Chapter 2

Chapter 2
THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF CUTTING TOOLS
Course learning outcome:

Select basic concepts and operations of common processes in manufacturing. (C2,
PLO1)
THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

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CUTTING TOOL
Technology and material of cutting tools-
Metal Cutting
Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional machining
processes. These processes are commonly carried out in machine shops or tool room for
machining a cylindrical or flat jobs to a desired shape, size and finish on a rough block of job
material with the help of a wedge shaped tool.
General metal cutting operations are shown in figure below:

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CUTTING TOOL
Metal Cutting
In metal cutting (machining) process, working motion is imparted to the workpiece and cutting
tool by the mechanisms of machine tool so that the work and tool travel relative to each other
and machine the workpiece material in the form of shavings (or swarf) known as chips.
The machine tools involve various kinds of machines tools commonly named as lathe, shaper,
planer, slotter, drilling, milling and grinding machines etc.
In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting edge of the cutting tool is important based on
which the cutting operation is classified as orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting.
Orthogonal cutting is also known as two dimensional metal cutting in which the cutting edge is
normal to the work piece.
Oblique cutting is the common type of three dimensional cutting used in various metal cutting
operations in which the cutting action is inclined with the job by a certain angle called the
inclination angle.

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Orthogonal Cutting

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Oblique Cutting
(a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. Note the direction of chip
movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle, i,. (c) Types of chips
produced with tools at increasing inclination angles

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Cutting Parameter
• In the turning process, the cutting tool is set at a

certain depth of cut [mm] and travels to the left (with a
certain velocity) as the workpiece rotates
• Feed, or feed rate, is the distance the tool travels
horizontally per unit revolution of the workpiece
[mm/rev]
– This tool movement
produces chips,
which move up the face
of the tool

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Cutting Temperature
Excessive temperature lowers the

strength, hardness, stiffness, and wear
resistance of the cutting tool; tools also
may soften and undergo plastic
deformation; thus tool shape is altered.

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Cutting Tool Material
CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL :

•High-speed Steels
•Cast-cobalt Alloys
•Carbides
•Coated Tools
•Ceramics
•Diamond

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Many types of tool materials, ranging from high-carbon steels to ceramics and diamonds, are
used as cutting tool materials in today’s metalworking industry.
The three prime properties of a tool material are:
• Hardness: defined as the resistance to indenter penetration. It is directly correlates with the
strength of the cutting tool material . The ability to maintain high hardness at elevated
temperatures is called hot hardness. Figure below shows the hardness of typical tool materials
as a function of temperature.
• Toughness: defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture. The greater
the fracture toughness of a tool material, the better it resists shock load, chipping and fracturing,
vibration, misalignments, runouts and other imperfections in the machining system.
that, for tool materials, hardness and toughness change in opposite directions. A major trend in
the development of tool materials is to increase their toughness while maintaining hardness.

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Tool Material
Wear resistance: In general, wear resistance is defined as the attainment of acceptable tool life
before tools need to be replaced. Although seemingly very simple, this characteristic is the
least understood.
Hardness of Tool Material versus Temperature

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Tool Material
Hardness and Toughness of Material

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Tool Life
TOOL LIFE:
Useful life of a tool expressed in terms of time from start of a cut to termination
point (defined by failure criterion).
TOOL FAILURE CRITERION DEPENDS ON :
1. The requirements of the component being produced.

2. Type of Operation:
• Roughing: force and power requirement.
• Finishing : Surface finish & dimensional accuracy

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Tool Life Equation
TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION:

VTn =C
Where :
V= Cutting Speed
T= Tool life in minute
n = a constant based on the tool material
C = a constant based on the tool and
work
n = 0.08 to 0.2 for HSS tool
= 0.1 to 0.15 for Cast Alloys
= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tool [IAS-1999;
IES-2006]
= 0.5 to 0.7 for ceramic tool [NTPC-2003]

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Quiz 2
The n and C values in Table in the text are

based on a feed rate of 0.01 in./rev and a
depth of cut of 0.10 in. Determine the
cutting speed (ft/min) for each of the
following tool materials if a 15 minute tool
life is required in each case: a) HSS b)
ceramic

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Tool Life
•Cutting conditions – speed, feed, depth of cut

•Tool geometry – rake angle, approach angle Kr, helix
angle, etc
•Tool material – HSS, Carbides, Ceramics, CBN,
Diamond
•Work material – physical, thermal and chemical
properties
•Cutting fluids

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Tool Wear
The change of shape of the tool from its original shape,

during cutting, resulting from the gradual loss of tool
material.
Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe

rubbing process. They are in metal-to-metal contact
between the chip and workpiece, under condition of
very high stress at high temperature.

