LIGHT-MATERIAL INTERACTIONS IN

LI( ?- 4ATERIAL INTERACTIONS MATERIAL PROCESSING

LASER MATERIAL
IN LASER PROCESSING

E. Albright
Shichan Chiang and Charlies E.

Ohio State
The Ohio
The University, Department of Welding Engineering
State University,
190, W. 19th.
190, W. Ave. Columbus,
19th. Ave. Ohio 43210
Columbus, Ohio 43210

ABSTRACT

interactions with
Light interactions materials in
with materials material processing
laser material
in laser occur by
operations occur
processing operations variety of
by a variety of
mechanisms depending on
mechanisms depending on the material being processed,
the material wavelength of
the wavelength
processed, the of the laser light,
the laser gaseous
the gaseous
light, the
and the physical state of the
environment, and
environment, the material surface. The high reflectivity of
material surface. of metals limits the
metals limits the
fraction of
fraction the beam
of the absorbed by
power absorbed
beam power by the surface.
metal surface.
solid metal
the solid For metals in the
For metals the solid state,
solid state,
increases as
reflectivity increases
reflectivity the wavelength of
as the of the laser light
the laser and the
light and conductivity of
electrical conductivity
the electrical of the metal
the metal
reflectivity of
increase. The reflectivity
increase. metals is
of metals is reduced heating to
upon heating
reduced upon to the melting point,
the melting and further
point, and reduced
further reduced
melting. At
upon melting. At high densities the
power densities
high power the liquid surface is
metal surface
liquid metal is heated so quickly
heated so that very
quickly that rapid
very rapid
vaporization occurs.
vaporization occurs. The recoil force
The recoil produced by
force produced theevaporation
by the depression in
causes aa depression
evaporation causes the
in the
liquid /vapor interface.
liquid/vapor interface. The "keyhole" resulting
The from this
resulting from depression allows
this depression for multiple
allows for and
reflections and
multiple reflections
thus absorption into
thus increases beam absorption the liquid.
into the The vaporized
liquid. The metal above
vaporized metal the liquid
above the can cause
surface can
liquid surface cause
attenuation of the
attenuation beam. Both plasma absorption and
the beam. fine particle
and fine theory have
scattering theory
particle scattering proposed
been proposed
have been
to account for this
account for attenuation. The
beam attenuation.
this beam attenuation is
The attenuation is strongly affected by
strongly affected shielding gas
by shielding type and
gas type and
pressure. In
pressure. In the cutting the
the laser cutting interacts with
the beam interacts the material
with the through aa high
material through angle of
high angle of incidence.
incidence.
Under these conditions the the degree of beam
degree of important.
polarization becomes important.
beam polarization
1. INTRODUCTION
1.

(welding, cutting,
Material processing (welding,
Material etc.) using
treatment, etc.)
cutting, surface treatment, focused and
both focused
using both high
unfocused high
and unfocused
power laser
power is widely
laser beams is accepted by
widely accepted modern industry.
by modern The nature
industry. The of laser
nature of -material interactions
beam-material
laser beam
is complicated
is the changes
by the
complicated by the beam causes in
that the
changes that the material.
in the material.

The
The application light in
application of laser light material processing
most material
in most operations is
processing operations achieved by
is achieved laser
converting laser
by converting
heating process
The heating
light into heat. The is illustrated
sequence is
process sequence Fig. 11 through
in Fig.
illustrated in 4. Laser beam - material
through 4.
interactions depend
interactions large extent on
to a large
depend to on the physical state
the physical of the
state of material surface.
the material interactions
These interactions
surface. These
can thus be
can thus subdivided into
be subdivided the following categories:
into the categories:

» Solid
* state
Solid state
* Surface
* melting
Surface melting
Rapid evaporation,
* Rapid penetration and
evaporation, deep penetration formation
plasma formation
and plasma
For low laser
For low beam power
laser beam and short
power and time irradiation,
short time there is
irradiation, there very shallow
is aa very solid surface
shallow solid layer
surface layer
the laser (Fig.
heated by the
heated 1). As the
(Fig. 1). exposure time
the exposure increases, the
time increases, liquid phase
the liquid will be
phase will formed (Fig.
be formed 2).
(Fig. 2).
solid-liquid
The solid interface propagates
-liquid interface into material
propagates into at a speed
material at dependent on
speed dependent the process
on the e.g.,
variables, e.g.,
process variables,
laser power, process
laser beam power, travel speed,
process travel etc. The speed
speed, etc. propagation of
of propagation
speed of of the solid-liquid
the solid interface is
-liquid interface is
also limited by the
also limited properties as
thermal properties
the thermal well as
as well the geometric
as the configuration of the
geometric configuration More
material. More
the material.
rapid heating by
rapid the laser
by the beam will
laser beam cause vaporization
will cause (Fig. 3),
vaporization (Fig. and/or
3), and /or plume formation (Fig.
plume formation 4).
(Fig. 4).
In all
In cases, the
all cases, state of the material is
physical state
the physical is controlled beam heating.
controlled by beam The physical
heating. The state of
physical state of
the material,
the material, in turn, controls
in turn, the nature
controls the of the
nature of beam-material
the beam -material interactions. mechanisms of
interactions. The mechanisms beam--
of beam
material interactions are
material interactions understood. The
fully understood.
not fully
are not The main difficulty arises at
difficulty arises temperatures.
elevated temperatures.
at elevated
the thermal
Not only do the
Not change, but the newly generated material
thermal properties of material change, states affect
material states the
affect the
absorption of laser energy and and complicate the physics of
the physics process.
the process.
of the
In
In this paper, the
this paper, current state
the current of understanding
state of of laser
understanding of beam-material
laser beam- interaction in
material interaction material
in material
is reviewed.
processing is laser processing
reviewed. Applications of laser are briefly
processing are summarized.
briefly summarized.
2. SOLID
2. STATE INTERACTIONS
SOLID STATE

The laser beam

The laser interactions with
-material interactions
beam-material solids surfaces
with solids are adequately
surfaces are by aa relatively
described by
adequately described relatively
simple absorption/reflection
simple absorption /reflection model. laser power depends on
model. The absorption of laser wavelength and
the wavelength
on the polarity
and polarity
of incident beam, and
incident beam, and surface
the temperature and
and the condition of
surface condition the materials.
of the dependence of
materials. The dependençe2 of incident
incident
selected materials
wavelength on the reflectivity of selected room temperature
at room
materials at shown in
is shown
temperature is Fig. 55 11,, .
in Fig. .

