13 MECHANICS OF IDEAL FLUIDS f empirical facts by logical deductions wr ofall science is to cover the greatest number 0 grand ait ners ber of hypotheses or deductions. jon thes : ‘Albert Einstein ad INTRODUCTION a steady shearing stress is applied to a solid, internal forces resisting the shear fibrium after a certain deformation has taken place. The displacement of limited in this case. In a fluid, a steady shearing stress will cause con- 1 of the fluid particles, since the fluid cannot offer any resistance gas can be treated as a fluid even though some liquids may substance in equilibrium, which cannot support a called a fluid, Even very viscous substances like, rium in which shearing stresses are absent, if time. An isotropic solid possesses both bulk absent in a fluid at rest, it cannot have any its shape lest num When i cablish equi tie particles is ‘mous displacement tote shear. A real liquid or afer small resistance to a shear. A diearing stress, however small, i pitch, tar, glass etc., come to an equilib: left un-disturbed for a sufficiently long modulus and rigidity; shearing stress being tiidity. This property attributes to the fluid the characteristic ability to change «rtoflow (hence the name fluid). In an ideal fluid whether at rest or in relative motion, ‘shearing stress can exist. However, in real fluids relative motion is always accom- ped by shearing forces tending to destroy the relative motion (viscous fluids) and a operate as long as the motion lasts. The latter is considerd as a transient type of nine " a solid the stress at any point on a given element of area may have any sti rection wart. that area. But in a fluid at rest it must act normally to the plane. 6.13); at a point ina fluid (which is called pressure) is same in all directions (see a .., isotropic. veg ae With relative motion is always associated with shearing stresses due to “a lquia oe mulicity we shall ignore the effect of viscosity in considering the motion *Plcable to dnd and treat them as ideal fluids. The results we obtain are therefore Mechan ‘ases where the effects of viscosity are negligible. hig nena of fluid is much more complicated than mechanics of solids. We devide MPreSsible = into two parts, hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. The fluid may be paties of co in the case of gas, or incompressible, as liquids approximately are. * Mechanical ee SO fluids (practically that of a gas) is known as aerodynamics. alts oh aspects of hydrodynamics is called hydraulics. igs n> Ch@Pter, We shall consider briefly some fundamental theroems of the me- Of id ‘deal (non-viscous) fluids.ON 568 Giassical Mechanics and General Properties ot yay, r 13.1.1 Particle of a fluid Liquid or gas, though assumed continuous, is made up of discrete mol aggregate with gaps within, that vary from point to point and time to time, Under the circumstances a particle of fluid means an elementary volume of fluid in which dis. placement, velocity, acceleration, density, pressure etc., are same everywhere, For ther. mal motion some molecules may leave or join the elementary volume (8Y%, but the average number of molecules within it does not vary with time. There is a distinct difference between a mathematical point and a Physical point, 4 mathematical point has no volume (length —> 0, breadth — 0, height —> 0), whereas 2 Physical point is a particle of fluid defined above. A physical point is an extremely small region surrounding a mathematical point in which the effect of atomicity of mat- ter or electric charge cannot be felt, the effects being averaged out. The pressure p and the density p at a point within the fluid are defined as lecules jn ar 3m pm Bey and p= bt iB. where 6F is the normal force acting on an element of area 64 within the fluid and im is the mass of the fluid enclosed within the elementary volume 8Y’. The physical area 4 and volume 8/” are such that the: ‘Pressure at each point on 84 is same and so also the density at each point within 87’. 13.2 HYDROSTATICS The mode of action of surface force on a fluid and on solid differs considerably. Fora solid, such a force on a surface element may act along any direction and hence ma) conveniently be resolved into one normal and two tangential components at right an- gles. Whereas for a fluid at rest tangential components of surface forces are totally absent (even for viscous fluids) and hence the surface force (5F) on a surface element 5A within a fluid at rest may be expressed as 3F=p5A 121 The law of hydrostatics, therefore, is that surfgce inside the fluid (fig. 13.2-1). In’practically all cases sion rather than a tension) (and not a tensor of seco: the stresses (p) are always normal to a") ¢ stress in a fluid (which is called pressure) is a compres From eq. 13.2.1 we see that the pressure is a scalar quant) d rank like a stress in elasticity), Any property of an isotropic material is independent of directions{So the Young’s modulus in an isotropic solid is same in all directions and the solid also contracts or expands equally in all directions normal to the direction of the longitudinal stress. For a fluid rigidity modulus (G) is zero, Therefore, for an isotropic fluid P\=P2= D3 13.2.2 Fig. 13.2-1| panics of ideal Fluids | one l! '5.5ite, the stresses (p) are same along three co-ordinate directions. However, 4 gnate axes in an isotropic material may be chosen quite arbitrarily. Therefore, sure at a point within an isotropic fluid (is not only normal to any surface vi also) is the same in all directions within the fluid ares. ‘That t yedin the Let us consider & s o {3.2-1a). The principal section ofthe UF right angle triangle ABC with ZACB Fav and ZBAC = 0. Let py» Pp and p; be esses on the slant faces AB, BC and AC reetvely The prism ABC being very small, ressure on any of its faces can be taken d the weight of the fluid inside ored (compared to thrusts). AC face is cicos 0 and that of BC face is he pressure at a point inside a fluid at rest is same in all directions can also be following manner. mall triangular prism ABC about any point O inside a fluid at A ep uniform an ican be ign tthe aea of AB face be a, then the area o sin, Therefore, for equilibrium, (ap;) sin 0 = (oc sin @) p and (ap,) cos @=(acos 8) p; ie., Py = P2=P3 13.2.2a she prism ABC may be randomly oriented about 0, it follows that the pressure at sypoint O (within fluid at rest) is the same in all directions. Fig. 19.214 121 Conditions of equilibrium of a fluid Consider a rectangular parallelopiped at P (x,y,2,) with sides 8x, Sy, dz (fig. 13.2-2) ‘iafluid in equilibrium under an external force fper ‘tivolune, Such a force is called a body force since ‘its all over the body (example gravity). The ‘mponents of fat P are f, fy f- a pressure p in the fluid, like f, is also a leone of the co-ordinates. The force due to "ssutep on the:face Sy8z is pBy6z and is along the Fig. 13.22 ® rae &8y 8e and is directed along the negative x-axis. The total force on the *allelopi lelopiped along the x-direction must vanish for equilibrium, Sye rsp syezt P Yo hb * 8y 