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Tool Wear
Wear will result in tool failure. When tool wear reach

certain extent, the tool or edge change has to be
replaced to guarantee the normal cutting action.
Due to very high shear and normal stresses on the rake

and the chip, it causes severe friction at the rake face as
well as the friction between the flank and machined
surface. Hence result in all sort of wears which can be
observed at the rake face and flank face.
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Tool Wear
a) flank wear g) built-up-edge

b) crater wear h) gross plastic
c) notch wear deformation
d) nose radius wear i) edge chipping or
e) comb (thermal wear) frittering
f) Parallel (mechanical j) chip hammering
cracks) k) gross fracture

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Tool Wear

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Tool Wear
Examples of Wear and Tool Failures
Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools.

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Tool Wear
Examples of Wear and Tool Failures
Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A study of the types and

mechanisms of tool wear and failure is essential to the development of better tool
materials.
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Tool Wear
Types of Cutting Tool Wear
Features of tool wear in a turning operation. The VB indicates average

flank wear.

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Tool Wear
Crater and Flank Wear on a Tool
(a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a carbide tool. Source: J. C, Keefe, Lehigh
University.

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Type of Tool Wear
Flank wear
The most common type of wear and the
preferred wear type, as it offers predictable
and stable tool life. Flank wear occurs due to
abrasion, caused by hard constituents in the
workpiece material.
Built-up edge (BUE)

This wear type is caused by pressure welding
of the chip to the insert. It is most common
when machining sticky materials, such as low
carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium.
Low cutting speed increases the formation of
built-up edge.

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Type of Tool Wear
Crater wear
Crater wear is localized to the rake side of the
insert. It is due to a chemical reaction between
the workpiece material and the cutting tool
and is amplified by cutting speed.
Notch wear
Insert wear characterized by excessive localized
damage on both the rake face and flank of the
insert at the depth of cut line. Caused by
adhesion (pressure welding of chips) and a
deformation hardened surface.

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Type of Tool Wear
Thermal cracks
When the temperature at the cutting edge
changes rapidly from hot to cold, multiple
cracks may appear perpendicular to the cutting
edge.
Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation takes place when the tool
material is softened. This occurs when the
cutting temperature is too high for a certain
grade

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CUTTING TOOL
Type of Tool Wear
Edge chipping/breakage
Chipping or breakage is the result of an overload of
mechanical tensile stresses. These stresses can be due
to a number of reasons, such as chip hammering, a
depth of cut or feed that is too high, sand inclusions
in the workpiece material, built-up edge, vibrations or
excessive wear on the insert.

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Tool Geometry

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Tool Geometry

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Tool Geometry
Tool Geometry
Rake angle
In a single point tool, the orientation of the rake face is defined by two angles,
back rake angle (αb) and side rake angle (αs).
Together, these angles are influential in determining the direction of chip
flow (disposal) across the rake face, cutting resistance, cutting temperature,
and tool life.
Effect of Rake Angle

Increasing rake angle in the positive (+) direction improves sharpness.
Increasing rake angle by 1° in the positive (+) direction decreases cutting
power by about 1%.
Increasing rake angle in the positive (+) direction lowers cutting edge strength
and in the negative (-) direction increases cutting resistance.

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Tool Geometry

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Tool Geometry
End relief or Clearance angle (ERA) & Side relief angle (SRA)
• These angles determine the amount of clearance
between the tool and the freshly cut work surface,
preventing friction and ensure smooth feed. Also known
as the flank angle.
Effects of Flank Angle

• Increasing flank angle decreases flank wear occurrence.
Increasing flank angle lowers cutting edge strength.

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Tool Geometry

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Tool Geometry
When to Decrease
Flank Angle
- Hard workpieces.
- When cutting edge
strength is required.
When to Increase
Flank Angle
- Soft workpieces.
- Workpieces suffer
from work
hardening easily.

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Tool Geometry
• End Cutting Edge angle (ECEA)
– Provides a clearance between the trailing edge of the
tool and the newly generated work surface, thus
reducing rubbing and friction against the surface.
– End cutting edge angle prevents wear on tool and
workpiece surface and is usually 5°~15°.