engineering materials
Most engineering power Nd:YAG or COp
transmit high power
materials do not transmit CO2 laser beams. The beam is
laser beams. either
is either
reflected
reflected or absorbed. The
or absorbed. the reflectivity,
The higher the the lower
reflectivity, the the absorptivity
lower the and thus
absorptivity and the lower
thus the the
lower the
of laser
heating efficiency of
heating irradiation. Most non
laser irradiation. non-metals high absorptivity
have aa high
-metals have laser
absorptivity for high power laser
beams. Most metals, however,
Most metals, have a ahigh
however, have reflectivity to
highreflectivity C02 laser
to CO2 light (10.6
laser light urn), but
(10.6 um), lower
but lower
reflectivity to
reflectivity light (1.06
to Nd:YAG laser light urn). Nd:YAG lasers are preferred over CO2
(1.06 um). C02 lasers inin processing
processing
as aluminum
materials, such as
high reflectivity materials, copper.
and copper.
aluminum and

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522 //SP /E Vol. GCL—Seventh
1031 GCL-
Vol. 1031 InternationalSymposium
Seventh International onGas
Symposiumon Flowand
GasFlow ChemicalLasers
andChemical (1988)
Lasers(1988)

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 The absorptivity
The metals for
absorptivity of metals long wavelength
for long infrared radiation
wavelength infrared is related
radiation is to the
related to current
direct current
the direct
resistivity of
electrical resistivity
electrical the metal.
of the absorptivity of
the absorptivity
reflectivity, the
metal. By using Fresnel's equation of reflectivity, of aa
completely smooth metal surface,
completely smooth surface, A, as aa function
A, as of DC
function of electric resistivity,
DC electric r, can
resistivity, r, be expressed
can be as3::
expressed as3
(r) 1/2
112.2 (r)1/2
AA == 112.2 (1)
This relationship
This reasonably well
holds reasonably
relationship holds for metals
well for in both
metals in the solid
both the and liquid
solid and states. Since
liquid states. the
Since the
resistivity of metals
resistivity metals increases increasing temperature,
with increasing
increases with also increases
absorptivity also
temperature, absorptivity increasing
with increasing
increases with
temperature. The
temperature. relationship predicts that
The relationship the absorptivity
that the for most
absorptivity for solid metals
most solid is not
metals is more than
not more 11$
than 11%
for C02
for CO2 laser light.
laser light.
The absorptivity of metals can
The can be increased with
greatly increased
be greatly coatings. Surface-roughening
surface coatings.
with surface also
Surface -roughening is also
effective, but
effective, to aa lesser
but to degree.
lesser degree. Arata et
Arata et al3 showed that
al3 showed surface roughness
that surface can increase
roughness can the
increase the
absorptivity of
absorptivity metals by
of metals factor of
by aa factor 2. Surface
of 2. coating layers
Surface coating can be
layers can electroand
obtained bybyelectro
be obtained and/or
/or
absorptivity can
chemical plating. The absorptivity can approach for aa thick
100$ for
approach 100% Al20o coating on
anodized A120
thick anodized and
aluminum, and
on aluminum,
80% for
80$ 304 stainless
for 304 steel with
stainless steel Fe2S^ layers.
with Fe2S3 Black graphite
layer3 . Black painting is
graphite painting also used to
is also to improve power
improve power
transfer efficiency by
transfer efficiency its natural
by its absorptivity.
natural absorptivity.

common application
A common of laser
application of of solid
processing of
laser processing metals is
solid metals surface hardening
is surface steels.
hardenable steels.
hardening ofof hardenable
Coatings are
Coatings employed to
are employed absorptivity. A rapid
increase absorptivity.
to increase rapid heating rate is
heating rate created by
is created the laser
by the beam
laser beam
irradiation. Rapid cooling is
Rapid cooling is provided the conduction
provided by the heat to
conduction of heat the cool
to the metal under
cool metal heated
the heated
under the
layer.
layer. This short
This short time thermal cycle
time thermal produces quench
cycle produces hardening in
quench hardening in thin
thin layers on the
layers on surface of
the surface the
of the
treated steel.
steel.

Very high power

Very high power densities are not
densities are required for
not required surface heat
for surface treating. To avoid
heat treating. heating
nonuniform heating
avoid nonuniform
the power
effects, the
effects, distribution of
power distribution laser beam
of laser must be
beam must modified. Special
be modified. optics and
Special optics beam deliver
and beam systems
deliver systems
homogenize the
which homogenize power variations
the power in the
variations in beam and
the beam produce aa square
and produce beam profile
square beam have been
profile have designed 4 .
been designed
addition, an
In addition, has been
an oscillating beam delivery system has for high
used for
been used speed scanning
high speed of the
scanning of piece.
work piece.
the work

3. LIQUID STATE INTERACTIONS

In the laser
In the power density
laser beam power range less
density range than 106 JJ/cm5
less than /cm5'6, molten material
the molten
' 6 , the material isis formed without
formed without
severe vaporization
severe and the
vaporization and depth is
penetration depth
the penetration shallow. The reflectivity
is shallow. and thermal
reflectivity and diffusivity of
thermal diffusivity of
the molten
the material still play important
molten material roles. The absorptivity for
important roles. for carbon is increased
steels is
carbon steels about
to about
increased to
13% in
13$ in the compared to
liquid', compared
the liquid', to less than 10%
less than solid steel.
for solid
10$ for increase in
steel. The increase absorptivity can
in absorptivity be
can be
viewed as
viewed as an efficiency.
increase in process efficiency.
an increase

This form
This has been
form of shallow melting has "conduction mode"
called "conduction
been called although stirring
melting, although
mode" melting, probably
is probably
stirring is
the predominant
the mode of
predominant mode of heat transfer in the
heat transfer molten pool8.
the molten penetration welding
Shallow penetration
pool8 . Shallow welding is common
is a common
process employing
process melting.
employing conduction mode melting.

