16% 58% 5%

Fisheries & Marine Resource Mgmt.

Relevant Peace Corps Program Numbers AA-103: Protected Area Management Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Volunteers provide training to individuals, communities, and institutions in effective management of natural resources both inside and outside protected areas; conservation of biological diversity; and generation of sustainable economic returns.57 Volunteers in this area may be expected to support eco-tourism and/or community-based conservation and sustainable use of marine resources. Minimum Qualifications of AA-103 Volunteers

NAPA Project

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 9 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to

57

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 7.

amend the Protected Area Management prospective volunteer requirements to require, at minimum, a general university degree and prior development experience.

Appendix 12 Sustainable Tourism NAPA Adaptation Project Sector Overview of Survey Responses Minimum Level of Education Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Grad. Degree Uni. Degree in Degree + Degree + Degree Degree Project 3 mo. Dev. Field Training Experience 5% 0% 21% 21% 42% 11%

Relevant Peace Corps Program Numbers AA-103: Protected Area Management Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Volunteers provide training to individuals, communities, and institutions in effective management of natural resources both inside and outside protected areas; conservation of biological diversity; and generation of sustainable economic returns.58 Volunteers in this area may be expected to support eco-tourism and/or community-based conservation and sustainable use of marine resources. Minimum Qualifications of AA-103 Volunteers

NAPA Project

Sustainable Tourism

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 9 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Unable to determine compatibility.
58

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 7.

Within the Sustainable Tourism NAPA Adaptation project sector, there was no clear majority who indicated a particular education and experience requirement for a foreign aid worker to effectively support this project. The highest percentage of respondents42-percentindicated that like the Fisheries and Marine Resources Management sector, foreign aid workers in the Sustainable Tourism sector must have a University degree and development experience. Based on these preferences, Peace Corps would need to require a general university degree and prior development experience for a volunteer to serve in this sector. However, a combined 42-percent of respondents indicated that a foreign aid worker must have either a University degree in the Project Field or a University Degree and Three Months Training (21-percent in each). Based on current requirements, and considering that all Peace Corps Volunteers receive three months of technical training before beginning service, Protected Area Management volunteers already meet these qualifications. Because there was no clear majority, based on data collected, we are unable to analyze whether Peace Corps Protected Area Management volunteers are compatible with preferences for this sector.

Appendix 13 Community Health NAPA Adaptation Project Sector Overview of Survey Responses Minimum Level of Education Experience Required No Gen. Uni. Uni Uni. Grad. Degree Uni. Degree in Degree + Degree + Degree Degree Project 3 mo. Dev. Field Training Experience Community 0% 0% 33% 11% 44% 11% Health NAPA Project

Relevant Peace Corps Program Numbers AA-154: Public Health Education Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Volunteers may serve in a healthcare system either as a regional health educator for a government ministry of health, or as community health or nutrition promoters working out of a rural dispensary or health clinic...[and] encourage community members to adopt behaviors that promote health, prevent illness, treat disease, and facilitate rehabilitation.59 Minimum Qualifications of AA-124 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 51 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary) Unable to determine compatibility. Within the Community Health NAPA Adaptation project sector, there was no clear majority who indicated a particular education and experience requirement for a foreign aid worker to effectively support this project. The highest percentage of respondents44-percentindicated that foreign aid workers in the Community Health sector must have a University degree and
59

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 49.

development experience. Based on these preferences, Peace Corps would need to require a general university degree and prior development experience for a volunteer to serve in this sector. However, a combined 44-percent of respondents indicated that a foreign aid worker must have either a University degree in the Project Field (33-percent) or a University Degree and Three Months Training (11-percent). Based on current requirements, and considering that all Peace Corps Volunteers receive three months of technical training before beginning service, Public Health Education volunteers already meet these qualifications. Because there was no clear majority, based on data collected, we are unable to analyze whether Peace Corps Public Health Education volunteers are compatible with preferences for this sector.

AA-155: Health Extension Responsibilities Reflective of NAPA Project Sector Volunteers work with the community to encourage people to adopt behaviors that promote health, prevent illness, treat disease, and facilitate rehabilitation [,] may train regional health workers in preventative care or prepare village health workers and community residents to provide for their own health needs[and/or\ may advise the community on how to improve their delivery systems, health interventions, and resources.60 Minimum Qualifications of AA-124 Volunteers

Source: Peace Corps Assignment Guide, Page 54 Compatibility with Local Preferences & Suggested Revisions (When Necessary)
60

Peace Corps Assignment Guide, 52.

