THEORY OUTLINE From Atom To Hydrocarbons

THEORY OUTLINE
FROM ATOMS TO HYDROCARBONS
TRAINING COURSE
Course EXP-PR-RT020
Revision 0.1
Exploration & Production
Theory Outline
From Atoms to Hydrocarbons
THEORY OUTLINE
FROM ATOMS TO HYDROCARBONS
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................4
2. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................5
3. THE ATOM ......................................................................................................................6
3.1. GENERAL .................................................................................................................6
3.2. COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM..................................................................................7
3.2.1. The nucleus ........................................................................................................7
3.2.2. The electrons ......................................................................................................7
3.2.3. Electron distribution and chemical bonds ...........................................................8
3.3. COVALENT BOND – CONCEPT OF MOLECULE..................................................10
3.3.1. Covalent bond...................................................................................................10
3.3.2. Atomic valence .................................................................................................10
3.4. CHARACTERISATION OF ATOMS ........................................................................12
3.4.1. Characterisation................................................................................................12
3.4.2. Quantification of atomic mass...........................................................................12
3.5. Periodic classification of chemical elements: the Periodic table of the elements (also
called Mendeleev's table) ...............................................................................................13
3.5.1. The chemical elements.....................................................................................13
3.5.2. Isotopes ............................................................................................................15
3.5.3. The periodic classification – The periodic table of the elements.......................16
4. THE MOLECULE ...........................................................................................................19
4.1. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................19
4.2. LEWIS REPRESENTATION ...................................................................................19
4.3. CREATION OF MOLECULES.................................................................................21
5. MATTER ........................................................................................................................24
5.1. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................24
5.2. THE DIFFERENT STATES OF MATTER ...............................................................25
5.2.1. The different states ...........................................................................................25
5.2.2. Why matter changes state ................................................................................26
5.3. A PERFECT GAS....................................................................................................27
5.3.1. Perfect gas equation.........................................................................................27
5.3.2. Molar volume of perfect gases..........................................................................27
5.4. DETERMINING THE QUANTITY OF MATTER ......................................................28
5.5. DENSITY.................................................................................................................30
6. THE CHEMICAL REACTION.........................................................................................32
6.1. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................32
6.2. BALANCE EQUATION AND CHEMICAL REACTION ............................................32
6.2.1. The conservation law........................................................................................33
6.2.2. How do we balance a balance equation? .........................................................33
6.3. COHESION ENERGY .............................................................................................36
6.4. A SPECIFIC CHEMICAL REACTION: COMBUSTION ...........................................37
Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN
Last revised: 26/04/2007 Page 2 of 49
Theory Outline
7. EXERCISES ..................................................................................................................40
8. GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................43
9. LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................44
10. LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................45
11. CORRECTIONS FOR THE EXERCISES ....................................................................46

Theory Outline
1. OBJECTIVES
The objective of this course is to allow future operators to understand the theoretical bases
of the domain of atoms and molecules, more particularly for hydrocarbons:
Upon conclusion of this course, the operator should be able to:
Describe what an atom is composed of
Explain the chemical bonds between atoms
Define the term covalent bond
Characterise and quantify the mass of an atom
Classify the different chemical elements
Describe Mendeleyev’s periodic table of elements
Describe the creation of a molecule
Represent the different states of matter
Explain changes of state of matter
Define a perfect gas and its equation, its volume
Determine a quantity of matter
Associate density and quantity of matter
Define a simple chemical reaction
Write the balanced equation of a chemical reaction
Describe the cohesion bond energy
Describe combustion in terms of a chemical reaction

Theory Outline
2. INTRODUCTION
The atom is the building block of all matter, it is the smallest particle of a chemical element
(size of the order of 10-10m), which is why the atom is the basic chemical element.
In chemical reactions, atoms combine with other atoms to form molecules.
Figure 1: The atom, the molecule and matter

Theory Outline
3. THE ATOM
3.1. GENERAL
The atom consists of a nucleus with electrons spinning around it at specific distances
(called shells), thus forming an electron cloud.
Figure 2: Composition of the atom
The atom's electrons and nucleus are linked by

interacting electric forces called bonds.
The atom's nucleus has a positive electric

charge due to the protons, whereas the
electrons are negatively charged.
Figure 3: Hydrogen atom
Therefore, because they have opposite electric charges, there a mutual attraction between
the nucleus and the electrons, which is why atoms do not lose their electrons.
An atom has a neutral electric charge because the

number of electrons (negatively charged) in the
electron cloud is equal to the number of protons
(positively charged) forming the nucleus. Thus the
electric charges cancel each other out.
Figure 4: Carbon atom

Theory Outline
When two atoms are sufficiently close to each other, they can exchange some of their
electrons. This exchange binds these two atoms into a composite object which is a
molecule. This process is a chemical reaction.
3.2. COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM

3.2.1. The nucleus
It forms the greatest part of the mass of the atom. It is concentrated into a very small
volume (dimension of the order of 10-15 m).
The nucleus consists of two similar types of particles called nucleons (neutrons and
protons) which have very similar masses. They form a dense core which thus forms the
nucleus of the atom.
The protons which have an elementary positive electric charge +e = 1.602189

-19 -27
×10 C and have a mass mp = 1.67265 ×10 kg.
The neutrons which are electrically neutral (zero electric charge) and have a
mass mn = 1.67495 ×10-27 kg .
To give you some idea of the order of magnitude, the mass of a nucleon is less than two
thousand billion billionths of a milligram! Protons and neutrons have approximately the
same mass.
The size of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of 10-15m, i.e. one hundred thousand
times smaller than the atom itself!
Atoms' physical and chemical properties basically depend on the number of protons in
their nucleus. Thus atoms are classified according to this number, which is called the
atomic number Z.
Since the mass of the proton is very similar to that of the neutron, it is practical to
characterise an atom by the number of nucleons in its nucleus, which is called the mass
number A.
3.2.2. The electrons
There is a "cloud" of identical particles around the nucleus: the electrons; the dimensions
of this electron cloud (of the order of one angstrom, or 10-10 m) correspond to those of the
atom.
Electrons are particles which spin around the nucleus, at specific distances called shells.

Theory Outline
The electrons have a negative electric charge which is equal to: e = -1.602189 ×10-19 C,
and which is identical in absolute value to that of the proton but their mass is much smaller
than that of the nucleons (1836 times less): me = 9.10953 ×10-31 kg.
Therefore, the mass of an atom is practically the same as that of its nucleus (99.7% of an
atom's mass is in its nucleus).
Note: All electrons are identical whatever the atoms they belong to.
The electrons rotate at a distance of approximately 100,000 times the diameter of the
nucleus, therefore an atom mostly consists of empty space!!!
Since the nucleus is very small, an atom's mass is thus highly concentrated. Therefore, if
we were to eliminate the empty space around the nuclei of the atoms, all the earth's matter
could be contained in a sphere with a radius of approximately 180 m. Or to take a simpler
example, if the nucleus were a football with a diameter of 20 cm, the corresponding atom
would be a 20 km sphere!
It is the electrons which, when they are released or when they are shared with other
atoms, are the origin of chemical reactions.
3.2.3. Electron distribution and chemical bonds
The electrons which form the electron cloud around the nucleus are, in fact, arranged in a
series of shells (shells K, L, M, etc.).
The first shell (K) can contain a maximum of 2 electrons, the maximum number of
electrons which can be contained in the other shells (L, M, etc.) is shown in the following
table.
Maximum number of
Shell electrons
K 2
L 8
M 18
N 32
O 32
P 18
Q 8
Table 1: Electron distribution