The
The shallow depth of
shallow depth providesa ameans
melting provides
of melting material surface
modifyingmaterial
meansof ofmodifying while
properties while
surface properties
preserving the properties
preserving the the bulk
properties of the material. The surface modification can be performed autogeneously
bulk material. autogeneously
(i.e., glazing), by4 akdding alloy elements (surface alloying), or by overlaying dissimilar materials materials
(surface c,l2adding) ' Recent developments in laser surcing are the production of a ceramic
. ceramic
coatings"' '4 the modification of a plasma- sprayed coatings These techniques of laser surface
laser surface
modification are used
modification are used to enhance wear, and
corrosion, wear,
enhance corrosion, insulation resistance.
surface insulation
and surface can
process can
resistance. The process
be used
also be
also to decrease the porosity
used to surface coating
of surface
porosity of layers.
coating layers.
AND IONIZATION
4. VAPORIZATION AND
4.

Heating, melting,
Heating, and violent evaporation
melting, and under conditions
developed under
evaporation are developed high power
of high
conditions of laser
density laser
power density
irradiation.
irradiation. A plume
A above the
appears above
plume appears irradiated material
the irradiated surface. The generation of
material surface. phenomena
these phenomena
of these
produces complex
produces complex laser beam-material
laser beam- interactionswhich
material interactions can not
whichcan be explained
not be the simple
by the
explained by reflection
simple reflection
model.
To organize the discussion,
organize the discussion, this section is divided
section is into two
divided into parts, deep
two parts, penetration laser
deep penetration and
welding and
laser welding
laser cutting. These processes are
These processes the most
are the common applications
most common of laser
applications of processing in
laser processing high power
the high
in the power
melting and
involve melting
range. Both processes involve evaporation.
and evaporation.
There are, significant differences
are, however, significant beam-material
the beam
in the
differences in -material interactions between the
interactions between processes.
two processes.
the two
4.1. Deep
4.1. Penetration Welding
Deep Penetration

4.1.1. Keyhole Development.

4.1.1. Above 5e1O6 he irlg is
/cm2 heating
5*10" WW/cm2 rapid that
so rapid
is so intense vaporization
that intense produces aa
vaporization produces
force acting
recoil force liquid-vapor
the liquid
on the
acting on -vapor interfaces' depresses the
interface3 '"''. This force depresses liquid-vapor
the liquid interface
-vapor interface
and
and forms cavity or
forms aa cavity "keyhole".
or "keyhole ". Laser welding
Laser conditions is
welding under these conditions is termed "penetration mode"
termed "penetration or
mode" or
welding.
"keyhole mode" welding.
"keyhole

simple model can

A simple be used
can be to estimate
used to the pressures
estimate the involved in
pressures involved the formation
in the thiscavity
formationofofthis (Fig.
cavity(Fig.
6):

SPIEVol.
SPIE GCL—Seventh
10311031
Vol. International
GCL- Seventh Symposium on
International Symposium on Chemical
Gas Flow and Gas Flow and(1988)
Lasers / 523 Lasers (198
Chemical

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 P(Z)
P(Z) == SS/RZ
/RZ ++ dds
g gg ZZ + P(f) (2)
(2)

where
where P(Z)
P(Z) == the
the pressure
pressure or stress above
or stress above the
the ambient
ambient pressure
pressure causing
causing deep
deep penetration
penetration
ZZ == penetration
penetration depth
S
S == surface tension of
surface tension of liquid
liquid-vapor
-vapor interface
RZ
RZ == hole
hole radius
radius at
at level
level ZZ
dg
ds = density
= density of
of liquid
liquid metal
g
g a= gravity
gravity constant
P(f)
P(f) == Pressure
Pressure produced
produced by fluid flow resistance
fluid flow resistance
This model predicts
This model predicts pressures
pressures ininthe
thecavity
cavity(P(Z))
(P(Z))totobebe2 *10
2*10"~2 atms for
-2 atms for 11 cm
cm penetration
penetration of
of iron
iron under
under
static conditions (P(f)
static conditions (P(f) == 0).
0).
The P(Z) term
The P(Z) term was
was modified by Klemens15
modified by Klemens 15 by
by considering
considering the
the vapor
vapor flow
flow inside
inside the
the key hole.
hole. Using his
his
model and
model and assuming
assuming that
that this
this contribution
contribution of vapor flow
of vapor flow is
is constant
constant at any
any depth
depth in
in the
the cavity,
cavity, the
the
maximum pressure
maximum pressure in
in aa 11 cm
cm deep cavity is
deep cavity is less
less than
than U*10
4 *10 -2 atm.
atm. The experimental
The experimental results
results of
of Miyamoto
Miyamoto et
et
al 1b
al 1 confirm
confirm this
this general
general level pressure. They
level of pressure. They also
also commented
commented that
that iron
iron at
at aa temperature
temperature of
of 2200
2200 CC
has an
has an equilibrium
equilibrium vapor
vapor pressure
pressureofof2.7
2.7*10 atm. This
*10 -2 atm. temperature corresponds
This temperature corresponds to
to temperatures
temperatures of
of 2170
2170
C to
C to 2220
2220 CC measured
measured in
in keyholes
keyholes by Schawer
Schawer et
et al
al in
in electron
electron beam
beam cavities17.
cavities''. This strongly
strongly suggests
suggests
that the
that the recoiled
recoiled vapor
vapor pressure
pressure is the main
is the main factor
factor sustaining
sustaining thethe cavity
cavity or
or key hole
hole and
and causing
causing deep
deep
penetration
penetration in in laser
laser welding.
welding.
Above 1 kW
Above 1 kW the
the penetration
penetration depth in high
depth in high power
power laser
laser welding
welding with
with aa focused
focused beam
beam increases
increases as
as the
the beam
beam
power
power raised
raised to an
an exponent between 0.7 and
and 0.8
0.8^° (Fig. 7).
(Fig. 7).