82+ p 3y 82—( p+ BL ax|8y 62-9 x Oo Sy 2 oP oy oh SAY De . a : Spl oe es 1-2) _ fp SP \ dy: a (« ae )vno = hh \dV <0 5: dy82. Similarly, for equilibrium along y and ote aa V =O aa570 f i Classical Mechanics and General Propertis of Ma, | 7! ® ) sy = 7 f,75- |8V = 13.2.5 (-$ | ®\syrag (ae and f-B)or'= 120 13.26 In vector notation, these three equations may be combined as [iris enso-[Boy B22) 327 ie. (f-Vp)8V"= 0 13.28 This must hold for any volume 5’, therefore f + Vp) =0 13.29 external body force due to pressure force per unit (of surrounding fluid) volume. per unit volume. Eq. 13.2.9 expresses the condition of equilibrium under-externat force. Therefore the equilibrium is possible only when external force f is equal to the gradient of a scalar pressure p, or Vxf=VxVp=0 13.2.10 i.e., when the external force is conservative (sec. 3.6.1). Gravitational force being con- servative, fluid will remain in equilibrium in the gravitational field, All the properties of fluid under equilibrium will follow from eg. 13.2.9. ) [yh dy tite! 13.2.2 Properties of fluid at rest |) '¢ |) 7,7" i From eq. 13.2.9 ; In f=Vp i 13.2.1 and f.dr= V p.de=dp 132.12 is zero when dr is a displacement on a surface of constant pressure (dp = 0). Thus eq.13.2.11 implies that the surface of constant pressure within a fluid in equilibrium is everywhere perpendicular to the body-force (eq. 13.2.12). In the gravitational field f= pg 13.2.13 where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Now from eq. 13.2.10 §- Vxf=0= Vx (pg)=Vpxgt pV xg 13.2.14 However Vx g=0 as gis conservative (gradient of some scalar function) and hence 0 Vpxg=0 13.215 i.e., the density gradient must be parallel to the gravitational field and surface of co™ stant density is a horizontal plane within the fluid in equilibrium. Pascal’s law IW dy = yor Integrating eg. 13.2.12 we find <1 f Pr-Py= fear 4inics of Ideal Fluids oH ech .en two points (located by position vectors r ved) within the fluid. The Fine integral in the rh.s of eg. 13.2.16 is to be computed slong any path (f being ‘conservative, it is independent of path) lying entirely within the iid, from r,t Fy. Thus (the pressure difference between any two points within the fui in equilibrium depends only on the bod force. Hence any change in pressure at thy point in the fluid in equilibrium must De accompanied by an equal change at all other points (1, ifthe body force does not change. This is Pascal's lawl) ——_— Measurement of pressure Ifwe take the z-axis positive upward and x-and y-axes horizontal, f= Jn end t= PE ie f= f,2= -pgt Therefore, we get from eq. 13.2.16 ye which gives the pressure difference betwee 13.2.17 13.2.18 P-P\= fra = J-pet (de + ayG+de®) 5 =-ve| = -pg@%-7) 13.2.19 \when the fluid is incompressible and p is uniform. This can also be obtained from eq. 13.2.17 and 13.2.1, P2=Po I! To = Tank t p) EA? a (0 Bar i Pre i e rometer pra, (i Pressure gauge Fig. 13.2-3 -2#- t= ye 8 13.2.20 Ina barometer the space above the mercury column contains onl ly mercut Whose pressure is negligible (p, * 0) at ordinary temperature and we wet hi , vapour 13.2.19, with 2-2) = 4s Pa = 0 [fig. 13.2-3 @)] mM eg, Pi = Pom HPS 35 Therefore, barometric pressure is actually a measure of atmospheric pressure, 21 ure (py), 0) Gonst) only. ina compressible fuid obeying perte ct | This is tue for incompressible fuids (9 = onstant ata given temperature (eq. 13.2 26) Fato of pressures at two points, that remains —_— 7) ly 835 a itis the572 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matte, Pressure variation within a liquid at rest under 13.2.19 and fig 13.2-3 (ii), with p, = pg, Pi = Pot hpg 13.2.22 For gases p is very small and the difference in pressure at two points (hpg) ina small Container (h > small) is usually negligible. Thus in a vessel containing gas, can be taken as the same everywhere. However, this is not true when 2, — 2, is high, Atmospheric pressure at high altitude differs considerably from the pressure at the ground level. However in such cases the density p varies with altitude and p must be known as a function of z before we can integrate eq. 13.2.20. For a perfect gas pV'= nRT 13.2.23 where p, V', n and Tare respectively the pressure, volume, number of moles and absolute gravity can also be obtained from eg, the pressure M temperature ofthe gas, and Ris the universal gas constant. Now n=" where M&M, are the mass and the molelcular weight of the gas. Thus ° = Mop p= ue 13.2.24 and eliminating p fom eq.13.2.20 and 13.2.24, we get dp Mog a ORT 13.2.25 Assuming uniform temperature at all altitudes and also assuming that the variation of g with altitude is negligible, we can solve eq. 13.2.25 for pressure variation with altitude (z), — Mos PC2)= Pe" 13.2.26 Air is not a perfect gas, and above assumptions are also only approximately valid for earth’s atmosphere. In spite of that e. q. 13.2.26 gives a reasonably good idea of the variation of pressure with altitude in the earth’s atmosphere. Pressure gauges [fig. 13.2-3 (iii) ] measure the pressure difference w.r.t. a reference level (say, atmospheric pressure) and we find that Pi —Po= hog Archimedes’ principle 13.2.27 Archimedes’ principle is also a consequence of the law of the fluid statics. The total force due to pressure of the surroundin, 8 fluid on an immersed body of volume V’, with surface area A is = -ffipaa 13,2.28 = -Jffvpav’ 13.2.29 Fd (see example Ex. 2.13-4) where ii is the outward normal unit vector at any point on the surface. When the fluid is at rest, we find using eq. 13.2.11, a ' 3.2.30 : Si dv’ 1573 Fluids mechanics of ideal 13.2.31 =-F, F, is the total body force actingon avolume V’ of the fluid. Total force F, = were Fis vorface A of an immersed body certainly does not depend on the materia ey ir nade of, Thus we conclude from eg. 13.2.31 that a body (of volume ¥") 1 Oo aud at rest i acted on by a force F, due to pressure of the surrounding nal roe F, which would be exerted on the volume ?” il dy for id, equal ‘and opposite to the body F, be exerte be wre occupied by the fluid at rest. This is Archimedes’ principle. 43.2.3 Pressure energy Fg, 13.2.9 shows that the force per unit volume due to pressure is — Vp. In eg. 3.6.10 we have seen that when a force is the negative gradient of a scalar, the scalar is come kind of potential energy. So p may be considered as the density of potential energy sfeame kind. This kind of energy is called pressure energy. Note that p has the di- mensions of energy/volume (Sec. 1.8). When a surface element d4 ofa fluid moves a distance A normal to itself under the aetion of pressure p in the fluid, the work done by the fluid is p d4. h = p dV" where d?” irits increase in volume. The fluid thus /oses an amount of potential energy equal top dV" pV"is its pressure energy (V" = volume of the fluid). 