Figure 5: Electron distribution

Theory Outline
Each atom has a characteristic number of electrons, its electrons are distributed over the
different shells according to the maximum number which each shell can contain (see
table).
In most cases, the last shell is not completely filled.
A shell which has its maximum number of electrons (i.e. 2 for the K-shell, 8 for the L-shell
(and so on for the other shells) is said to be saturated, and the corresponding element is
stable.
Atoms whose outer electron shell is not saturated try to combine with other elements to
complete their electron shell by sharing their "lone" electrons. We say that these electrons
are paired into doublets.
It is important to remember that it is the outermost electrons which are responsible for all
the chemistry, because it is they which can mutually bond two different atoms by creating
chemical bonds.
For example, two atoms can each share their electrons and thus create what is called a
covalent chemical bond. Thanks to these bonds, the atoms can combine to form a infinite
variety of molecules of infinite complexity.
When two electrons are shared by two atoms, this is called a covalent bond.
The carbon atom has 6 electrons:
The first shell (K-shell) must have 2 electrons since this is the maximum for the
K-shell.
The 2nd shell (L-shell) thus has 4 electrons.
The 2nd shell must gain 4 electrons to

become saturated: (4 = 8-4)
The carbon atom can create 4

covalent bonds

Theory Outline
3.3. COVALENT BOND – CONCEPT OF MOLECULE
3.3.1. Covalent bond
A covalent bond corresponds two electrons shared between two atoms.
The bonding doublet, shared between the two atoms is considered to belong to each of
the bonded atoms. Therefore, by creating one or more bonds, it "gains" one or more
additional electrons and saturates its outer shell.
The number of covalent bonds which an atom can form is equal to the number of electrons
it needs to gain to saturate its outer shell.
The electrically neutral assembly of atoms linked together by covalent bonds is called a
molecule.
3.3.2. Atomic valence
Each atom can generally form as many covalent bonds as it has lone electrons in its outer
shell. This number of bonds is called valence.
During chemical transformations, the atoms change and gain 8 electrons in their outer
shell. We shall see that this corresponds to the electron structure of rare or noble gases.
Physically, means gaining greater stability. They either obey the duet rule or the octet rule.
This filling of the outer shell follows precise rules: the octet and duet rule.
Duet rule: The atoms close to helium change to gain two outer electrons.
Octet rule: The other atoms change to gain eight electrons in their outer shell.
These changes result in molecules.
The following table shows the number of covalent links n (the valence) of the main atoms.
This number n is equal to the number of electrons that the atom needs to capture to
saturate its outer shell to an octet of electrons (except for Hydrogen, where the K-shell is
saturated with 2 electrons).

Theory Outline
In this table, p is the number of electrons in the considered atom's outer shell.
Electron Calculation Number of

Atom
structure N = 8 – p (or n = 2 – p) bonds n
Hydrogen H
(K)1 n=2–1 n=1
Z=1
Chlorine Cl
(K)2(L)8(M)7 n=8–7 n=1
Z = 17
Oxygen O
(K)2(L)6 n=8–6 n=2
Z=8
Nitrogen N
(K)2(L)5 n=8–5 n=3
Z=7
Carbon C
(K)2(L)4 n=8-4 n=4
Z=6
Table 2: Covalent bonds of the main atoms
Exercise: fill the shells for carbon and fluorine
Carbon: z = 6
For carbon, there are 2 electrons in the K-shell, therefore there will only be 4
electrons in the L-shell, which will be "lone" electrons, 4 more would be
needed to saturate the L-shell.
Fluorine: z = 9
For fluorine, there are 2 electrons in the K-shell, therefore there will only be 7 electrons in
the L-shell, which will be "lone" electrons, 1 more would be needed to saturate the L-shell.

Theory Outline
3.4. CHARACTERISATION OF ATOMS
3.4.1. Characterisation
Since the mass of the proton is very similar to that of the neutron, it is practical to
characterise an atom by the number of nucleons in its nucleus, called the mass
number A.
The physical and chemical properties of atoms basically depend on the number of protons
forming in their nucleus. Also, atoms are classified according to this number, which is
called the atomic number Z
There are atoms which differ only by their mass number A. They have the same Z value,
they are called Isotopes. A natural chemical element corresponds to a group of atoms
with the same atomic number ZK (and thus a group of isotopes). The elements exist in the
form of isotope mixtures when they have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.
The atoms are liable to become electrically charged by gaining or losing one or more
electrons: we then talk of ions. If an atom gains one or more electrons, the atom becomes
negatively charged (anion), if it loses electrons, the atom becomes positively charged
(cation).
3.4.2. Quantification of atomic mass
To quantify the mass (quantity of matter) of atoms we use a measurement system in which
the mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 units of atomic mass µ and we determine the atomic
mass of all the other atoms according to this standard value.
But since a sample of matter contains a very large number of atoms, another unit of
measurement has been created: the mole.
By definition, one mole of an element contains 6.023 x 1023 units of this element. This
number is called Avogadro's number (or constant): NA , its unit is the mol-1.
And 6.023 x 1023 atoms of carbon 12 have a mass of 12 g just as each atom of 12C has a
mass of 12 µ (definition of atomic mass µ), we have:
Mass of an atom of 12C expressed in atomic mass = 12 µ
Mass of one mole of 12C (6.023 x 1023 atoms of 12C) expressed in g = 12 g
This conversion factor can therefore be used to change from units of atomic mass to
grams.

Theory Outline
Thus the mass (quantity of matter) of one mole of an element is equal to its atomic
mass expressed in grams.
Examples:
The atomic mass of the hydrogen atom is 1, which means that:
one hydrogen atom has an atomic mass =1µ
one mole of hydrogen atoms has a mass of 1 gram.
The atomic mass of the oxygen atom is 16, which means that:
one oxygen atom has an atomic mass = 16 µ
one mole of oxygen atoms has a mass of 16 grams.
3.5. Periodic classification of chemical elements: the Periodic table of

the elements (also called Mendeleev's table)
3.5.1. The chemical elements
A chemical element is a group of atoms (or ions) which have the same number Z of
protons in their nucleus.
116 elements have been identified (see the Periodic table of the elements).
Some of these elements are naturally occurring and stable whereas others are unstable. In
particular, the elements above uranium (Z>92) are unstable.
Each element is represented by a symbol consisting of a capital letter (e.g.: the letter "I" for
the element iodine) or of a capital letter followed by a small letter (e.g.: the letters "Mg" for
the element magnesium).