U.1.2.
4.1.2. Factors
Factors Increasing
Increasing Power Input Efficiency.
Efficiency. The
The deep penetration mode
deep penetration mode laser
laser welding is associated
associated
with
with anan iimprovement
rove20ent inin beam absorption.
beam absorption. The cavity traps
The cavity traps the
the beam
beam byby a aprocess
process ofof multiple
multiple
reflections'°»
reflections 1 9,20^ Each
,
reflection provides
Each reflection provides absorption
absorption of
of aa fraction
fraction of
of the
the beam
beam(about
(about1313$).
%). Both
Both
process
process efficiency (absorption) and
efficiency (absorption) and penetration
penetration depth are
are increased
increased by
by this
this process.
process.
Another effect
Another effect that
that contributes
contributes to
to the
the increase
increase ininabsorption
absorptionisisthetheso-
so-called "enhanced coupling"
called "enhanced coupling" of
of
the plume '. AA cloud
the plume21'22. cloud of
of glowing
glowing hot
hot gas
gas called
called the
the plume
plume is
is formed
formed above
above the
the surface
surface of
of the
the material
soon
soon after vaporization begins. The plume absorbs
The plume absorbs laser
laser power
power and
and transfers
transfers the
thepower
powerbybyre-
re-radiating
radiating
short
short wavelength (including visible)
wavelength (including light to
visible) light to the
the material
material surface.
surface. The short wavelength
The short wavelength light
light is
is
absorbed
absorbed more
more efficiently than the
efficiently than the incoming
incoming beam
beam (Fig.
(Fig. 5).
5).
Inert shielding
Inert shielding gases
gases are commonly employed
are commonly employed to avoid oxidation
to avoid oxidation or contamination of
or contamination of molten
molten metal.
Weal.
These gases
These gases also
also influence
influence the
the absorption
absorption and
and penetration
penetrationdepth,
depth, especially
especiallyininkeyhole
keyholemode
modeweldingll'
welding7 ' 23 ..
The process
The process efficiency
efficiency (absorptivity)
(absorptivity) as as aa function
function ofof shielding
shielding gas compositions
compositions for pulsed
pulsed laser spot
spot
welding is shown
welding is shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 9i9.
9 19 . With pure helium
With pure helium the
the process
process efficiency
efficiencycan
canexceed
exceed3030^.
%. efficiency
The efficiency
does not
does not exceed
exceed 15%
15% when argon is is used.
Helium shielding gas
Helium shielding gas also
also provides
provides better
better penetration.
penetration. Chennat23
Chennat23 showed
showed that
that penetration
penetration in
in laser
laser
spot welding
spot is proportional
welding is proportional to
to the
the thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of
of the
the shielding
shielding gas
gas or
or gas
gas mixtures
mixtures (Fig.
(Fig. 10).
10).
C02 shielding gas
CO shielding
2
gas gives
gives deeper
deeper penetration
penetration than
than expected
expected due
due to
to dissociation
dissociation effects23.
effects2^.
4.1.3. Beam Attenuation
4.1.3. Beam Attenuation Effects.
Effects. Although
Although most
most of the laser
of the laser power isis absorbed
absorbed by the
the work
work piece
piece during
during
keyhole
keyhole mode
mode welding, the initial
welding, the initial incident
incident laser
laser beam
beam power
power does
does not
not reach
reach the
the bottom
bottom of
of the
the vapor
vapor cavity
cavity
(see
(see Fig. 6). The
Fig. 6). The beam is attenuated
beam is attenuated as
as it
it passes
passes through
through the
the cavity.
cavity. The value
value of the power density at
the bottom
the bottom of
of the
the cavity
cavity is
is critical.
critical. At this point
At this point the
the surface
surface tension
tension and
and hydrostatic
hydrostatic forces
forces combine
combine
to
to give
give aa maximum
maximum value
value to
to the forces opposing
the forces opposing penetration. The power density
density at
at this
this point
point must
must sustain
sustain
sufficient
sufficient vaporization
vaporization toto produce the recoil
produce the recoil force
force to
to balance
balance the
the restoring
restoring forces.
forces.
The power density
The power density at
at the
the bottom
bottom of
of vapor
vapor cavity,
cavity, IZ,
Iz> is
is associated
associated with
with this
this critical
critical evaporation
evaporation
rate.
rate. In
In general, Iz can be written
general, IZ written as:
as:
IIZz == I exp (-aZ)
(-aZ) (3)
(3)
where
where I == the incident laser power density
I
Z == penetration depth
a =a the
a the attenuation factor
The larger
The larger the
the attenuation
attenuation factor,
factor, the
the shallower
shallower the
the penetration
penetration depth.
depth. It is well known
known that
that the
the
penetration
penetration ofof laser
laser beam
beam welding
welding at atmospheric pressure
at atmospheric pressure is
is much lower than
much lower than that
that of electron
electron beam
beam
welding
welding at same power
at same power level.
level. The attenuation
The attenuation factor
factor in high power
in high power laser
laser welding
welding is
is blamed
blamed for
for the
the
decreased penetration.
penetration.
Duley2^ showed
Duley24 showed that
that the beam reached
reached the
the diffraction limited spot size in the bottom of drilled
diffraction limited drilled holes
holes
in quartz.
quartz. ByBy extending
extending his
his model
model to
to CO2
C02 laser
laser welding,
welding, he
he was
was able
able to
to establish
establish attenuation
attenuation factors
factors of
between 0.43
between 0.43 to
to 0.86
0.86 cnr* for the
cm for the process.
process.

524
524 //SPIE
SPIEVol.
Vol. 1031
1031 GCL-
GCL—Seventh Internationa/Symposium
Seventh International Symposiumon
onGas
Gas Flow
Flow and
and Chemical
Chemical Lasers
Lasers (1988)
(1988)

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 equation of
An analytic equßation attenuation factor
the attenuation
of the derived by Klemens
was derived
factor was Klemens by considering the heat
radial heat
the radial
cavity . The
flow in the cavity75 The average factor was
attenuation factor
average attenuation dependent on the temperature
found dependent
was found distribution
temperature distribution
and the incident
the cavity and
in the laser power.
incident laser obtained for
relationship was obtained
power. A numerical relationship iron:
for iron:
(2000/W) 172
1.4 ** (2000/W)1/2
lav == 1.4
a,aav (4)