Incompatible. To align agency recruiting standards with the indicated preferences of practitioners in the Pacific region who were surveyed, Peace Corps would need to amend the Health Extension prospective volunteer requirements by eliminating the designation that a prospective volunteer needs to have earned a degree in any discipline, thus requiring that each prospective volunteer hold a sector-specific degree.

Appendix 14 University of Maryland Climate Change Adaptation Survey (for Local Experts and Practitioners) Thank you for taking part in our survey! This survey is designed to gauge the opinions of local and regional leaders regarding the potential effectiveness of foreign aid workers in assisting with implementation of climate change adaptation projects. The project sectors that are included in this survey are common to all the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) that have been submitted thus far by Pacific Small Island States. To learn more about NAPAs, please visit this website: http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php // For more information regarding specific projects, please review Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu at the link below: http://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/napa_projec t_database/application/pdf/napa_index_by_sector.pdf With what organization do you work? In which country do you work? Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Samoa Solomon Islands Kingdom of Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Regionally-based organization Other: Please note: One may define effectiveness in numerous ways. For the purpose of this survey, please define it as a foreign aid workers capacity to add value and support host country groups to achieve the goals of NAPA projects. Water Resource Management In order to effectively assist with water resource management projects (example projects: building wells and rain water catchments, improving existing infrastructure), please offer your opinion about the skills a foreign aid worker must have: Minimum level of education and/or development experience required: No degree required General university degree University degree in project field General university degree and three-months of technical training General university degree and previous development experience Graduate degree (either Master's or PhD) Local language capacity:

None Beginner Intermediate Advanced Fluent

Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals: 1 week 1-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years 2+ years Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much less capable Less capable Comparable More capable Much more capable Page 2 of 4 Agriculture and Food Security In order to effectively assist with agriculture and food security projects (example projects: introducing alternative farming techniques, capacity building, introduction of alternative processing and preservation methods), please offer your opinion about the skills a foreign aid worker must have: Minimum level of education and/or development experience required: No degree required General university degree University degree in project field General university degree and three-months of technical training General university degree and previous development experience Graduate degree (either Master's or PhD) Local language capacity: None Beginner Intermediate Advanced Fluent Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals: 1 week

1-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years 2+ years

Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much less capable Less capable Comparable More capable Much more capable Fisheries and Marine Resources Management In order to effectively assist with fisheries and marine resources management projects (example projects: creating marine reserves, capacity building for local fisherfolk, education about sustainable fishing techniques), please offer your opinion about the skills a foreign aid worker must have: Minimum level of education and/or development experience required: No degree required General university degree University degree in project field General university degree and three-months of technical training General university degree and previous development experience Graduate degree (either Master's or PhD) Local language capacity: None Beginner Intermediate Advanced Fluent Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals: 1 week 1-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years 2+ years Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much less capable Less capable Comparable

More capable Much more capable

Page 3 of 4 Sustainable Tourism In order to effectively assist with sustainable tourism projects (example projects: development of emergency plans, capacity building for tourism stakeholders, tourism sector needs assessment), please offer your opinion about the skills a foreign aid worker must have: Minimum level of education and/or development experience required: No degree required General college degree College degree in project field General college degree and three-months of technical training General college degree and previous development experience Graduate degree (either a Master's or PhD) Local language capacity: None Beginner Intermediate Advanced Fluent Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals: 1 week 1-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years 2+ years Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much less capable Less capable Comparable More capable Much more capable Community Health In order to effectively assist with community health projects (example projects: vulnerability assessment, health awareness campaign, waste management), please offer your opinion about the skills a foreign aid worker must have:

Minimum level of education and/or development experience required: No degree required General university degree University degree in project field University degree and three-months of technical training University degree and previous development experience Graduate degree (either Master's or PhD) Local language capacity: None Beginner Intermediate Advanced Fluent Amount of time a foreign aid worker must work with local partners in order to meet project goals: 1 week 1-6 months 6-12 months 1-2 years 2+ years Compared with a visiting foreign technical expert with limited local language capacity, a less experienced foreign person who lives in the local community and speaks the local language working on this project is: Much less capable Less capable Comparable More capable Much more capable Page 4 of 4 Volunteer Capacity Based on your previous experience working with US Peace Corps volunteers, please offer your opinion about the effectiveness of volunteers in the following categories: I have worked with Peace Corps Volunteers: If you have not worked with Peace Corps volunteers please skip this section. Yes No Unsure Local resource assessments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Participatory and/or community-based planning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Project implementation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Non-formal education 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective Extremely effective Extremely effective

Training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Connecting project partners to resources for development projects 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

If you have any other comments about foreign aid worker effectiveness, please enter them in the box below: NAPA Project Progress Note: Please only fill out this section if you have direct knowledge about the status of your country's NAPA project proposals. Since submitting your country's NAPA to the UNFCCC Secretariat, what projects (that relate directly to those outlined in your country's NAPA) have you: Applied for funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to implement? Applied for funding from the Global Environment Facility Small Grants Programme (GEFSGP) to implement? Applied for funding from other sources (examples: AusAID, New Zealand AID, JICA, or other public and private funders) to implement? Begun to implement with local funding?

Appendix 15 University of Maryland Peace Corps Survey Thank you for taking part in our survey! This survey has been designed by two RPCVs (Tonga 05-08 and Philippines 06-08) to gauge the opinions of Peace Corps volunteers and staff regarding the potential effectiveness of volunteers in assisting with implementation of climate change adaptation projects. For your background, adaptation refers to reducing the sensitivity of the system exposed to climate change, altering exposure of a system or group to climate change, and increasing adaptive capacity. The project sectors that are included in this survey are common to all the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) that have been submitted thus far by Pacific Small Island States (P-SIDS). NAPAs are compilations of priority projects designed to reduce vulnerability to climate change; these urgent responses were designed by technical experts and local community input. They are the United Nations primary source of information about P-SIDS-identified climate change vulnerability. To learn more about NAPAs, please visit this website: http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php To learn more about specific projects proposed by P-SIDS, please review Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu lists at: http://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/napa_projec t_database/application/pdf/napa_index_by_sector.pdf What is your role with Peace Corps? Peace Corps Country Director Peace Corps Programming and Training Unit Peace Corps Volunteer In which country do/did you work with Peace Corps? Fiji Micronesia and Palau Samoa Tonga Vanuatu Kiribati Other: Please note: One may define effectiveness in numerous ways. For the purpose of this survey, please define it as PCVs capacity to add value and support host country groups to achieve the goals of NAPA projects. Volunteer Effectiveness Based on your experience as a Peace Corps Volunteer, or as a Peace Corps staff member, please rate the effectiveness of PCVs in the following categories: Local resource assessment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Participatory and/or community-based planning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Project implementation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Non-formal education 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective Extremely effective Extremely effective

Training project partners to draft and submit successful funding proposals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Connecting project partners to resources 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Page 2 of 3 Sector Specific Effectiveness Based on your experience as a Peace Corps Volunteer, or as a Peace Corps staff member, please offer your opinion regarding the potential effectiveness of PCVs in the sectors below. (For more information on specific projects within these sectors, click on the second link in the page 1 instructions.) Water resource management projects (example projects: building wells and rain water catchments, improving existing infrastructure) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Agriculture and food security projects (example projects: introducing alternative farming techniques, capacity building, introduction of alternative processing and preservation methods) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Not effective

Extremely effective

Fisheries and marine resources management projects (example projects: creating marine reserves, capacity building for local fisherfolk, education about sustainable fishing techniques) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Sustainable tourism projects (example projects: development of emergency plans, capacity building for tourism stakeholders, tourism sector needs assessment) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

Community health projects (example projects: vulnerability assessment, health awareness campaign, waste management) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective

General capacity building in various sectors related to climate change adaptation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Page 3 of 3 Work Setting Effectiveness Based on your experience as a Peace Corps Volunteer, or as a Peace Corps staff member, please offer your opinion regarding the potential effectiveness of PCVs in the following work settings: Educational setting: formal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Educational setting: non-formal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective Extremely effective Extremely effective

Local community development organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Not effective

Extremely effective

International non-governmental organization (NGO) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Local or regional government 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective National government 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not effective Extremely effective Extremely effective Extremely effective