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Tool Geometry
Effects of End Cutting Edge Angle

• Decreasing end cutting edge angle increases cutting
edge strength, but it also increases cutting edge
temperature.
• Decreasing end cutting edge angle increases back
force and can result in chattering and vibration while
machining.
• Small end cutting edge angle in roughing and large
angle in finishing are recommended.

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CUTTING TOOL
Tool Geometry
• Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)
– Determines the entry of the tool into the
work and can be used to reduce sudden
force the tool experiences as it enters a
workpart.
– Side cutting edge angle and corner angle
lower impact load and effect feed force,
back force, and chip thickness.

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CUTTING TOOL
Effects of Side Cutting Edge Angle (Lead Angle)
1. At the same feed rate, increasing side cutting edge angle increases
chip contact length and decreases chip thickness. As a result,
cutting force is dispersed on a longer cutting edge and tool life is
prolonged.
2. Increasing side cutting edge angle increases force a'. Thus, thin,
long workpieces suffer from bending in some cases.
3. Increasing side cutting edge angle decreases chip control.
4. Increasing side cutting edge angle decreases chip thickness and
increases chip width. Thus, breaking chips is difficult.
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CUTTING TOOL
When to Decrease Lead Angle
- Finishing with small depth of cut.
- Thin, long workpieces.
- When the machine has poor rigidity.
When to Increase Lead Angle

- Hard workpieces which produce high
cutting temperature.
- When roughing a thick diameter
workpiece.
- When the machine has high rigidity.
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CUTTING TOOL
Tool Geometry
• Nose radius (NR), or corner radius
– The tool point formed by SCEA and ECEA,
determines to a large degree the texture of the
surface generated in the operation. A very
pointed tool (small nose radius) results in very
pronounced feed marks on the surface.
• Radius effects cutting edge strength and
finished surface. In general, corner radius 2~3
times the feed is recommended.
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Tool Geometry

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Effects of Corner Radius
• Increasing corner radius improves finished
surface roughness.
• Increasing corner radius improves cutting
edge strength.
• Increasing corner radius too much
increases cutting resistance and causes
chattering.
• Increasing corner radius decreases flank
and rake wear.
• Increasing corner radius too much results in
poor chip control.
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CUTTING TOOL
Tool Geometry
When to Decrease Corner Radius
Finishing with small depth of cut.

Thin, long workpieces.
When the machine has poor rigidity.
When to Increase Corner Radius
When cutting edge strength is required such as in interrupted

cutting and uncut surface cutting.
When roughing a workpiece with large diameter.
When the machine has high rigidity.

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Tool Geometry
• The seven elements of tool geometry for a
single point tool, when specified in the
following order, they are collectively called
tool geometry signature : (b), (s), ERA,
SRA, ECEA, SCEA, NR.

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Machining
Thank You

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Answer of Quiz 2
Solution for HSS:
n = 0.125 and C = 200 ft/min (for steel cutting)
From v Tn = C we solve for v:
v = 200/(15)0.125= 142.6 ft/min
Solution for ceramic:

From Table 23.2: n = 0.6 and C = 10,000
ft/min
From v Tn = C we solve for v:
v = 10,000/(15)0.6= 1969.5 ft/min

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CUTTING TOOL

Chapter 2 - Tech and Material of Cutting Tools

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THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF CUTTING TOOLS

Course learning outcome:

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

General metal cutting operations are shown in figure below:

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

• In the turning process, the cutting tool is set at a

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Excessive temperature lowers the

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL :

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

The three prime properties of a tool material are:

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Hardness of Tool Material versus Temperature

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Hardness and Toughness of Material

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

TOOL FAILURE CRITERION DEPENDS ON :

1. The requirements of the component being produced.

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION:

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

The n and C values in Table in the text are

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

•Cutting conditions – speed, feed, depth of cut

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

The change of shape of the tool from its original shape,

Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Wear will result in tool failure. When tool wear reach

Due to very high shear and normal stresses on the rake

a) flank wear g) built-up-edge

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Examples of Wear and Tool Failures

Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools.

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Examples of Wear and Tool Failures

Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A study of the types and

Types of Cutting Tool Wear

Features of tool wear in a turning operation. The VB indicates average

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Crater and Flank Wear on a Tool

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Built-up edge (BUE)

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Effect of Rake Angle

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

Effects of Flank Angle

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF

THE TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL OF