where aay
where aav is the average
is the attenuation factor,
average attenuation and W is
factor, and incident laser
the incident
is the power into
laser power the cavity.
into the The
cavity. The
equation
equation shows that as
shows that laser power
as laser increases, the
power increases, effect is
attenuation effect
the attenuation decreased, and
is decreased, and thus the
thus the
depth is
penetration depth increased.
is increased.
Miyamoto et
Miyamoto et aí25 attenuation factor in the
investigated the attenuation
al25 investigated welding for
keyhole mode laser welding
the keyhole 304
thick 304
for thick
stainless steel plates. Th^ir
stainless Their results showed attenuation factor
the attenuation
showed that the laser beam
for aa laser
factor for of 66 kW
power of
beam power
at pressure of
at aa vacuum pressure -3 torr
10"3
of 10 0.5 cm"
was 0.5
torr was cm-1, while at
1 , while at atmospheric pressure it
atmospheric pressure was 11 to 1.5
it was cm"11..
1.5 cm
4.1.4. Plasma Plume
4.1.4. Plasma Theory. Plumes
Plume Theory. glowing gas
Plumes of hot glowing develop above
gas develop bove the material during
the material beam
laser beam
during laser
irradiation. At low power
irradiation. densities the
power densities are orange
plumes are
the plumes white'. At
to white'.
orange to densities the
At high power densities plumes
the plumes
are blue. plume is
The blue plume called the
is called plume".
"plasma plume
the "plasma This term implies
". This the gas in the
that the
implies that the plume is
plume is
at a high
at temperature for
enough temperature
high enough ionization of
significant ionization
for significant of atoms. lonization implies
atoms. Ionization of
presence of
implies the presence
positive ions
positive and free
ions and electrons. Scattering and
free electrons. absorption of
and absorption the incoming
of the beam by
incoming beam free electrons
by free are
electrons are
proposed as
proposed mechanism to
as a mechanism for decreased
account for
to account penetration when
decreased penetration plumes are
large plumes
when large observed. At high
are observed.
power this mechanism
levels this
power levels mechnism isis probably valid. At
probably valid. At lower levels, the
power levels,
lower power validity of
the validity this mechanism
of this is
mechanism is
questionable. Chennat spectroscopy to
used spectroscopy
Chennat235 used to show iron is
that iron
show that the only
is the species in
ionized species
only ionized in both argon
both argon
and helium plumes
and low power
plumes in low laser spot
power laser welding of
spot welding steel. The degree of
of steel. ionization was
of ionization at most
was at only aa
most only
percent.
few percent.
few

Dixon and Lewis21,22

Dixon and detected the
Lewis21 ' 22 also detected plasma-induced
the plasma- current flow
induced current in the
flow in plumes in
the plumes pulsed NdrYAG
in pulsed Nd:YAG
welding.
laser welding. These observations
These suggested that
observations suggested the plasma
that the does form
plasma does during high power
form during laser
density laser
power density
irradiation.
irradiation.

Herziger
Herzig%r26p proposed
2
osed that
absorption6,' 2 :?' 2^. P7 The
absorption
formation ofofa aplasma
the formation
that the
the metal
electrons in the
The electrons particles are
vapor particles
metal vapor
with"inverse
associatedwith
plasmais isassociated bremsstrahlung"
"inverse bremsstrahlung"
accelerated by absorbing laser beam
are accelerated beam
energy56,26.27
photon energy '» 2b » 2 '. The plasma plume develops as
plume develops phenomenon when
thermal phenomenon
as aa thermal metal vapor
the metal
when the temperature
vapor temperature
ionization.
is high enough to produce ionization.

The
The plasma continues to
plasma continues to absorb the laser
absorb the increasing its
laser energy by increasing electron density
its electron the plasma
when the
density when plasma
oscillation frequency,
frequency, wp, lower than
wp , is lower the frequency
than the of the
frequency of incident laser
the incident light, ww as
laser light, by:
given by:
as given
w* >> wp Ne/eQ
(e2 Ne
wp == (e2 /eo me)1 /2
me ) 1/2 (5)
(5)

where
where Ne =
= free electron density
e s= charge
electron charge
eQ
eo == the vacuum
dielectric permitivity of the
dielectric vacuum
nig
me =
= electron mass
w, the
wp is equal or larger than w,
When Wp laser light
the laser will be
light will reflected by
be reflected the plasma
by the and the
plasma and laser power
the laser to
power to
the material is
the Because the
blocked. Because
is blocked. from metal
generated from
the plasma is generated vapor, there
metal vapor, threshold laser
is aa threshold
there is laser
formation which
power intensity for the plasma formation is aa function
which is of following
function of factors:
following factors:
** Thermal properties
Thermal vapor
properties of vapor
** Incident laser beam power
Incident density
power density
** Evaporation rate of the
Evaporation rate material
base material
the base
** light
Wavelength of laser light
relationship of plasma threshold
A relationship intensity with input
threshold intensity power for
laser power
input laser is illustrated
steel is
for steel Fig.
in Fig.
illustrated in
11 b . The
116. power density
The power to form
required to
density required plasma is
form aa plasma slightly higher
only slightly
is only than that
higher than required to
that required cause
to cause
vaporization. Thus the power
Thus the density above
power density the plasma
above the threshold intensity
plasma threshold has aa limited
intensity has effect in
limited effect in
penetration.
increasing penetration.
increasing

At very high
At power densities
high power the plasma
densities th2 will move
plasma will beam toward
the beam
move up the the laser
toward the beam source
laser beam and will
source and will
absorb the incident
absorb the power .
laser power'.
incident laser Depending on
Depending the shielding
on the gas composition,
shielding gas power density
composition, power and
density and
plume is
wavelength of the laser beam the plume raised to
is raised above the
distance above
to aa distance surface until
material surface
the material power
the power
until the
the expanding beam is
density of the too low
is too to sustain
low to plasma. At
sustain aa plasma. this point
At this the plasma
point the extinguished,
is extinguished,
plasma is
and second plasma
and a second plume is
plasma plume generated at
is generated the material
at the surface. The
material surface. The periodic formation of plasma
formation of plume
plasma plume
interupts the continuous
interupts the input to
laser power input
continuous laser the material'.
to the This phenomenon occurs
material6 . This lower power
at much lower
occurs at power
helium as
replaces helium
densities when argon replaces gas.
shielding gas.
as aa shielding
4.1.5. Particle
4.1.5. Particle Scattering Theory. occurs when the
Scattering occurs
Theory. Scattering electromagnetic wave
incident electromagnetic
the incident interacts
wave interacts
with a volume
with of dispersed
volume of particles. The
dispersed particles. scattered light
The scattered power is
light power dependent on
is dependent the particle
on the size,
particle size,
wavelength, scattered
incident wavelength,
incident the electromagnetic
and the
scattered direction and of the
properties of
electromagnetic properties particles.
the particles.
The scattering effect
he scattering effect of particles from material vapor
condensing from
particles condensing first proposed
was first
vapor was Matsunawa et
by Matsunawa
proposed by
al2 -30..
al2*5""30 Since levels of ionization
observed very low levels
Since they observed welding, they
Nd:YAG welding,
ionization in Nd:YAG that beam
proposed that
they proposed beam