Theory Outline
Name of Atomic Molar Name of Atomic Molar

element Symbol number mass element Symbol number mass
Z (g/mol) Z (g/mol)
Actinium Ac 89 227 Mendelevium Md 101 258
Aluminium Al 13 26.98 Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Americium Am 95 243 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Antimony Sb 51 121.76 Neodymium Nd 60 144.24
Silver Ag 47 107.87 Neon Ne 10 20.18
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Neptunium Np 93 237
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Astatine At 85 210 Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Nitrogen N 7 14.01 Nobelium No 102 259
Barium Ba 56 137.33 Gold Au 79 196.97
Berkelium Bk 97 247 Osmium Os 76 190.23
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 Oxygen O 8 16.00
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98 Palladium Pd 46 106.42
Boron B 5 10.81 Phosphorus P 15 30.97
Bromium Br 35 79.90 Platinum Pt 78 195.08
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 Lead Pb 82 207.20
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Plutonium Pu 94 244
Californium Cf 98 251 Polonium Po 84 210
Carbon C 6 12.01 Potassium K 19 39.10
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.91
Caesium Cs 55 132.91 Promethium Pm 61 145
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Protactinium Pa 91 231.04
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Radium Ra 88 226
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Radon Rn 86 222
Copper Cu 29 63.55 Rhenium Re 75 186.21
Curium Cm 96 247 Rhodium Rh 45 102.91
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Einsteinium Es 99 252 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Erbium Er 68 167.26 Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Tin Sn 50 118.71 Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Europium Eu 63 151.96 Selenium Se 34 78.96
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Silicon Si 14 28.09
Fermium Fm 100 257 Sodium Na 11 22.99
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Sulphur S 16 32.07
Francium Fr 87 223 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Tantalum Ta 73 180.95
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Technetium Tc 43 98
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Terbium Tb 65 158.93
Helium He 2 4.00 Thallium Tl 81 204.38
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 Thorium Th 90 232.04
Hydrogen H 1 1.01 Thulium Tu 69 168.93
Indium In 49 114.82 Titanium Ti 22 47.87
Iodine I 53 126.90 Tungsten W 74 183.84
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 Uranium U 92 238.03
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 Xenon Xe 54 131.29
Lawrencium Lw 103 262 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97 Zinc Zn 30 65.39
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
Manganese Mn 25 54.94
Table 3: Alphabetical list of the main chemical elements

Theory Outline
3.5.2. Isotopes
Etymologically the term isotope means: equal place. These are chemical elements which
are to be found in the same box as other elements in the Periodic table because they have
the same chemical properties as the element they represent.
The atomic mass of an element in the Mendeleyev’s Periodic table of elements is equal to
the mass of one atom taken in natural isotopic proportions.
Example of isotopes: case of hydrogen.
There are other elements which have the same chemical properties as hydrogen. They
have the same number of protons and electrons but they have different numbers of
neutrons.
1H (the most common element) - 2H (deutérium - 2nd isotope of hydrogen) - 3H (tritium -

3rd isotope of hydrogen)
These elements have the same chemical properties. These properties are determined by
the number of electrons and this number remains identical.
IMPORTANT! These elements do not have the same physical properties (among other
things, they have different masses).
The atomic molar mass of an isotope is equal to the mass of one mole of atoms:
M(C) = 12 g/mol
M(H) = 1 g/mol
M(O) = 16 g/mol
M(N) = 14 g/mol
M(S) = 32 g/mol
In case of ambiguity, we can specify the isotope in question.
For example: M(Cl) = 35.5 g/mol since natural chlorine is a mixture of the two isotopes
35 37
,17Cl (75 %) and ,17Cl (25 %).
35 37
M( ,17Cl )= 35 g/mol and M ( ,17Cl) = 37 g/mol
hence: M(Cl) in the table =0.75x35 + 0.25x37 = 35.5

Theory Outline
3.5.3. The periodic classification – The periodic table of the elements
The different natural or artificial chemical elements have been classified according to their
properties in the periodic table.
This table contains all the elements which make up matter. Each box gives information on
the considered element.
A: mass number
Z: atomic number ZX
A
Name
M: atomic mass in g M
or in µ of the naturally occurring element
Figure 7: Information on the elements
X: atomic symbol (see alphabetical list of elements table)
A: mass number: the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) contained in the atom
concerned
Z: atomic number: number of protons (charged e+) of the atom concerned; it is also the
number of electrons (charged e-). This number is used to differentiate the atoms
M: atomic mass in g/mol or in atomic mass units (see Quantification of atomic mass)
The elements are classified into a table of 8 columns, by increasing order of their atomic
number (number of protons).
Each line corresponds to the electron shells present.
All the elements on a same line have atoms with the same number of electron
shells (either saturated or not). We say they have the same period.
On line 1 of the table, only the K-shell is present (not necessarily saturated), on
line 2, the K-shell and L-shell are present, etc.
Therefore, line 1 only contains two elements (hydrogen and helium) since the K-
shell can only have 2 electrons.
The other lines have one element in each column. There are eight columns
since each electron shell (above the K-shell) can only contain a maximum of
eight electrons.
…… An element on line 3 has 3 electron shells (K)2 (L)8 (M), etc.

Theory Outline
In a same column, all the atoms have the same number of electrons in their
outer shell; this number is the column number.
The elements in a same column belong to a same family (e.g. column 1 contains
the alkalies and the last column contains the noble (also called rare or inert)
gases).
Experience shows that elements in a same column have close, or even similar
chemical properties.
The atoms in the last column of the periodic classification have eight electrons
(one octet) in their outer shell, with the exception of the helium atom He which
has two electrons (one duet) in its K-shell:
He: (K)2
Ne: (K)2 (L)8
Ar: (K)2 (L)8 (M)8
Kr: (K)2 (L)8 (M)18(N)8 . . .
These noble (or rare or inert) gases are stable.
Noble gases (also called rare or inert gases) give practically no chemical
compounds; their electron structure is very stable.
…… An element in column 7 has 7 electrons in its outer shell

…….
Example:
The chlorine atom has an atomic number Z = 17.
It therefore has 17 protons and 17 electrons. These electrons are distributed as follows:
K2 L8 M7
The outer shell is the M-shell, therefore the chlorine atom is on line 3 (period) of the table.
The outer shell contains 7 electrons, therefore the chlorine atom is in column 7 (XVII).

Theory Outline
From atoms to hydrocarbons
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS

Layer Period I II III IV V VI VII VIII
K 1 1
1 H 4
2 He
Hydrogen Helium
1.01
A: mass number
L 2 7
3 Li 9
4Be Z: atomic umber
A
Z X 11
5 B 12
6 C 14
7 N 16
8 O 19
9 F 20
10 Ne
-1
Name
Lithium Beryllium M: atomic mass in g.mol M Bore Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.94 9.01 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
M 3 23
11 Na 24
12Mg 27
13 Al 28
14 Si 31
15 P 32
16 S 35
17 Cl 40
18 Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
N 4 39
19 K 40
20 Ca 45
21 Sc 48
22Ti 51
23 V 52
24 Cr 55
25Mn 56
26 Fe 59
27 Co 58
28 Ni 63
29Cu 64
30 Zn 69
31 Ga 74
32Ge 75
33As 80
34 Se 79
35 Br 84
36 Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.6
O 5 85
37 Rb 88
38 Sr 89
39 Y 90
40 Zr 93
41Nb 98
42 Mo 43Tc 102
44 Ru 103
45 Rh 106
46 Pd 107
47 Ag 114
48 Cd 115
49 In 120
50 Sn 121
51 Sb 128
52 Te 127
53 I 129
54 Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.5 87.5 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 99.0 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.6 127.5 126.9 131.3
P 6 133
55 Cs 138
56 Ba 57 to 71
180
72 Hf 181
73 Ta 184
74 W 185
75 Re 192
76 Os 193
77 Ir 195
78 Pt 197
79 Au 202
80 Hg 205
81 Tl 208
82 Pb 209
83 Bi 210
84 Po 218
85 At 222
86 Rn
lanthanides
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.9 210 210 222
Q 7 223
87 Fr 226
88 Ra 89 to 103
actinides
Francium Radium
223 226.1
lanthanides
139
57 La 140
58Ce 141
59 Pr 144
60 Nd 61 Pm 152
62 Sm 153
63 Eu 158
64 Gd 159
65 Tb 162
66 Dy 165
67 Ho 166
68 Er 169
69Tm 174
70 Yb 175
71 Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
138,9 140,1 140,9 144,2 145 150,4 152,0 157,3 158,9 162,5 164,9 168,9 173,0 176,0
167,8
227 Ac 232 Th 231 Pa 238 U 237 Np 239 Pu
actinides 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 Am 96Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No 103 Lw
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptuniu Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
227 232,0 231 238,0 m 242 243 247 247 249 254 255 256 254 257
237