13,3, FIELD OF FLOW Before we can consider the dynamics of fluid motion, we have to lay down some way of describing the motion. This may be considered the kinematics of fluid motion. The region throughout which a fluid is moving is called its field of 7 low) A flow field is the field of the velocity vector v of the fluid particles(v is a function of the space co-ordinates, and generally of time also 'v at a point does not depend on time, the motion is called steady. If we follow a fluid particle during its motion, it traces out a line, called a line of fon. Tarough every point in the field there is a flow line, Different points on a flow line cortespond to different moments, A ‘ube of flow is a tube bounded by lines of flow through the points on the boundary of the tube. The fluid flowing through such a tube cannot pass laterally outside since the velocity is always tangential to the side of the tube, So we can mentally isolate the fluid in a tube of flow and follow its motion without taking into account the motion of the rest of the fluid. A line which is always parallel to the local direction of flow is called a streamline (see se. 12.1), Such a line refers to a given moment. There is a streamline through every Point in the field. If the pattern of streamiines does not change with time, the flow is pe steady flow or stream line flow. In steady flow, the streamlines are identical with i a of the fluid particles, that is, with flow lines. We shall confine ourselves to Cady flow. So flow tubes and stream tubes will be the same to us. are A one, field of flow is analogous to an electrostatic field, streamlines to lines spe ream tubes to tubes of force. The analogy goes further, and a study of one Ps the understanding of the other. There is also similarity with heat flow.dG= $0.4 #5041456 dy She a ; 3: sen a ete | +2a Ow, = 574 Classical Mechanics and General Properties Of Matter 13.3.1 Important parameters in fluid motion Besides velocity v, the density p is a quantity of great importance in fluid motion, In gases it depends on pressure, in liquids we take it as independent of pressure, treat. ing them as incompressible. Both v and p are functions of x, y, z and ¢. Another quantity of great importance is the flux of the fluid through a surface, if dA is an element of area in a fluid, a the angle between the normal to dA and the velocity v at the place, and p the density there, then the flux of the fluid across d4 ig defined as pvdA cos o.\This is the mass of the fluid flowing across dA per unit time) in vector notation, the flux may be written as pv.dA. pv is called The fx densi (In electrostatics there is the flux of electric intensity or of electric displacement; in heat, the flux of heat; in magnetism, the magnetic flux (of induction). 13.3.2 Approach to dynamics Dynamics of fluids can be treated in either of two ways. One is Lagrange 's method in which the motion of a fluid particle is followed along its line of flow. We shall find it convenient to use the other method known as Euler's method. In this method we describe the flux density py at all points of the field as a function of time, that is, treat pv as pv (x, yz, 1). In Lagrange’s method we follow a particular particle. In Euler’s method we see what is happening at a point. Since velocity and acceleration refer to a particle and not to a co-ordinate point, it will be necessary in Euler’s method to follow the particle atx,,2,1 for a short time dt during which its co-ordinates will change to x + dx, y + dy, 2+ dz, t+ dt. This gives rise to two rates of change with respect to time. (i) The rate of change at a given co-ordinate point, Here x,y,z do not change. If 0 denotes the quantity whose change with time we are interested in, then its time rate of change at a fixed point will be indicated by the partial derivative AQ/at. (Q may be 2 field scalar or field vector.) (ii) In a field of flow if we follow a fluid-element, we will find that Q assumes different values at different places and at different times as the fluid-element moves. Then the change of Q in time dt is due the change of both space-coordinates (x, J, 2) and time (¢) which gives the total time derivative of Q, denoted by 2 That is, O=O x,y,z, 1) and we get = eee or ado dt & at SO - $6 dx 15844455 de 4 Sa at sea Sy a at i. 2, 22,, 2, 2 Busi etyele Re - see te . =¢ % + FF 6, = opt v.grad YQ 13.3.1 Iwi ! be convenient to write the relation in the form of an operator equation so that We can operate on any quantity we want. The operator form isnN _ ade Sa +(Vv at SE VX) f 575 Mechanics of Ideal Fluids d_é . 4. 24. grad) 13.3.2 aoe ie which is a The operator equation may be applied to any field scalar or field vector, function of x,%201 ‘Two theorems are of great importance in fluid motion. One of them is based on vation of mass and is called the equation of continuity. The other relates to conse! is vn ation of energy and is known as Bernoulli's theorem. conservé 13.4 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY a fixed place in the field of flow of a fluid. In a given time, some fluid will flow into the volume and some will flow out of it. If the inflow and outflow are not equal, the density of the fluid in the volume under consideration will change. The difference in the rates of inflow and outflow will be equal to the rate of change of density of the fluid in the volume since matter can neither be created nor destroyed — it is a conserved quantity. This is the physical content of the equation of continuity. ‘To obtain the mathematical equation, refer to fig. 13.2-2 and consider the parallelo- piped with sides 6x, 8y, 62. Ths isthe volume we consider. Let P (x,»2) be acomer point (instead of middle) ofthe parallelopiped. The velocity components at P are Ys ¥.- The mass of fluid that enters the parallelopiped from the left in one second through the face 5y 62 is (pv), y 8z and that leaving the volume through the opposite face is Consider a fixed volume at { (pv), + 2 (pv), a} 3y 5 z. (Remember p may be a function of the co-ordinates.) The a net rate of out-flow parallel to the x-axis is 5° (pv), 6x by bz. Similarly, we find that the net rate of out-flow parallel to the two other axes are a a Fy (Ov), Sx by Sz and =~ (pv), &x Sy 8z . The sum of these three terms is the total rate of out-flow from the volume under consideration. In vector notation this sum is div (pv) 8xSy8z i.e., V. (pv) 8xSy8z. On account of conservation of mass, this must be equal to the rate of decrease of mass in the volume that is to ~ (dp/a1) 8x By 8z (and not dp 9 lag , 5) ) ~F 8x By 82, why?) . (*v),3 / r} pret (Vp <. V. (pv) Bxbybz = — (6p/At) Bx By Bz L(Y, v) 13.4.la/ o Zeveon=0 vse ys. | 36) dv 13.4.1 (> or ass ™ _— of continuity in fluid motion. (Remember bv is the flux density; From eg. 13.4.1 ” (v GM) 7 waa o= Pav.vpep vy = ~ a 7 WA Sy) By - = ® ov. v : ae 4p om yok! 7576 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matte using eg. 13.3.2. For an incompressible fluid, the density of a fluid element does not change with time, as it moves, i.e., dp = 13.4. dt S 2a and we have from eq. 13.4.2 V.v=0 13.43 which is valid even in a non-steady state of flow. Liquids usually flow satisfying eg, 13.4.2a and hence can be treated as incompressible. But even a highly compressible gas may sometimes flow in such a