SPIE Vol.
SP/E Vol 1031 GCL—Seventh
1031 GCL- InternationalSymposium
Seventh International Gas Flow
on Gas
Symposium on and Chemical
Flow and Lasers (1988)
Chemical Lasers 525
(1988)// 525

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 attenuation
attenuation is
is associated
associated with
with the formation of fine
the formation fine particles.
particles. Ultra
Ultra fine
fine particles
particles (10
(10 - 30
30 nm
nm in
in
diameter) were
diameter) were collected above the
collected above the material
material being
being welded.
welded. The
The average
average particle
particle size
size decreased
decreased as
as ambient
ambient
pressure decreased.
pressure decreased,
Matsunawa
Matsunawa etet al concluded that
al concluded that the
the energy
energy loss
loss mechanism
mechanism of
of the
the incident
incident laser
laser beam
beam in
in aa plume
plume was
was
governed
governed by
by both
both photon absorption and scattering
photon absorption scattering ofof vapor
vapor particles.
particles. The The low
low attenuation
attenuation ofof incident
incident
beam observed in
beam observed in reduced
reduced pressure
pressure environments
environments was
was the
the results
results ofof decreased
decreased scattering
scattering andand photon
photon
absorption
absorption by
by the
the reduction
reduction of
of particles size and
particles size and number
number density
density of
of atoms
atoms in
in the
the vapor.
vapor.
Duley31
Duley31 evaluated the contributions
evaluated the contributions to
to attenuation
attenuation of
of both
both vapor
vapor particles and plasma
particles and plasma in
in and
and above
above the
the
keyhole.
keyhole. He concluded that
He concluded that both
both theories
theories were
were important
important mechanisms
mechanisms of
of attenuation
attenuation phenomenon.
phenomenon.
M.1.6. Penetration
4.1.6. Penetration Mode
Mode Laser
Laser Welding.
Welding. Plasma
Plasma suppression
suppression techniques
techniques have
have been developed to
to improve the
the
penetration in
penetration in high power laser
high power laser welding.
welding. The plasm plume
The plasm plume has
has been
been effectively
effectively suppressed
suppressed with high
with a high
flow rate gas
flow rate gas from
from side
side-shielding
-shielding nozzles.
nozzles. These
These nozzles
nozzles blow
blow the
the plume
plume to
to removed
removed it from the
it from the optical
optical
path.
path. The
The results are enhanced
results are enhanced penetration6,16.
penetration**' .
The environmental
The pressure has
environmental pressure has influence
influence on
on penetration depth in
penetration depth in laser
laser welding.
welding. The penetration
The penetration depth
depth
can
canL be
be doubled
doubled in a vacuum32
in a ' 33 , as
vacuum32,33, as shown in
in Fig. 12.
12.
Enhanced pulsing
Enhanced pulsing of
of lasers
lasers can
can also
also improve
improve penetration
penetration depth19
depth19 . In
in pulsed
pulsed mode
mode CO2
C02 laser welding,
welding, a
spike
spike of
of laser
laser power
power at
at the
the beginning of each
beginning of each pulse
pulse generates the
the keyhole. The
The remainder of
of the
the pulse
pulse is
is
absorbed
absorbed much
much more
more efficiently
efficiently with the
the established
established cavity.
cavity.
AA dynamic
dynamic beam
beam focusing
focusing technique
technique was
was developed
developed by
by Ivanov
Ivanov et a134.
al31*. With
With oscillation
oscillation of
of the
the focusing
focusing
lens
lens the
the process efficiency of
process efficiency of laser
laser welding
welding was
was increased
increased 69%
69% and
and the
the penetration
penetration depth increased
increased 45$.
45%.
Smooth weld
Smooth appearance was
weld appearance was another
another reported
reported advantage.
advantage.
4.2.
4.2. Laser Cutting
Cutting
Gas-assisted
Gas -assistedlaser
laser cutting
cutting is
is aa process
process in which cutting
in which cutting isis assisted
assisted bby using
using aa high
high press]7re
pressure gas,
gas,
either inert or
either inert or reactive
reactive (e.g.
(e.g. oxygen)
oxygen) flowing
flowing through
through aa nozzle
nozzle to
to remove
removeythe
the molten
molten material35
material^5 (Fig.
(Fig.
13).
13)

For inert gas

For inert gas laser
laser cutting,
cutting, thethe laser
laser beam
beam is
is used
used to
to heat
heat the
the base
base material
material toto the
the melting
melting
temperature. The The co
co-axial
-axial assist
assist gas
gas removes
removes the liquid metal
the liquid by an
metal by an erosion
erosion action.
action. When oxygen gas is
employed,
employed, onlyonly aa low
low ignition
ignition temperature
temperature is is required
required from
from the
the laser
laserbeam
beamtotogenerate
generatea ametal
metal-oxygen
-oxygen
reaction.
reaction. The exothermic
The exothermic oxidation
oxidation reaction
reaction heats
heats the
the metal
metal rapidly
rapidly to to the
the melting
melting temperature.
temperature. The
combination
combination of of a
a high
high power
power density laser beam
density laser beam and
and oxidation
oxidation provides aa recoil
recoil force
force of
of evaporation
evaporation which
which
helps
helps the
the coco-axial
-axial assist
assist gas
gas to
to expel
expel the
the molten
molten metal
metal from
from the
the cutting
cutting kerf35
kerf35.. Most
Most of the energy to
produce
produce a laser-oxygen
oxygen cut
cut is
is supplied
supplied by the exothermic
exothermic chemical
chemical reaction
reaction between the
5.
a laser-
oxygen3^"" 3 ' .
oxygen
by the the metal
metal and
and the
the