Last revised: 26/04/2007 Page 18 de 49
Theory Outline
4. THE MOLECULE
4.1. GENERAL
A molecule is an assembly of atoms (linked together by covalent or ionic bonds).
Atoms can be assembled together in an infinite number of ways and a molecule can be
very complex (e.g. a sugar molecule contains 45 atoms and it is not the most complex!)
To define and recognise the composition, the number and the different atoms making up a
molecule we use the molecule's chemical formula.
The molecule's formula consists of the symbols of the atoms present. The number of each
atom present is written in subscript, below and to the right of the symbol (the figure 1 is not
indicated).
The formula for the water molecule is written

as follows:
Figure 8: Water formula
Note: An ion is an atom or a molecule which has had one or more electrons added or
removed. Therefore, unlike and atom or a molecule, which are also electrically neutral, an
ion is either positive or negative.
An ion thus has different physical and chemical properties to the molecule it comes from.
A positive ion is called a cation and a negative ion is called an anion.
An ion is never a molecule. Similarly, a molecule never carries a charge!
4.2. LEWIS’S REPRESENTATION
To form a molecule, the atoms combine by covalent or ionic bonds.

A covalent bond is formed by a doublet of electrons resulting from the sharing of two
electrons supplied by each of the bonded atoms.

Theory Outline
A doublet in the outer shell of an atom which sets up a bond with a neighbouring atom is a
bonding doublet; inversely, a doublet in this same shell which does not set up a bond with
a neighbouring item is a nonbonding doublet.
Lewis’s model represents the molecule in a plane.
We place all the bonding and nonbonding doublets on the plane.
Each bonding doublet is represented by a line between the two bonded atoms.
Each nonbonding doublet is represented by a hyphen near the atom.
Example:
Compound Number of outside electrons Lewis’s model
O: 16 external electrons
H2O H: 1 external electron
(1)2+6=8 electrons
Water 2 double bonds
2 nonbonding doublets
N: 5 external electrons
NH3 H: 1 external electron
5+(1)3=8 electrons
Ammonia 3 double bonds
1 nonbonding doublet
C: 4 external electrons
CH4 H: 1 external electron
4+(1)4= 8 electrons
Methane 4 bonding doublets
0 nonbonding doublets
Figure 9: Lewis’s representation
This Lewis model plane indicates which are the bonded atoms in the molecule but it gives
no indication about the distribution of the atoms in three-dimensional space.

Theory Outline
4.3. FORMATION OF MOLECULES
When combined together, the atoms of the chemical elements (see Periodic table) form
the compounds which are the molecules.
There are an almost infinite number of possibilities

of combining atoms into molecules
Simple molecules Î Water, carbon dioxide, etc.
Î Alcohol, benzene
More complex molecules
Î DNA, RNA
Biological molecules
Natural assemblies Î Silicates
Artificial assemblies Î Alloys
Table 4: Combination of atoms
As we have previously seen, the association of atoms by covalent or ionic bonds to form
molecules is subject to electron sharing rules.
At atom level:
The major part of the chemical properties of atoms depend on the structure of the
outer electron shell, and more specifically on the number of electrons in this shell.
Maximum chemical stability is obtained when all the shells containing electrons
are saturated.
The bonds between atoms result from modifications to their outer electron shell:
during chemical reactions they gain, lose or share electrons so that this shell has
eight electrons. It is then saturated and maximum chemical stability is achieved.
At molecule level
A molecule is an electrically neutral assembly of atoms connected together by

covalent or ionic bonds.

Theory Outline
Example of the Methane molecule:
The methane molecule CH4 consists of one carbon atom (C) and four hydrogen atoms (H).
We saw that the carbon atom had 6 electrons

and that the hydrogen atom had 1 electron.
The Periodic table tells us:
that hydrogen is on line 1 and therefore only

has a single shell, the K-shell (K becomes
saturated with 2 electrons); it is also in column
1 and therefore this K-shell only has one
electron, each atom can thus create a covalent
or ionic bond.
Figure 10: Hydrogen atom
that carbon is on line 2, there are therefore 2

electron shells, the K- and L-shells (L is saturated
if it has 8 electrons); it is also in column 4 and
therefore there are only 4 electrons in its outer
shell, each atom can thus create 4 covalent or
ionic bonds.
Therefore, the formation of the methane molecule CH4 is made possible by the formation
of covalent bonds between 4 Hydrogen atoms and one Carbon atom, as shown below.
Figure 12: Formation of methane CH4
These bonds (due to the balance of the forces of the electrical charges) can be broken to
dissociate the atoms; to do this, a certain quantity of energy must be supplied.

Theory Outline
Example of the water molecule:
Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen

atom will combine to give a water molecule
during a chemical reaction (e.g. during the
combustion of hydrocarbons)
ÎÎÎÎÎÎ
Pairing of the electrons by covalent bonds:
Each hydrogen atom can create a covalent bond.
Each oxygen atom can create two covalent bonds
The atoms are isolated, each with their covalence possibilities
The atoms are brought into contact during a chemical

reaction.
The atoms are bonded together during the chemical reaction.
The combination of these 3 atoms

is the consequence of their
covalent bonds which give each
atom its stability by saturating the
outer shell.

Theory Outline
5. MATTER
5.1. GENERAL
Matter is an assembly of more or less complex molecules. It can take 3 forms (states)
depending on how the molecules comprising it are assembled.
A given type of matter can exist in the form of a solid, liquid or gas depending on specific
temperature and pressure conditions (see phase diagram).
Whatever its state, the quantity of mater is measured by its mass. However, when we have
to count the particles of matter, we use the mole.
Matter comprised of any group of atoms having the same atomic number is a simple
substance, or a chemical element.
Example:
Name Formula Proportion
Nitrogen N2 78.08 %
Oxygen O2 20.95 %
Argon Ar 0.934 %
Carbon dioxide CO2 380 ppm
Neon Ne 18.18 ppm
Helium He 5.24 ppm
Nitrogen monoxide NO 5 ppm
Krypton Kr 1.14 ppm
Methane CH4 1.7 ppm
Hydrogen H2 0.5 ppm
Nitrogen protoxide N 2O 0.5 ppm
Xenon Xe 0.087 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0.02 ppm
Table 5: Composition of dry air
Note: A pure substance consists only of identical molecules.