fashion that its density p does not change with x,y,z and r, Its flow is then practically incompressible. a flight at a low speed (compared to the speed of sound) in air, the motion of air relative to the wings is an example of nearly incompressible flow of a highly compressible air. Obviously the eq. 13.4.2a is violated when a highly compressed gas flows from a high pressure region to a low pressure one. In a steady state quantities like v, p, p etc. at a point do not change with time. Therefore, a steady state is defined by a aie 0 13.4.3a Eq. 13.4.1 could also be established with the help of the divergence theorem (sec. 2.13.2). According to it the total outward flux of pv across a closed surface enclosing a Volume V’ will be equal to the integral of div pv taken dver the volume. In symbols. Jaivpvar' = $ pv.ds } : pv. ds is the outward flux of matter per second across ds, and its integral over the closed surface is the total loss of mass in the volume V" per second. Outflow of mass reduces the density in the volume. Therefore, the out-flow per second must be equal to- f (@p/ar) av" } o fai pvdv' = ~Jc@oyary av" 13.44 in n Since V' is arbitrary, the integrands must be equal, that is, Op/at + div py = 0 13.4.1 Sources and sinks If fluid were generated at a rate Q per unit volume per second in the parallelopiped (fig. 13.2-2) or the volume V of eg. 13.4.4, we should have to add Q&x dy Sz or QaV'to the right hand side of eg. 13.4.1a or 13.4.4. The final equation will then reduce to aplat + div pv = Q 13.4.5 Q is called a source if the fluid is generated, and a sink if it is absorbed. In the latter case its sign is negative. Hg. 13.4.5 is applicable to many other fields, such as electricity.877 slecanics of Ideal Fluids flux vector (here pv). We shall «the source that gives rise to th ‘ or sinks to be present in what we shall discuss. LOCITY POTENTIAL concept in fluid flow. To unde and acoustics. Q i swever consider Sources 13.5 IRROTATIONAL FLOW AND VE! ty Vx vis an important she curl of veloci ening we write Stokes” theorert (see. 2.13.3) 13.5.1 fie xv).ds = vide 5 Le | on the left is taken over 2 surface S bounded by acurve C the right is computed. Ifthe curve C surrounds a vortex I with de parallel to v (fig. 13.5-1a), is positive and stand its sahere the surface integral rong which the line integral on ‘athe fluid then the Tine integral . vide (vxv)i = Lh 13.5.2 a0 ds is 2 measure of the rate of rotation of the. fluid per unit area, hence the name ‘curl v’. curl v has a non-zero value in the region with vortex [fig. 13.5-1 (a) ] or with selocty gradient (fg. 13.5-1 (b) ). If vxv=0 aS ie, fudr=0 1353 { \ | everywhere in the moving Muid, the flow issaidto SSE 7 be irrotational and a fluid element cannot have {a) Vortex (Tr ner (b) Transverse any angular velocity (about the point where V x V : el velocit =0) ahah its shape and size may be changing. Fig. 13.5-1 _ If v' be the velocity of fluid w.rt. a co-ordi ing wi he ve itt. jinate system rotating with angular velocity @ then (e9.4.4.1a) en ean aoe oe Bel = _ v= vitoxr : 13.5.4 pers the position vector of a fluid element from a point on the axis of rotation. / , ue Vxv= Vev's¥x(@xt) y a xv'eV(@xt) 2 (vie) @ - v () = Vxv'+20 ) 13.5.5 by direct calculati ; ulation of c« ‘ . Point in the fluid components, since @,, @,, @, are not functions of x, yz. Ifata =! = Vxv then V x y=) sttdiorel 2 13.5.6 f 13.5.7 Thus a rotati tational flui * id (V x v #0) becomes irotational ina co-ordinate system rotating ’ With angular velocity —— Teg . aes thc co-ordinate 07°) AF vis constant ten is psi ont systeni in’ Which the fluid flow is irrotational everywhere.578 Classical Mechanics and General Properties Of Matter curl grad @ being identically zero (eq. 2.13.9), v can be expressed as a gradient of some scalar function (x,y,z) of position, for irrotational flow (eq. 13.5.3) Te5.e 13.58 where 6 (x,y,2) is called the velocity potential. Now from eg. 13.4.3. and 13.5.8 we see that an irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid satisfies the equation Vvo=0 13.59 This is identical in form with Laplace's equation for gravitational/electrostatic poten. tial in empty space. Therefore, the techniques of potential theory are equally applicable in solving the problem of irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid. 13.6 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM Bernoulli’s theorem states that in streamline motion of an ideal (i.e., non-viscid) fluid, in which the body force is due to gravity alone, the quantity Velscily , ¢ viloSione 4 constant 13.6.1 along any streamline. Here v = velocity, p = density, p = pressure, g = gravitational intensity and = height above some standard level of the point at which the quantity is considered. The constant may have different values along different streamlines, But if the flow is irrotational, it has the same value, (In an incompressible fluid p is constant) In that case, the theorem reduces to 1 3” + P/p+gh = constant n compressible fluids (i.e., gases) depends on p,)In an ideal gas under isothermal Conditions p = kp, and under adiabatic conditions p = k’ p’. Therefore, 13.6.2 . ping isothermally, jz = “S> + constant, and nes pe ye pl adiabatically, |“? = 1. * J Po yelp Hence in a gas, Bernoulli’s theorem reduces to + constant. I ding shee ; + gh = constant (isothermally) 13.63 gh = constant (adiabatically) 13.64 13.6.1 Proof of Bernoulli’s theorem To prove the theorem, consider a short portion PQ of length ds of very narto™ tube of flow (fig. 13.6-1), so narrow as to be almost a line. The fluid moves from ! towards Q. 0. is the cross-sectional area of PQ. vis the velocity at P, p is the pressureMechanics of Ideal Fluids eight of P above some arbi- tral horizontal level. Let the same quanti- ties at Q be respectively v + by, p + Sp and h+ bh. If p is the density, the component ofthe force of gravity on the matter PQin the direction PO is pa bsg cos = ~ gp 055. (8h/5s) =—g pash So the total force on PQ in the direction of motion is pa-(p+5p)a—g pooh This equals the product of the mass and acceleration of PQ. / pand his the h o-90° 1 0" Fig. 13.6-1 di . passa = -a8p—gp 6h dv, dp oF w+ P+ gah =o 13.6.5 Using the operator equation 13.3.2 for d/di on v, we get dv wv a ao +v.Vv Pe he flow is steady, Bv/8t= 0. Besides, vis everywhere parallel to the line of flow. magnitude v is a function of s, the distance of the midpoint of PQ from some arbitrary origin on the tube of fl i mg low. The vector V vis also along PQ (sec 2.12-1). 1. 85= v. grad y 6s = V7 85 = v by Hence eg. 13.6.5 reduces to “ : vb + Bplp + gbh = 0 roceeding to the limit 8s —> 0 and integrating we get pee 1yi[Z 2” * “18h = constant 13.6.7 P may be any poi point on the streamline, Thi “ore . This proves Bernoulli’s theorem. 