4.2.1.
4.2.1. Formation of of Kerf
Kerf Striations.
Striations. The striation formation
The striation formation onon the
the kerf surface is
kerf surface one of
is one of the
the
characteristics
characteristics in laser cutting.
in laser cutting. When a high
When a high power
power laser
laser is
is used
used aa keyhole
keyhole is
is developed
developed through
through the
the
thickness
thickness of workpiece.
workpiece. The coaxial assist
The coaxial assist gas
gas pushes
pushes the
the liquid
liquid metal
metal out
out of
of the
the keyhole. This action
leaves
leaves aa cavity
cavity with
with aa diameter
diameter larger
larger than
than laser
laser spot
spot size.
size. The laser beam must
The laser must move
move beyond
beyond the
the
boundary
boundary of this cavity
of this cavity to
to further
further interact
interact with
with the
the metal.
metal. Thus aa periodic
periodic ignition
ignition and
and propagation
propagation
sequence creates
sequence striations between cavities.
creates striations cavities.
4.2.2. Polarization. The
4.2.2. Polarization. beam-material
The beam- material interactions
interactions inin laser
laser cutting
cutting are
are similar
similar to
to laser
laser welding
welding with
with
one important exception.
one important exception. Polarization
Polarization ofof the
the beam
beam does
does not
not have major effect
have a major effect on
on laser
laser welding
welding
performance.
performance. Polarization
Polarization of the beam,
of the however, has
beam, however, has an
an important
important effect
effect on
on laser
laser cutting
cutting performance.
performance.
In laser cutting,
In laser cutting, the
the beam
beam interacts
interacts with
with the
the material
material through
througha ahigh
highangle
angleggfof incidence,
incidence, as
as shown
shown in
in
Fig. 13. Under
Fig. 13. these conditions
Under these conditions beam
beam polarization
polarization affects
affects beam
beam absorptivity38
absorptivity ,3'.' 39 . When
When the
the direction
direction of
beam
beam polarization
polarization isis parallel
parallel toto the
the cutting
cutting direction,
direction, absorption
absorption isis maximized.
maximized. A smooth, straight, and
smooth, straight, and
minimum
minimum kerf width out
kerf width cut isis produced.
produced. Depth
Depth ofof cut
cut is
is also
also maximized
maximized under
under these
these conditions.
conditions. If thethe
direction
direction of polarization is
of polarization is at
at an angle to
an angle the cutting
to the cutting direction,
direction, thethe result
result cancan be
be a rough and
and tilted
tilted
kerf of
kerf of increased
increased width.
width. To avoid cutting
To avoid cutting quality
quality variation
variation with
with cutting
cutting direction,
direction, aa circular
circular polarizer
polarizer
beam is
beam is commonly
commonly used39.
used 39 . Many devices are
Many devices are ..:sailable39
available 39 totoconvert
converta ahighly
highly linear
linear polarized
polarized beam
beam into
into aa
beam
beam with
with a high degree of polarization symmetry.
symmetry.
5.CONCLUSION
5.CONCLUSION

Key points
Key points for
for laser
laser processing:
processing:
1.
1. Solids
Most nonmetals have
Most nonmetals have aa relatively
relatively high
high absorptivity
absorptivity to to high
high power
power laser
laser light.
light. TheThe high
high
reflectivity
reflectivity of
of metals limits the
metals limits the fraction
fraction of
of the
the beam
beam power
power absorbed
absorbed by the
the solid
solid metal surface.
surface.
For metals
For metals in
in the
the solid
solid state,
state, reflectivity
reflectivity increases
increases as
as the
the wavelength
wavelength of
of the
the laser
laser light
light and
and the
the

525 SPIEVol.
526 //SPIE Vol. 1031
1031 GCL-
GCL—Seventh InternationalSymposium
Seventh International Symposiumon
onGas
Gas Flow
Flow and
and Chemical
Chemical Lasers
Lasers (1988)
(1988)

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 of the
conductivity of
electrical conductivity increase.
metal increase.
the metal
The metals is
absorptivity of metals
The absorptivity is increased heating to
increased upon heating the melting
to the point, and
melting point, increased
further increased
and further
Absorptivity for
melting. Absorptivity
upon melting. most metals
for most to CO2
metals to laser light
C02 laser less than
is less
light is 11$ for
than 11% the solid
for the state
solid state
and less
and 13? in
less than 13% the liquid
in the state.
liquid state.
2. Liquids
2.
In
In low power laser processing, surface
laser processing, is formed.
melting is
surface melting The reflectivity
formed. The of the
reflectivity of material
liquid material
the liquid
efficiency.
controls the process efficiency.
controls
3. Deep penetration mode
3. welding
mode welding
At high power densities
At the liquid
densities the metal surface
liquid metal is heated
surface is so quickly
heated so that very
quickly that vaporization
rapid vaporization
very rapid
occurs.
occurs. The recoil force
The recoil produced by
force produced the evaporation
by the depression ininthe
causes a adepression
evaporation causes liquid-vapor
theliquid -vapor
interface.
interface. "keyhole" resulting
The "keyhole" this depression
from this
resulting from allows for
depression allows multiple reflections
for multiple thus
and thus
reflections and
increases beam absorption
increases the liquid.
into the
absorption into radiation emitted
wavelength radiation
Shorter wavelength
liquid. Shorter emitted from plumes is
plumes is
also more easily absorbed
also into liquid
absorbed into surfaces.
metal surfaces.
liquid metal
laser welding
4. Attenuation in laser
4. keyhole
welding keyhole
The vaporized metal
The vaporized metal above the liquid
above the surface can
liquid surface cause attenuation
can cause of the
attenuation of beam. Both
the beam. plasma
Both plasma
absorption
absorption and fine particle
and fine scattering theory
particlescattering have been
theory have proposed to
been proposed account for
to account beam
this beam
for this
attenuation.
5. Laser cutting
5. process
cutting process
the laser
In the
In cutting the
laser cutting beam interacts
the beam with the
interacts with material through
the material high angle
through aa high incidence.
of incidence.
angle of Under
the degree
these conditions the of beam
degree of polarization becomes
beam polarization important.
becomes important.
6. REFERENCES
6.

1. J. F.
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P. 336 Academic Press,
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2. D. M.
2. D. Roessler, "An
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"An introduction processing of
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3. Y.
3. Arata, and
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2) ",in
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P. 108 (1986).
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7. R. Arnot, and
S. Arnot, C. E.
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E. Albright, "Plasma in pulsed
effects in
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dioxide laser welding",
spot welding ",
ICALEO'83, Vol. 38,
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8. Mazumder, "An
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SPIE/EVol. GCL- SeventhInternational
1031GCL—Seventh Symposiumon
InternationalSymposium GasFlow
onGas and Chemical
flow and (1988)// 527
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Chemical Lasers 527

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"Development and and optical
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-fine metallic and ceramic
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(1986).