Theory Outline
5.2. THE DIFFERENT STATES OF MATTER
5.2.1. The different states
The state of matter depends on 2 parameters: temperature and pressure.
When matter changes from one state to another we simply say that it has "changed state".
Solid state: An ordered assembly of molecules which takes a specific shape and volume:
the molecules are very close together, which makes solids practically incompressible.
Liquid state: A disordered assembly of molecules, with no specific shape but a specific
volume, the molecules are loosely bonded together, which makes liquids perfectly
deformable, the molecules are very close together, which makes liquids difficult to
compress. A liquid has a specific volume, which only changes with temperature, and this
change is generally small.
Gaseous state: A very disordered assembly of molecules, with no specific shape or

volume, it tends to occupy the whole of the available volume. The molecules or atoms are
very weakly bonded, there are large distances between the molecules, which makes
gases compressible.
When matter changes state, it changes:
from the solid state to the liquid state:

this is melting (and inversely: this is
solidification or congealing)
from the liquid state to the gaseous

state: this is vaporisation (and
inversely: this is liquefaction)
from the solid state to the gaseous

state: this is sublimation (and
inversely: this is condensation)
The temperature at which a compound changes

from a solid state to a liquid state is its melting
point, and the temperature at which it changes
state from a liquid to a gas is its boiling point.
Figure 13: Change of state of matter

Theory Outline
The melting and boiling points are different from one substance to another.
For example, water (H2O) at normal atmospheric pressure,
is solid (ice) below 0°C,
is liquid between 0°C and 100°C
is steam above 100°C.
At 0°C, water changes state from a solid to a liquid (or vice versa).
At 100°C, water again changes state and changes from a liquid to a gas (or vice versa).
Note: Iron, which we usually see in its solid state, may be liquid or even a gas at
temperatures above 3000° C (at atmospheric pressure).
5.2.2. Why matter changes state
Whether matter consists of molecules or atoms, the change of state takes place in the
same manner.
During changes of state, the particles forming the matter remain the same. They do not
break, they do not melt, they do not solidify and no chemical reaction takes place.
Between two different states, the molecules are more or less bonded together (are more or
less close to each other) and they are more or less in "motion".
In general:
The closer the temperature is to the boiling point, the greater the motion of the
particles and the greater the distances between them. The more the matter
expands.
The closer the temperature is to the solidification point, the less the particles move
and the smaller the distances between them. The more the matter contracts.

Theory Outline
5.3. A PERFECT GAS

5.3.1. Perfect gas equation
A perfect gas (also called an ideal gas) is a thermodynamic model which describes the
behaviour of all real gases at low pressure. This approach is based on the observation that
all real gases tend towards this same behaviour at a sufficiently low pressure, whatever
the chemical nature of the gas considered.
This property is explained by the fact that when the pressure is low, the gas particles are
sufficiently far away from each other to be able to ignore the electric interactions. The latter
depend on the type of molecules forming the gas in question (existence or absence of an
electric dipole on the molecules.).
This observation is particularly evident in the relationship between pressure, volume and
temperature, which has been shown to be independent of the type of gas. This is the
perfect gas equation:
PV=nRT
P= gas pressure in Pascals

V= gas volume in m³
n= quantity of matter in moles
R= Perfect gas constant = 8.31 (SI)
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
5.3.2. Molar volume of perfect gases
The molar volume is the volume occupied by NA (6.023 x 1023) molecules in the gaseous
state at a given temperature and pressure.
5.3.2.1. Molar volume under Normal conditions: 22.4 litres
The molar volume of perfect gas in normal conditions is the volume occupied by one mole
of any perfect gas under Normal Temperature and Pressure Conditions. (i.e.: 1.013 x
105 Pa or 1013 hPa and temperature = 0 °C or 273.15 Kelvin).
In these conditions, the volume of one mole of gas can be calculated using the previous
formula:
P = gas pressure in Pascals = 1.013 x 105
V = gas volume in m³ = ???
N = quantity of matter in mole= 1
R = Perfect gas constant = 8.31 (SI)
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin = 273.15
Theory Outline
V = n R T / P = 1 x 8.31 x 273.15 / 1.013 x 105 = 0.0224 m3
The international unit 1 m3 equals 1000 L.
V = 0.0224 x 1000 = 22.4 L
Therefore, under normal temperature and pressure conditions (t = 0 °C and p =

1.013 x 105 Pa), the molar volume is:
Vm = 22.4 L / mol
5.3.2.2. Under any conditions
To calculate the volume of a number of moles of a perfect gas under other (P and T)
conditions, the perfect gas formula PV = nRT must be used.
5.4. DETERMINING THE QUANTITY OF MATTER
We have previously seen how to quantify the mass of an atom, which is the basic building
block of matter, and that the atomic mass of an element in the Periodic table is equal to
the mass of one atom taken in natural isotopic proportions.
In general, the SI system (see course on physical values) specifies:
The quantity of matter of a system which contains the same number of

Mole mol
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon 12.
It is fundamentally important to define the quantity of matter because otherwise we would

not be able to measure substances or compounds, or perform tests, or make comparisons,
etc.
An quantity of matter is always expressed in mol, it is obtained by various calculation

methods according to the available data (mass, volume or other).
From the mass of a product (number of mol in x grams)
How much substance (mol) is contained in 1 g of glucose (C6H12O6)?
molar mass of C6H12O6 = 6*12+12*1+6*16=180g/mol => one mole has a mass of

180g
1 g thus contains =1(g) /180(g/mol) = 5.56 x 103 mol of glucose
Important: the mass must be expressed in g since the molar mass is in g/mol
Theory Outline
From a volume (number of moles per unit volume) when we know the density
How much substance (mol) is contained in 3 cm3 of C6H4Cl2, given that the density of this
product is 1.53 kg/litre
mass of 3 cm3 of this product: given that one litre (1000 cm3) has a mass of
1.53 kg: m = 3 cm3 * 1.53 kg/1000 cm3 = 0.00459 kg = 4.59 g
molar mass of C6H4C12= 6*12+4*1+2*35.5=147g/mol
quantity of matter contained in 3 cm3 = 4.59(g)/ 147(g/mol)=3.1 10-2 mol
(we must therefore first determine the mass from the volume, we must thus know the
density ρ=m(mass in kg )/ V(volume in m3))
From a volume (number of moles per unit volume) when we know the density
How much substance (mol) is contained in 12ml of ethanol whose density is d=0.79, given
that the molar mass of ethanol is 46g/mol?
d=m(product)/m(water) for a same Volume and ρ = m/Volume =>

d=ρ(product)*V(product)/ρ(water)*V(water)
therefore d=ρ(product)/ρ(water) and ρ(water)=1kg/L => ρ(product)kg/L=0.79 =
0.79g/mL
therefore the mass of 12ml of this product =12ml*0.79g/ml=9.48g
quantity of matter in 12mL = 9.48(g)/46(g/mol)=0.206 mol

(we must therefore first determine the mass from the density, we must thus know
the density d=mp(mass of the product for one volume)/me(m of water (e) for a
same volume)
From a molar concentration (number of moles per unit volume)
We must therefore simply write the formula of the molar concentration: this is the quantity
of matter (mol) present in 1 Volume of solution divided by the volume considered
From this we deduce: quantity of matter (mol)= molar concentration (mol/L) / volume
considered