5 is the kineti i bas "2 he ‘inetic energy of unit mass, J (dp/p) is its pressure energy (sec. 5), its itati i . taken atarece egy Hewes potential energy relative to the standard level, which i: atany pang enerBy- Hence the constant in eg. 13.6.7 the total energy per unit mass ine. Along the streamline the energy is conserved. us Hydraulic engineer: i . \gineers make much i is mucl practicall me ’ eet panoul 's theorem, In the case of a liquid p ly 7” *P/p+ gh = constant 13.6.8 If ° We multiply throughout by p, it becomes j580 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matte Nie : pv’ + p+ gph = const. 13.6.9 ‘The terms in the equation are energy terms per unit voulme. Each term has the dimen. sions of pressure. ; pv’ is called the dynamic pressure; p, the static pressure, and gph the hydrostatic pressure. Dividing eq. 13.6.2 by g throughout, we get 2 +2 4h = const. 13.6.10 2g gp Here all the terms have the dimensions of height. v*/2g is called the dynamic ot velocity head; p/gp, the static or pressure head; and h, the elevation or gravity head. 13.6.2 Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s theorem Bernoulli's theorem can also be obtained from the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. From sec. 13.2.1 we see that the total force acting on a fluid element per unit volume (of non-viscous fluid) is f-Vp 13.6.1] where f is the external body force per unit volume, acting on the fluid. In gravitational force field f = pg, where p is the density of the fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Gravitational force field being conservative, f can be expressed as f where V = gh is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass. Pine. 13.6. pressure surrounding fluid. The force acting on unit mass of the fluid is, therefore, vi -vy-~2 = _y v+f2 P e when density p is a function of pressure p only. Formally we can now write the poten- tial energy function for unit mass as (see sec. 13.6.1) ‘dp y= V+ l= 13.6.11a q te Kinetic energy for unit mass moving at a velocity v is 1 2 - Therefore, from the princi- ple of conservation of mechanical energy, we can now write (for a flow of non-viscous fluid). ty +¥ +f 2 = aconstant 136.12 2 P where V = gh is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass at a height h above datum level. Eq. 13.6.12 is Bernoulli’s theorem. /, 13.6.3 Equation of motion for an ideal (non-viscous) fluid A fluid by definition supports no shearing stress when in equilibrium; but all ees have some viscosity and hence experience some shearing stresses between the laye! treadrochanics of Ideal Fivids 581 iative motion. Ideal fluid is one which does not experience any shearing hen it is in motion. The stress within an ideal fluid is the pressure p alone. Its of ideal fluids will therefore apply only when the viscosity is of uid in rel foree even WI The following resul negligible. tus suppose that in addition to pressure, the fluid is acted on by a body force f olume so that the body force acting ona volume element 5)” of fluid is ov’. force on the fluid element 6¥” due to pressure of surrounding fluid is — Vp5V" f motion for the volume element 6Y” of ideal per unit V The total (sec. 13.2.1). Therefore, the equation 0 the influence of viscosity) is fluid (neglecting a» WV fave vp) 8V'= (8) saa 1 ov or (f-Ve)= St v)v 13.6.14 p or using eg. 13.3.2, where os the body force per unit mass. This is Euler's equation of motion for a moving ideal fluid. When the density p depends only on the pressure, the fluid is called the homogene- aus fluid. This does not mean that the density is uniform. An incompressible fluid is homogeneous if its density is uniform. A compressible fluid of uniform chemical composition and uniform temperature throughout is homgeneous. gravitational) When the body force is conservative (say, f=pg=-pVV 13.6.15 where Vis the gravitational potential energy per unit mass. And since V (AB) =(B.V) A+ (AV) B+ BX (Vx A) +A x(V xB) £V(v.v) =2(v. Vv +2v x (V *¥) 2 gry =o(d)-vxcra 13.6.16 Using eg, 13.6.15 and 13.6.16 in 13.6.14, we get & _yaevxnee(dy avy ee 13.6.17 a 2 p ee When the fluid motion is irrotational (eq. 13.5.3 & 13.5.8) | Vxv=0 andv=—Vo 13.6.18 where 6 (x,)2) is the velocity potential. Then the eq. 13.6.17 becomes -0(#)+9 (e)+ V4 Wg at 2 p 13.6.19 Now integrating J V (-)- dF wt space co-ordinates we find a _% ear+f2=co 2 ® 13.6.20582 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter This is Bernoulli's theorem for irrotational flow of an ideal fluid (may be non-steady), C(®) remains same everywhere within the fluid at any particular time but it may change with time For steady flow HL ao 13621 and we find 3 +4] ' 13.6.22 Now C should remain same at every point of space and time. This is Bernoulli's theo- rem for steady, irrotational flow of ideal fluids.) V being gravitational potential energy per unit mass, it has a value at a height h from the datum level (= 0) V=gh 13.6.3 13.6.24 When a fluid flows without any space variation of its density (sec. 13.4), we can write from eg. 13.6.17 ly dp aveghs (2 _ and hence 7’ +8 is c Hovey ears) =0 136.25 Since the curl of any gradient is zero, we get from eq. 13.6.25, taking curl, 22 ox Gxv) =0 13.6.26 ar where Gh =Vxyv 13.6.27 and also from eq.13.4.3 V.v=0 13.6.28 £4. 13.6.26-28, describe completely the velocity field. A given G at any instant deter mines v everywhere from eq. 13.6.27 & 13.6.28. Knowing v we can then determine a i Sp from eg. 13.6.26, and hence the new for the next instant and so on. Such # procedure gives the velocity field only. We have lost all information about the pressu 1. The fundamental equation (eg, 13.2.11) of fluid statis is obviously, a special case of Bernoulli's equation 7 13.6.2. With v= 0 and taking gradient of eg. 13.6.22, we find Vp o wi? : eo Now, usingeg. 13.6.15, @ t= vp :583 yechanics of Ideal Fluids a i 6.26) and hence Q a sme t, a also vanishes (eq. 13.6.26) and hen fq =0 everywhere at any tim m1 ntteoss rywhere at f ~ At. That is, if a flow is irrotational at any instant. i wOWs js zero evel . , are so for ever i.e. permanently irrotational. r 3.6.25 we 1 dot product of v into the eg. | Y — 9. If we then take thi tat In steady state =, geusincev.¥7 =O _ vvl(iver+2Z]-0 13.629 7 Pp I payek ie, Y= 2 = aconstant 13.6.30 for a displacement in the direction of fluid velocity (cee. 2.12.1 & fig. 13.6-2) i.e., along a streamline in 13.630 may in general be different for different stream’ valid for a rotational motion also (along a streamline). , teady flow. The constant in eg lines. Zg. 13.6.30 is, however. 