LASER
LASER
BEAM LASER
BEAM

\ \ \\ f / \
REFLECTION\
REFLECTIONS \
REFLECTIONS \ \\ / /
/REFLECTION
REFLECTION

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\ \\ /
\ \\/
/ \
I
V,/../,./:://////////////// SURFACE
CONDITION MOLTEN
LIQUID
/LIQUID

HEATING
CONDUCTION HEATING PENETRATION
SHALLOW PENETRATION

Fig. 1. Laser
Fig. 1. Laser beam-
beam-material interactions
material interactions Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Laser
Laser beam-
beam-material
material interactions
interactions
—
-- Solid state
Solid state —•
-- Surface
Surface melting
melting

525 SPIE Vol

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GCL—Seventh InternationalSymposium
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onGas
Gas Flow
Flow and
and Chemical
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Lasers (1988)
(1988)

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 LASER
BEAM
LASER BEAM

\\ \l If
\\\\\\\ t
1: / PLUME
\
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I I /.FORMATION
FORMATION
\\\\I |/ / VAPORIZATION
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VAPORIZATION RE-RADIATION
RE- RADIATION

RECOIL ATTENUATION
RECOIL FORCE-DEEP PENETRATION
FORCE -DEEP PENETRATION
PLASMA
MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS VAPOR PARTICLES

Fig.
Fig. 3. Laser beam-material
Laser beam -material interactions
interactions Fig. u.
Fig. U. Laser
Laser beam-
beam-material
material interactions
interactions
—
-- Evaporation
Evaporation and
and deep
deep penetration
penetration -- Plume
-- formation and
Plume formation and laser
laser beam
beam
attenuation
attenuation

1.0

0.8

0.6
0.8

0.4
A. polished silver
A, polished silver
B. copper
B. copper
0.2
0.2 C. aluminum
C. aluminum
D. nickel
D. nickel
E. carbon steel
E. carbon steel
o.o;
0.0 iI Iiii I
02
0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 4 8
6 810
8 10 20 Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. The dependence of
The dependence of incident
incident wavelength
wavelength on
on
the reflectivity;
the reflectivity of0 selected
selected materials
materials at
at
room temperature
room temperature''" 2
100
Al
Top — Metals,
Top -- Metals, Bottom
Bottom --
— Various
Various materials
materials

80

Fe
0:
60
4+
V
C

40
SI I
¢ nl
Ii
20

NaCI I

0
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5
0.5 1
1 22 55 10 20 50
Wavelength, X
X (µm)
G*m)

SPIE
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Gas Flow
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and Chemical
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 BEAM
TTENUATIO
1

w FACE
Ón SION
a v
1.0 10 100
L
POWER, kW
LASER POWER,
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Fig.
Fig. 6,
6. Forces
Forces acting
acting inside
inside the
the keyhole
keyhole Fig.
Fig. 7.
7. The relation between
The relation between penetration
penetration depth
depth and
and
laser power18
laser power

40

LIGHT PATH I
X 30
LIQUID METAL
SURFACE Q.
C

20

LIQUID
10
SOLID METAL

1 2 4 8 12

PULSE
PULSE LENGTH(ms)
LENGTH (ms)

Fig.
Fig. 8.8. Multiple
Multiple reflects reflections in the beam cavity
ns in the beam cavity A Focused
Focused 2.5 mm
2.5 mm below
below the
the metal
metal surface
surface
increase absorption' 9
increase absorption'9 in He
in He
• Focused
Focused at the
at the metal
metal surface
surface in
in He
He
A Focused
O Focused 2.5 mm
2.5 mm below
below the
the metal
metal surface
surface
in
in Ar
Ar
o Focused
o Focused at the
at the metal surface in
metal surface in Ar
Ar

Fig.
Fig. 9.
9. The
The effects of shielding
effects of shielding gas
gas on
on process
process
efficiency of
efficiency of laser
laser spot
spot welding19
welding

SPIE
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GCL—Seventh InternationalSymposium
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Gas Flow
Flow and
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 Focus:
Focus: at metal surface
0.8
0.8 Pulse length: 4 ms
Pulse 4-10 6
Discharge
Discharge current: 100 mA

0.6 -——— PLASMTHRESHOLD

PLASMA A THRESHOLD
3-10' ——— EVAPORATIONTHRESHOLD
- -- EVAPORATION THRESHOLD
0.4 O EXPERIMENT
O EXPERIMENT

2-10 6 -
0.2
jc
i
1-10' O O
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

Discharge Pulse
Discharge Pulse
Current Length
Length Focus
mA
mA ms
_ 100
1 2 3
0.60
0.60

cO LASER POWER
POWER (kW)
(kW)
0.40
040
o
m
c
0.20
Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Vaporization
Vaporization and and plasma
plasma threshold
threshold
• If I. t. . I .1. t. . • t. intensities as
intengities as aa function
function of
of input
input laser
laser
power,6
power
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
1.6 2.0
2.0 2.4

Thermal conductivity,
conductivity,mw
mw/cm°K (at590
/cm °K (at 590°K)
°K)

Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. The influence of
The influence of thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of
of
shielding gas
shielding gas and gas mixtures
and gas mixtures on
on the
the
penetration
penetration depth depth of of laser
laser spot
spot
welding23
welding23 Laser
Laser Beam
Beam
Top --
Top — Pure
Pure gases
gases / Cutting
Cutting Speed
Speed
Bottom --
Bottom — Argon
Argon/Helium
/Helium mixes
mixes
Erosion
Erosion Front
Front
Reactive
Reactive
) Gas Flow
Gas Flow
Molten Layer
Molten Layer
x Solid
Solid Material
Material

1.2 Evaporated
Cross-section
1.0 Material ! Cross- section
of
of the
the workpiece
workpiece
0.8 >x Laser (3.4 kW)
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.2
1
Reactive
Reactive
/ Ejection of
/ Ejection of
-8 -4 -2 0 4
Gas
Gas Flow
Flow Liquid Material
Liquid Material

WELD CHAMBER
WELD CHAMBERPRESSURE - LOG ,0 (torr)
PRESSURE-LOON (torr)

Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. The influence
The influence of
of ambient
ambient pressure
pressure on
on
penetration depth32
penetration depth3* Fig. 13.
Fig. 13. Gas-assisted
Gas- assisted laser
laser cutting^
cutting35

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Vol 1031 GCL—Seventh InternationalSymposium
Seventh International Symposium on
on Gas
Ges Flow
Flow and
and Chemical
ChemicalLasers
Lasers(1988)
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