Theory Outline
From the volume of a gas:
We consider that the gas is a perfect gas, thus the perfect gaseous state equation applies:
PV = nRT
P(Pa)V(m3)=n(mol)R(perfect gas constant)T(K)
P= gas pressure in Pascals

V= gas volume in m3
n= quantity of matter in moles
R= Perfect gas constant = 8.31 (SI)
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
thus the quantity of matter n( mol)=PV/RT
Figure 14: Calculating the molar mass

Theory Outline
5.5. DENSITY
The density of a product is the ratio between the density of this product and:
the density of water, if this product is a liquid
the density of air, if this product is a gas
The density of air, which is often written ρ (the Greek letter rho) is, on average, considered
to be equal to 1.292 kg/m3 (i.e. 1.292g/l) for dry air at a temperature of 0 °C and at
standard atmospheric pressure (1013 hPa).
This is generalised into: ρ=1.293*273/(273+T) where T is in °C.
The densities considered must be at the same P,T conditions (particularly for gases).
Exercises:
1. Calculate the molar mass of methane, the formula of which is CH4
2. Calculate the volume occupied by 13.4 mol of methane at 0°C and 1013 hPa
3. Calculate the corresponding mass
4. Deduce from this the density of the methane, given that the density of air at 0°C and
1013 hPa, is 1.29g.L-1.
1. Molar mass of methane CH4:
By definition, it is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms forming N

molecules of CH4. The molar mass of C=12 g/mol, the atomic mass of H= 1
g/mol, hence the molar mass of the C molecule = 12 + ‘4= 16 g/mol.
2. Volume occupied by 13.4 mol of methane:
PV=nRT V=nRT/P.
N=13.4, R=8.31, T=0°C=273.15 K, P=101300 Pa, hence
V=0.3002 m3=300.2 L
We can also use the fact that one mole of Perfect Gas occupies 22.4 L under
normal conditions, therefore 13.4mol occupy 13.4x22.4=300.2 L

Theory Outline
3. Corresponding mass:
molar mass of CH==16 g/mol

therefore 13.4 mol have a mass of 13.4x16 = 214.4 g.
4. Density of methane:
By definition, it is the mass of one litre of methane divided by the mass of

one litre of air
one mole of CH4 has a mass of 16g and occupies 22.4 L, therefore the mass
of one L=16/22.4 = 0.714 g
in the same conditions, 1 L of air has a mass of 1.29g, hence the density of
CH4 = 0.714/1.29 = 0.553.

Theory Outline
6. CHEMICAL REACTIONS
6.1. GENERAL
A chemical reaction is a transformation of matter, and therefore of the chemical molecules.
After a chemical reaction we obtain other molecules, but with the same atoms as with the
initial molecules.
Therefore the atoms forming the initial and final molecules are the same but they are
grouped together differently at the end of the chemical reaction.
When the atoms combine together during chemical reactions, substances (reactants –
also called reagents) will begin to react to form other substances called products.
The purpose of a balance equation is to represent this process, it gives the reactants
present at the start and the products formed by the reaction.
6.2. BALANCE EQUATION AND CHEMICAL REACTION
Let us take the combustion of carbon (C) as an example of a reaction. It burns in oxygen
(O2) producing carbon dioxide (CO2). Heat is given off during this reaction.
We say the carbon and the oxygen are consumed by the reaction.
The molecular models are shown below the chemical formulas to give a better
understanding of how the atoms will combine.
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
C + O2 CO2
+
Figure 15: Reaction between O2 and C

Theory Outline
6.2.1. The conservation law
One of the main laws of chemistry is that the number of atoms of each type which form the
substance are conserved during a chemical reaction. However, the atoms are bonded
together differently.
In the previous example, we verify this law. (There are as many C atoms in the reactant as
there are in the product, and the same is true for the oxygen atoms.)
We say that the equation is balanced. When writing balance equations we must ensure
that the conservation law is respected.
6.2.2. How do we balance a balance equation?
Let us consider the combustion of methane which produces two new substances: carbon
dioxide and water, to write the balance equation of this reaction:
Step 1: Find the type of reactants and products used
The first reactant is given, it is methane CH4. It is a combustion reaction, therefore the
second reactant is the oxygen O2 contained in the air.
The products are carbon dioxide CO2 and water H2O.
The balance equation is written as follows for the moment:
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

+ +
Figure 16: First step of a balance equation
Step 2: Balance the equation
This equation is not balanced:
on the reactant side, we have 1 atom of C, 4 atoms of H and 2 atoms of O.
on the product side, we have 1 atom of C, 2 atoms of H and 3 atoms of O
In this balance equation (shown above), we considered one molecule for each substance
but the reaction cannot take place with these proportions, since it does not respect the
Theory Outline
conservation law (the products have 2 less H atoms and 1 more O atom than the
reactants)
To balance the equation we place numbers in front of the formulas of the substances, they
represent the number of molecules used.
We call these numbers the stoichiometric coefficients.
To balance the reaction, we must define in which proportions the molecules of the
substances must react so that the conservation law is verified.
→ Let us balance the hydrogen atoms H:
There are 4 atoms among the reactants in the CH4 molecule.
There are only 2 hydrogen atoms among the products in the H2O molecule. Therefore
2 molecules of water are required to obtain the four hydrogen atoms.
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O
+ +
Figure 17: Balancing the hydrogen atoms
→ Let us balance the oxygen atoms O:
There are 2 atoms among the reactants in the O2 molecule but 4 atoms among the
products (2 in CO2 and 2 in 2H2O). Therefore 2 molecules of oxygen O2 are required in
the reactants.
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2H2O
+ +
Figure 18: Balancing the oxygen atoms

Theory Outline
With these proportions we obtain:
on the reactant side, 1 atom of C, 4 atoms of H and 4 atoms of O

on the product side, 1 atom of C, 4 atoms of H and 4 atoms of O
Therefore the balanced equation must be written as follows:
CH4 + 2O2 ===> CO2 + 2H2O
Notes:
The proportions of reactants and products in the reaction no longer vary, we

have reached stationary equilibrium.
A balance equation is only used to determine the proportions in which the

reactants and/or the products react together.
This equation does not specify the proportions of CO2 obtained at stationary
equilibrium (end of the reaction). It simply states that one molecule of methane
must react with 2 molecules of oxygen to give one molecule of carbon dioxide
and two molecules of water.
To produce a chemical reaction from a group of molecules, we must supply the energy
necessary to break the these bonds which were created when these molecules were
formed from their component atoms. This energy is called "cohesion energy".