13.7 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING BERNOULLI’S THEOREM Various events may bg easily understood with the help of Bernoulli's theorem. The basic principle behind such happenings ig when the velocity is high. the pressure is low and vice versa. a (i) When two ships move side by side and are parallel to each other. they tend to come closer and closer together. The relative motion of the ships w.r.t. water would be the same if the ships were considered stationary and the _ water flowing in the opposite direction (fig. 13.7-1). F \-—™: The water entrapped between the ships moves faster ——: because of narrower space. The velocity v, of water be- <= > =? tween the ships is greater than the velocity v, away from 4“ =: te ships. In consequence the pressure in he water be- = 5 tween the ships is smallel i ZS i ends to bring the ae ships closer. Fos betw haviour of a ball supported in a jet of water or air is explained in a similar manner. If Pi iced f inner. Ifa small ‘pin; 'g-pong’ ball is pla in a vertical stream of water or air, it will ri aed stay at that level, spinning and dancing roti ike uct above the nozzle and rotation as shown in (fig. 13.7-2). Over the surface f velocity cyt oot Se the ball in Dressure less than those at B. The larger pressure at B keeps nce ct" iS higher and the WS The sprayer (fig. 13.7-3), which is used for sprayin the ball pressed to the jet. moving stream of air reduces the pressure at the upper Pheric pressure on the liquid surface pushes the liquid the form of a spray. | a mple. The rapi pidly ube, so that atmos- to be blown out in end of the t UP the tube, (ii) Ball supported by a jet of water or air. The be the = ‘de584 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Mat, Lquia tl Fig. 13.7.2 Fig. 13:73 Numerous other examples may be cited. In a storm, the roof of a thatched house may blow out. This may be understood on Bern ulli’s principle. A high wind blowing over the roof creates a low pressure on the house op. The atmospheric pressure inside the house, where there is no wind, is higher than tuat above the roof. The difference of pressure lifts the roof. A hurricane is a cyclonic storm in which a large mass of air moves ina circle, of which the diameter may be several hundred miles. The central region of the whirling air is called the eye of the hurricane. The wind speed is highest in the eye; hence the Pressure there is lower than atmospheric. The pressure recorded in the eye is about 1-15 Ibfin?, Tornados are much shorter whirls of air, of diameter about 300 to 1500 ft. They move very fast and are much more destructive than hurricanes. When a tornado passes, the outside pressure on house-walls is suddenly reduced. For a house of average size, the passing time is so short (about 1/2 min) that there is no time for equalization of pressure between the inside and the outside. The difference of pressure may be 2 Ib/in. In the case of a house of total wall area 1000 sq ft (20' x 50°) outward force on the walls is about 150 tons. This may cause the house to blow out. In bombed cities during the war it was found that broken glass from windows, littered the streets, not the interior of houses.. The reason is that the blast set up 4 powerful air current down the street. The Pressure in the air current is less than atmos Pheric (by Bernoulli's principle). The air in houses and shops, which was at atmos- pheric pressure, blow out the windows, A person standing near a fast moving train is drawn towards it and may fall into danger. In the Bunsen burner the gas jet from the central nozzle cre- =— weet ates a pressure lower than atmospheric about nozzle. So the at- mospherie pressure forces air through the inlet. This mixes with the gas and burns it. . The water-jet pump is another exaniple. It is used for bring- ing down the pressure of air in a closed vessel to a few centime- tres of mercury. Water from a tap issues in a jet from a small orifice A (fig. 13.7-4). Owing to the high velocity of the jet the pressure is lowered; consequently air enters at B. The vessel to which B is connected is gradually evacuated as the air which is sucked into the jet moves out with the jet. Evacuation continues till the pressure around the jet has come down to the value in the jet. In a good pump it is slightly greater than the vapour pressure Fig. 19.7-4 of water.Mochanics of Ideal Fluids 585 If we take two pieces of paper and blow airin between (fig. 13.7-5) it would be natural to expect that the two picces would be forced away, However, to our astonishment we see that they are attracted towards each other. As the air blows in between, velocity increases and the pressure at A falls compared to the atmospheric pressure at B. ‘This brings the papers closer together. A single piece of paper also moves upward for the same reason when the air is blown at its top. YAS The aerofoil is designed in such a fashion (fig. 13.7-6) that air velocity at the i= — top increases compared to that at the moe bottom, which produces a upward lift on gta the plane wing. Fig. 13.75 13.7.1 Applications of Bernoulli's theorem We consider below a few applications of Bernoulli's theorem. Ex, 13.7-1 Torricelli’s theorem it relates tothe velocity with which a liquid rushes out when a small hole is made in © * lot jay be deduced from ber: oulli's ‘er. The theorem was originally derived by Torricelli, and mi theorem. Fig. 1 represents a liquid flo ‘below the surface of the liquid. ‘on the surface, The pressure at cach point is atmospheri open to the atmosphere. Consider atube of flow which begins on the surface tnd ends at A. Ifthe orifice is small the level of the liquid in the tank will ywing from an orifice in a tank at a depth A isa point at the orifice, and B a point since both are fll only slowly. Its velocity may therefore be taken as zero. Take the teference level at the bottom of the tank. Denoting values at 4 by the subscript 1 and those atthe surface by 2, and calling P the atmospheric ry from Bernoulli's theorem, write Pressure, we ma Fig. 1 Pow P =+L+ gh = —+0+ teh 5 gh, ? or v4, = 2g (hy fy) = 2gh ) ‘This is Foricellis theorem. Note tha the vtocity of discharge ! ; y ge is the sm . f be acquired by a body falling freely fom rest through a height . This wou ig aera aevzle othe orifice so as to send a jet upwards, the jet would reach the same Tevel as the ‘Owing to viscosity of the liquid this never happens siways Were attached t surface inside the vessel. velocity less than J2giClassical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter 1-1 is the area of the opening, the calculated volume of the liquid flowing out per unit time is) Vem Ave Af2gh Z (2) * Vccause the streamlines converge as they appronch the orifice, the cross-section of the stream continues to diminish for a short distance outside the tank, It is the area of the smallest cross-section, Known as the vena-contracta, which should be used in eq. (2). For a sharp-cdged circular opening in athin wall area of the vena-contracta is nbout 62% of the aren of the orifice. This fraction is called the co-efficient of contraction, Ithe discharge tube is rv-entrant, as shown in fig. 2 it is possible to prove that the co-efficient of contraction is exuetly 50%. If we want to stop the outfiow of liquid through discharge tube, we must use a fight lid on which a force not less than F = pA~hpga 6) is to be applied toward left as shown in the fig. 2 where 4 is the cross-sectional area of the orifice, p hipg is the static pressure at the orifice, his the depth of the orifice, p is the density of the liquid and acceleration due to gravity, When the lid is closed, total force on the liquid along horizontal jon, duc to the pressure of the containing vessel is zero. The liquid starts flowing as soon as the lid is removed. When the orifice is small and away from