Theory Outline
6.3. COHESION ENERGY
The different atoms in a molecule are bonded together by forces which depend on the
number of shared electrons and the covalent bonds.
These bonds break and/or form during chemical reactions which require or which produce
heat energy according to the bonds broken (for the initial molecules) and according to the
new bonds created for the new molecules produced by this chemical reaction.
By definition, the molar cohesion energy is the energy which must be supplied to one mole
of molecules, in the gaseous state, to break them down into their atoms in the gaseous
state.
Bond Energy Bond Energy Bond Energy

N-N 163 N=O 607 C=O 804
N=N 409 N-O 627 C-O 356
N≡N 944 C-H 412 H-H 436
N-H 386 C-C 348 O-H 463
N-C 305 C=C 602 O=O 496
N=C 615 C≡C 835 O-O 157
Table 6: Table of bond average molar energies (in kJ.mol-1)
Example:
The cohesion energy of the ethanol molecule C2H6O is the energy which must be supplied
to one mole of molecules of this product in the gaseous state to break all its molecules
down into atoms of C,H,O in the gaseous state.
The developed formula for ethanol:
shows that we must break 1 C-C bond, 5 C-H bonds, 1 C-O bond and one O-H bond, we
must therefore supply (see table of cohesion energies)
=1 * 348 + 5 * 412 + 1 * 356 + 1 * 463 = 3.23 10³ kJ/mol

Theory Outline
6.4. A SPECIFIC CHEMICAL REACTION: COMBUSTION
Combustion reactions are chemical reactions which give off heat, during which a fuel
reacts with an oxidiser (mainly oxygen O2).
The combustion of an organic component produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Combustion is complete when the chemical reaction is complete (the proportions of fuel
and O2 are correct) otherwise the combustion is said to be incomplete, the fuel is broken
down into a by-product (e.g. CO and H2)
Complete combustion: CH4 +2O2=>CO2 + 2H2O
Incomplete combustion: 2CH4 + 2 O2=> 3H2 + CO + H2O + CO2
Energy is consumed when bonds are broken, energy is produced when bonds are formed.
We can therefore explain why and how much energy is produced when a hydrocarbon is
burnt.
Example: Combustion of methane CH4 (complete combustion of one mole of methane in

the gaseous state)
As we saw previously, the balance equation for the combustion of CH4 could be written as
follows:
CH4 + 2O2 ===> CO2 + 2H2O
Figure 19: Combustion of methane

Theory Outline
This chemical reaction will break bonds, thereby consuming energy, and form bonds,
thereby releasing energy: the energy balance for these structural changes represents the
energy transferred during the reaction.
Figure 20: Reactants and products of methane combustion
BONDS BROKEN to "crack" the molecules of the reactants CH4 and O2
Number and type Energy required (in kJ. mol-1)

4xC-H 4 x 412 = 1648
2xO=O 2 x 496 = 992
Total energy consumption 2640 kJ. mol-1
BONDS FORMED to "create" the molecules of the products CO2 and H2O
Number and type Energy required (in kJ. mol-1)

4xC=O 2 x 804 =1608
4xO-H 4 x 463= 1852
Total energy released 3460 kJ. mol-1
The energy balance shows that this reaction produces more energy than it consumes: it is
said to be exothermic, the energy released by the creation of the bonds in the products is

Theory Outline
820 kJ. mol-1 greater than that consumed to break the bonds of the reactants (and
therefore of the methane molecules).
When it is burnt, the methane thus produces heat energy.
Notes:
The heat due to the methane combustion:
is - 820 kJ. mol-1 if water is obtained in the gaseous state,
but it is - 890 kJ. mol-1 if water is obtained in the liquid state: the reaction is more
exothermic if the water is in the liquid state. (The energy necessary to vaporise the
water is not used.)
Detailed example: combustion of butane C4H10 (complete combustion of one mole of

butane in the gaseous state):
We must first write the chemical reaction:
C4H10 + a* O2 = b*CO2 + c*H2O, at the end of the combustion the same number of moles
of each atom must remain (conservation of matter).
There are 4 atoms of C in C4H10, therefore we can write: C4H10 + a O2 = 4CO2 + c H2O
Similarly there are 10 atoms of H in C4H10, we can write: C4H10+ a O2 = 4CO2 + 5H2O
At the end of the reaction there are 13 atoms of O (8 in 4CO2 and 5 in 5H2O), hence the
reaction is written as follows: C4H10 + 13/2O2= 4CO2 + 5H2O
Therefore, we must supply energy to break the bonds of the moles of the product C4H10
and of 13 O2
From the developed formulas of these components (see previous case):
10 C-H bonds and 3 C-C bonds and 13/2 O=O bonds i.e. 10*412 +3*348+ 13/2*496 =
8388 kJ/mol
The CO2 and H2O bonds will produce energy: 8 C=O bonds and 10 H-O bonds i.e. 8*804 +
10*463 = 11062 kJ/mol
The energy balance shows that this reaction produces more energy than it consumes, it is
said to be exothermic, the combustion of butane produces 11062-8388=2674 kJ/mol

Theory Outline
7. EXERCISES
1. One mole of molecules corresponds to 6.02 X 1023 molecules
True
False
2. The quantity of matter in a chemical species can be expressed by the number of

moles of this species. The mole (mol) is therefore the unit of quantity of substance.
True
False
3. The relation n = m / M is used to calculate the quantity of matter the number of

moles of mass m of a compoung of molar mass M.
True
False
4. The atomic molar mass of aluminium is M = 27 g. A piece of aluminium with mass

m = 54 g contains n = 2.5 atoms of aluminium.
True
False
5. The relation n = c X V is used to calculate the quantity of matter in a solute when we

know its concentration and the volume V of the solution.
True
False
6. The quantity of sugar contained in V = 20 mL of a solution of sugared water with

concentration c = 2.5 mol/L is n = 50 mol.
True
False

Theory Outline
7. The molar volume Vm (in L / mol) of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of
this gas. It depends on the temperature and the pressure.
True
False
8. The temperature expressed in Celsius t and the absolute temperature T are related
by the relation:
T ( K ) = t ( °C ) + 273.15
True
False
9. A temperature t = 20 °C corresponds to T = 253.15 °C
True
False
10. The normal temperature and pressure conditions are

P = 1.013 X 105 Pa abs and T = 273.15 K.
If we forget the international system of units for one moment, we can say that the
normal temperature and pressure are P = 1.013 bar.a and t = 0 °C.
True
False
11. Under normal temperature and pressure conditions (P = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T =
273.15 K) the molar volume is Vm = 22.4 L / mol.
True
False
12. If V is the volume of a recipient containing a gas with molar volume Vm, then the
quantity (in mol) of this gas is n = V / Vm
True
False

Theory Outline
13. We know that (for a perfect gas) at normal temperature and pressure we have Vm =
22.4 L./ mol. A recipient with volume V = 10 L contains carbon dioxide at normal
temperature and pressure. The amount of carbon dioxide substance is n = 2.24 L.
True
False
14. If a gas can be assimilated to a perfect gas, we know that the pressure P (in Pa),
the volume V (in m3), the quantity of matter (in mol) and the temperature (in K) are
linked by the relation P V = n X R X T where R = 8.314 J / (K.mol) represents the
"perfect gas constant ".
True
False

Theory Outline
8. GLOSSARY

Theory Outline
9. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The atom, the molecule and matter ......................................................................5
Figure 2: Composition of the atom.......................................................................................6
Figure 3: Hydrogen atom .....................................................................................................6
Figure 4: Carbon atom .........................................................................................................6
Figure 5: Electron distribution ..............................................................................................8
Figure 6: Carbon atom .........................................................................................................9
Figure 7: Information on the elements ...............................................................................16
Figure 8: Water formula .....................................................................................................19
Figure 9: Lewis’s representation ........................................................................................20
Figure 10: Hydrogen atom .................................................................................................22
Figure 11: Carbon atom .....................................................................................................22
Figure 12: Formation of methane CH4 ...............................................................................22
Figure 13: Change of state of matter .................................................................................25
Figure 14: Calculating the molar mass ..............................................................................30
Figure 15: Reaction between O2 and C .............................................................................32
Figure 16: First step of a balance equation........................................................................33
Figure 17: Balancing the hydrogen atoms .........................................................................34
Figure 18: Balancing the oxygen atoms.............................................................................34
Figure 19: Combustion of methane....................................................................................37
Figure 20: Reactants and products of methane combustion..............................................38

Theory Outline
10. LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Electron distribution ...............................................................................................8
Table 2: Covalent bonds of the main atoms.......................................................................11
Table 3: Alphabetical list of the main chemical elements...................................................15
Table 4: Combination of atoms ..........................................................................................21
Table 5: Composition of dry air ..........................................................................................24
Table 6: Table of bond average molar energies (in kJ.mol-1)............................................36

Theory Outline
11. CORRECTIONS FOR THE EXERCISES

1. One mole of molecules corresponds to 6.02 X 1023 molecules
; True
One mole of molecules corresponds to 6.02 X 1023 molecules.
2. The quantity of matter in a chemical species is the number of moles of this species.
The mole (mol) is therefore the unit of quantity of substance
; True
The quantity of matter in a chemical species is the number of moles of this species.
The mole (mol) is therefore the unit of quantity of substance.
3. The relation n = m / M is used to calculate the quantity of matter in a solid with mass
m and with molar mass M.
; True
The formula n = m / M is used to calculate the quantity of matter in a solid with

mass m and with molar mass M. This relation is also obviously written in the form
m = n X M
4. The atomic molar mass of aluminium is M = 27 g / mol. A piece of aluminium with

mass m = 54 g contains n = 2.5 moles of aluminium atoms.
; False
The atomic molar mass of aluminium is M = 27 g / mol.

A piece of aluminium with mass m = 54 g does not contain n = 2.5 moles of
aluminium atoms.
The relation n = m / M gives n = 54 / 27 = 2 moles of aluminium atoms.
5. The relation n = c X V is used to calculate the quantity of matter in a solute when we

; True
The relation n = c X V is used to calculate the quantity of matter in a solute when we


Theory Outline
6. The quantity of matter (sugar) contained in V = 20 mL of a solution of sugared water

with concentration c = 2.5 mol/L is n = 50 mol.
; False
The quantity of matter (sugar) contained in V = 20 mL of a solution of sugared water

with concentration c = 2.5 mol/L is not n = 50 mol.
Where V = 20 mL = 0.020 L and c = 2.5 mol/L, the relation n = c X V gives n =
2.5 X 0.020 = 0.050 moles of sugar
7. The molar volume Vm (in L / mol) of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of
this gas. It depends on the temperature and the pressure
; True
The molar volume Vm (in L / mol) of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of
this gas. It depends on the temperature and the pressure.
8. The temperature Celsius t and the absolute temperature T are linked by the
relation:
T ( K ) = t ( °C ) + 273.15
; True
The temperature Celsius t and the absolute temperature T are linked by the
relation:
T ( K ) = t ( °C ) + 273.15
9. A temperature t = 20 °C corresponds to T = 253.15 °C
; False
A temperature t = 20 °C does not correspond to T = 253.15 °C.

The relation T ( K ) = t ( °C ) + 273.15 gives T = 20 + 273.15 = 293.15 K
10. The normal temperature and pressure conditions are

p = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T = 273.15 K.
Outside the international system of units, we can say that the normal temperature
and pressure are p = 1.013 bar and t = 0 °C.
; True
The normal temperature and pressure conditions are p = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T =
273.15 K.
If we forget the international system of units for one moment, we can say that the
normal temperature and pressure are p = 1.013 bar and t = 0 °C. 1 bar = 105 Pa
and, according to relation T ( K ) = t ( °C ) + 273.15, if T = 273.15 K then t = T -
273.15 = 0 °C.
Theory Outline
11. Under normal temperature and pressure conditions (p = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T =
; True
Under normal temperature and pressure conditions (p = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T =

12. If V is the volume of a recipient containing a gas with molar volume Vm, then the
quantity (in mol) of this gas is n = V / Vm
; True
If V is the volume of a recipient containing a gas with molar volume Vm, then the
quantity (in mol) of this gas is n = V / Vm.
13. We know that at normal temperature and pressure we have Vm = 22.4 L./ mol.
A recipient with volume V = 10 L contains carbon dioxide at normal temperature and
pressure. The amount of carbon dioxide substance is n = 2.24 L.
; False
We know that at normal temperature and pressure we have Vm = 22.4 L./ mol.
A recipient with volume V = 10 L contains carbon dioxide at normal temperature and
pressure. The amount of carbon dioxide substance is not n = 2.24 L.
The relation n = V / Vm gives n = 10 / 22.4 = 0.446 mol.
14. If a gas can be assimilated to a perfect gas, we know that the pressure p (in Pa),
linked by the relation p V = n X R X T where R = 8.314 J / (K.mol) represents the
"perfect gas constant ".
; True
If a gas can be assimilated to a perfect gas, we know that the pressure p (in Pa),
linked by the relation p V = n X R X T where R = 8.314 J / (K.mol) represents the
"perfect gas constant".


THEORY OUTLINE From Atom To Hydrocarbons

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THEORY OUTLINE

FROM ATOMS TO HYDROCARBONS

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

Upon conclusion of this course, the operator should be able to:

Describe what an atom is composed of

Explain the chemical bonds between atoms

Define the term covalent bond

Characterise and quantify the mass of an atom

Classify the different chemical elements

Describe Mendeleyev’s periodic table of elements

Describe the creation of a molecule

Represent the different states of matter

Explain changes of state of matter

Define a perfect gas and its equation, its volume

Determine a quantity of matter

Associate density and quantity of matter

Define a simple chemical reaction

Write the balanced equation of a chemical reaction

Describe the cohesion bond energy

Describe combustion in terms of a chemical reaction

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

In chemical reactions, atoms combine with other atoms to form molecules.

Figure 1: The atom, the molecule and matter

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

Figure 2: Composition of the atom

The atom's electrons and nucleus are linked by

The atom's nucleus has a positive electric

Figure 3: Hydrogen atom

An atom has a neutral electric charge because the

Figure 4: Carbon atom

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

3.2. COMPOSITION OF AN ATOM

The protons which have an elementary positive electric charge +e = 1.602189

3.2.2. The electrons

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

3.2.3. Electron distribution and chemical bonds

Table 1: Electron distribution

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

In most cases, the last shell is not completely filled.

The carbon atom has 6 electrons:

The 2nd shell (L-shell) thus has 4 electrons.

The 2nd shell must gain 4 electrons to

The carbon atom can create 4

Figure 6: Carbon atom

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

3.3. COVALENT BOND – CONCEPT OF MOLECULE

3.3.1. Covalent bond

A covalent bond corresponds two electrons shared between two atoms.

3.3.2. Atomic valence

These changes result in molecules.

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

Electron Calculation Number of

Table 2: Covalent bonds of the main atoms

Exercise: fill the shells for carbon and fluorine

Training course EXP-PR-RT020-EN

3.4. CHARACTERISATION OF ATOMS

3.4.2. Quantification of atomic mass