the walls (as in the case of re-entrant tube fig. 2), the Nuid velocity near the walls of the vessels will be very small, In that case the presure at a point ‘on the wall is almost equal to its static pressure, Therefore, when the lid is removed an unbalanced F'= hpgA “ foree acts on the liquid along horizontal direction (toward right). If "is the cross-sectional area of the stream at the vena-contracta, the volume of fluid flowing per second is“) ve Sf dA =A! 6) and the rate of flow of momentum is V'pv = pv! Therefore, from Newton’s second Inw hpgd = pvt! : ) using eg. (1). Velocity of flow is assumed to be same at the orifice and at the vene-contracta, Ex. 13.7-2 Venturi meter This meter is used for measuring the rate of flow of a liqui on the basis of Bernoulli's theorem, Fig-1 illustrates the principle of the venturi meter, It consists of a constriction or throat inserted in n pipe line and having properly designed tapers at the inlet and outlet ends to avoid turbulence and to assure steamline flow. Bernoulli's equation, applied to the wide and to the constricted portion of the pipe, becomes 1 1 pty ow =p ter “ the “A” terms dropping out if the pipe is level. ction! Lite Jn = vA, when v is a constant and parallel to vector dA (i,c., perpendicular 10 the cross S¢* inof ME hon denotes the depth orn int on A.’This approximately happens atthe vena-contracia and Ht nee are eye (and nato the orifice) below the surface of the liquid, Different steams fom all sides wens orifice Therefore, v cannot be parallel to dA end hence "x vA atthe orifice, aa587 lechanics of Ideal Fluids since vis greater than i follows that is less than p,. That is, the pressure inthe throat is anin the main pipe-tine. The pressure difference may be measured by attaching vertical in height of the liquid in the tubes, snallert side bes as shown 1M the figure. If A is the difference i then py ~Pr= PM he cross-sectional areas of the pipe and the throat, then Ira, and A, are Ay Aamo Ma Arla sabitating for vin eg. (1) re-AFFANBINBs We get 1 prope gC At -fy= Eovt(al ny x4 ) ays As | 2(P1= Pp) me AVC = ADP 1 (2) Ay ((agha -B))? id passing any section of the pipe Per | Due to friction atthe walls 4 the actual discharge is less than that given by eq. (2). 2AM 4, isthe volume of the ia andthe viscosity ofthe liqui Ex, 13,7-3 Pitot tube Inis an open ended tube, usually of circular cross-section, pointing directly into the flow of @ liguid and connected to a manometer. . The Pitot tube is often combined with a static pressure tube and connected to a differential sure, from which the flow velocity aanometer The pressure difference measured is the dynamic pre may be computed. The tube can conveniently measut used in aeroplane for finding the air-speed, i the re the velocity ofa fluid flowing in a tube oF pipe. Itis widely speed ofthe plane relative 10 The Ace B ae Fig. 2 Fig. | illustrates the principle, An pen-tube manometer is connected, as shown, to the tube in which the gas is flowing. The opening of the left arm of the U-tube manometer is parallel to the dineton af flow. Hence the pressure atthe lef arm is equal tthe static pressure p in the gas stream Thegpening ofthe Fight am isa igh angles Co the scam "The pressure in it may be found BY applying Bernoulli's theorem 10 the points A AG B. The velocity of the gas at B is zero. Using some nd 2 forthe points and B respectively, we get from Bernoulli's theorem Fig. Lae ptzert = p,+0 w the elevation head being a the same for the two points. ey tein the manometer plas a shown Ip , tre etter and i the dierence aantcn Ifptisthe density of the Liquid in588 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matter 1 2 p'gh= py—py= 7PM which gives v,. Im the case of a liquid flowing in a pipe, the arrangement is shown in fig. 2. AC and BD are vertical tubes attached to the pipe. The opening at A is parallel to the direction of flow, while that at B is perpendicular to it. A and B are also in the same horizontal plane. Eq (1) holds good in this case also. Multiplying v, by the area of cross-section of the pipe we get the volume of the flow per second, In 1732 Pitot first used this tube to measure the variation of the velo city of water flow with depth in a river. ‘The use of Bernoulli’s theorem in Pitot tube is not appropriate when Reynolds’ number (com- puted using external diameter of Pitot tube and flow velocity) is less than 500. Ex. 13.7-4 Air speed indicator Therg is no instrument which will directly tell a pilot the ground speed of his craft. The air speed is, however, easily indicated. The instrument is called an air-speed indicator (ASI) ; it acts on the Principle of the Pitot tube. An 4.5.1 (fig. 1) has two parts — (i) a Pitot static head (S,P) and Pressure measuring aneriod instrument (4) enclosed in a sealed box (B). The Pitot head consists of Fig. two tubes one of which (P) has an open end facing the air-flow and is called a Pitot tube. The other (S) is closed at the end, but along the sides it has several small holes which allow the atmospheric preS- Sure to enter; this tube is called the static tube. These two tubes are generally concentric (as shown separately in the figure) and are connected through transmitting tubes to the inner space outside it, inside the sealed box. The instrument reads the pressure difference between the atmosphere and that setup by the moving air as it enters the open tube. This, we have seen in Ex 13.7-3, is proportional 0 pv?, where p is the density of air and v the speed of the aircraft. Since p varies with height, scored to the reading of the A.S./. is necessary. Another error, called position error, also requires t0 be corrected. The tubes are mounted from the leading edge of one wing, and may be subject to some disturbance due to eddies. This necessitates the second correction, Ex. 13.7-5 “Flight” of a spinning ball A ball, ifgiven a spin when it is thrown or hit, curves, as it moves, in the direction in which it bar Suppose a ball is spinning in a counter clockwise direction while it is moving towards ie e inthe sll ait. The effect would be the same ifthe ball were spinning ona stationary as and moving toward the let (fig 2), The surface ofthe bal being not perfectly smooth a layer of irc to it and is earied around with itasit spins. At point close othe ball the velocity of is ee ‘two components, one due to wind and the other due to the spin of the ball. At ‘a’ these veloc! awi Fluids nies of Idea! Fivi 580 “bin the same direction. The velocity at! being smaller than that periences a greater air pressure at ‘a’ and a smaller pressure at “b’. The unbalanced laces the ball towards the side of ‘b’ as it flies neers no spin the pressure on both sides of the ball would be the same and it will fly own in the fig.1 Fig t forces generated being small the above egse te their high speed and in the case of tennis. table-tenni os notin the case of heavier cricket ball. (In spi bowling, of deflection works in the case of is balis and football. because the ball tums offthe “pitch” Ex. 13.7.5a The “swing” of 2 cricket ball primarily occurs due to the presence of stitches having width about 1.8 om. swing of a cricket bell “seam” on the circket ball. 2 band of six lines of parallel + Turtasert separason Fig. 1. In-swing bowing (fora right-handed batsman) . or the swing of a cricket ball, the ball should move with its seam aligned ata small angle tothe a sd his iment mabe mnteinedeve ring motion ofthe ball 3H y BY axis : masimam thickness isa plane perpendicular Papel Oe eo Oe ee of bail, Ata certain critical speed (v,) the turbulent air-flow eat = passing through centre of on ee of manor thickness. while the laminar flow sill cont seam (A) where it is in front cenind the plane of maximum thickness There is @ large area of law ices ware sie a c pepared wo that on the laminas side. This difference in ee a lace the turbulent side alla space which is called a“swing”. With the pi seclabavrebdermprars lateral deflection of the ao right (ofthe bower). which is an “in-rninger” for aright own in the fig. | the ball deflects from poim B should be in front of the plane of maximum thi (-handed batsman. For an ~out-swinger™590 Classical Mechanics and General Properties of Matte For a cricket ball, the critical speed is about 100— 150 knv/hour. For a very rough ball it is about 75km/hour; Below this speed the flow is laminar on both sides. And when the speed is greater than the "upper critical speed (150 km/hr) the flow becomes turbulent on both sides. The flow asymmetry being lost in these two situations, the ball does not swing at all. This is why neither a slow bowler nor a fast bowler can swing the ball. A new, glossy ball will usually generate laminar flow on both sides. A badly worn ball will induce turbulence on both sides. In both cases flow asymmetry is lost and hence swing is not appreciable. For generation of flow asymmetry bowlers usually keep polishing the one side of the scam against their trousers. f A ball moving at a speed slightly higher than the critical speed may “swing late” due to loss of speed in transit. A “late swing” in the vertically downward direction may “york” the batsman !()) Ex. 13.7.6 Horizontal range Water stands at a height H ina large open tank whose side walls are vertical. A hole is made in one of the walls at a depth h below the water surface. Calculate the horizontal distance x, from the wall at which the emerging stream of water strikes the ground. What should be the value of h, which makes x maximum? From Torricelli’s theorem the horizontal velocity “w’ of the stream at the orifice A is u = 2gh a) Vertical velocity of the stream at A being zero, a particular fluid element will take time ¢ to strike the floor after ejection, given by 2(H =A) Pe (2) where (H — his the height of the orifice above bottom level of the vessel. Therefore, the horizontal range x of the stream at the bottom level is given by xou= (Pgh. pan =2JMH=A @ Squaring the above equation we get (H-h)= O+ dg? = 4Hh—4h? @ : a& For maximum range 7 = 0. Therefore ax 2x = gaan x F : 4H-8h Lhe tH (5) shag 6) and the maximum range is given by Xnax =H @ substituting eg. (5) in (3). Therefore, the stream from the middle depth (4) position reaches the maximum range H at the bottom level of the vessel.) ‘Can you show that the two orifices equally away (vertically)from the middle-depth position of the vessel give the same horizontal range at the bottom level of the vessel? 1. For further detail see, M.M. Sivaramakrishnan, Science Today, September, 1976, 2, Maiti S.N., Bull, IAPT. 16(3), 86 (March 1999)601 syochanies of Idea! Fluids EX. 43.7-7 The speed of efflux ed (vp) of efflux from a side pening (cross-sectional ared Ap) of a Jar (of cross 1 the velocity (¥) of the top surface of the Find the spe “filled with a liquid, taking Into account sectional area A) liquid (a) Applying Bernoullis' equation atthe top surface and at the hole (fig. 1, Ex. 13.71). ly Pody P 2” aly te - zt ah () (at top surface) (at hole) = glhy— hy) = 2gh Q) 2gh eb 6) 3 Yo {#) Now from the equation of continuity (Le. the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics) pAv = pAgvy 4) Using eg. (4) in (3) we get gh 6 (c) When A, << A, we get from eg. (5) Falia(4)] 7 13.8. VELOCITY OF SURFACE WAVE Leta surface wave be propagating along + x axis and the z-axis is perpendicular to the 1 undisturbed liquid surface. ‘The curvature +) of the wave surface along y-axis is assumed to be zero. The origin of the co-ordinate system is taken at the bottom of the container so that the undisturbed liquid surface is given by z = /, where h is the depth of the liquid. The dimension of the container is assumed to be much bigger compared to the wave-length (A) - $0 that the reflection ofthe waves from the edge of the con- tainer may be neglected. Every particle on the surface and within oscillates harmoni- cally due to propagation of wave. ‘They will be displaced both along z and x directions and the displacement along y is assumed to be absent, For propagation ‘of harmonic waves along + x direction, the wave equation has a solution of the form p= (wet + Ber#) sin (or ke) 13.8.1 , 2 and - where o is the angular velocity and = G28 B are constants. When is the velocity potential, it should satisfy >2 592 Classical Mechanics and General Properties Of Matte, 13.8.9 Jor irrotational flow of an incompressible liquid (eq. 13.5.9), which gives k’=k, There. fore. $= (ae! + Be-*4) sin (wt — kx) 13.83 Po. _— Fig. 13.8-4 The velocity v, % at the bottom (z = 0) of the container is zero, which gives, from eq. 13.8.3, a= B and $ = Ag cosh kz sin (wt — kx) 13.84 where 4 = 2o., We now assume that the parameters of the solution (4), h, k) are such that } = 5 (CV @)? term in the Bernoulli's equation can be neglected compared to mi) Sp Then the eg. 13.6.20 becomes, Po- 1a 8 gy ACK) 13.85 ar Pp where po is the atmospheric pressure and p is the density of the liquid. The curvature (3) along y direction being zero, the pressure (p) just below the liquid surface ca be 7 P20 ay expressed as p= Py - 75 (eq. 14.6.1) assuming (2) << 1 (flat wave eq. 13.8.142) where y is the surface tension of the liquid. Differentiating the eq. 13.8.5 wit. 4, Wei! 26, 1% Be tee pet ae er 1. Curvature + is given yt 1-—# _. wave + 2 when %<<1. For convex upward portion oft aypP a ) [-() | (Cond on nest 8 ae | co 13.86593 Mechanics of Ideal Fluids 9 = _ gk sinh ke sin (ot - kx) where = + Agk cosh kz cos (ot - ke) and 2 = Ago cosh kz cos (ot - kx) 13.8.7 Substituting eq. 13.8.7 and 13.8.4 in eg. 13.8.6, we get at the liquid surface (z = h). 3 co’ cosh kh — gk sinh kh TE sinh i) Ain (ot - kx) = 4 (4@) 13.8.8 Pp A function of x & ¢ [here sin (ot - ke) J cannot be equal to a function of ronly [here the co-efficient of A, sin (wt— x) should vanish, which (0] forall x and 1. Therefore, gives 2 1k ve i = (2 tanh kh 13.8.9 and in that case C (/) = 0 which is valid for steady flow only. 13.8.1 Validity of the assumption From eg. 13.8.7 at the surface z = h, = AE (coshkh + sinhkh) Paar < (Ys) mar * nar = A?y2 cosh?kh (1 + tanh?ka) ‘Therefore, the validity of our assumption demands that 2 : yk iret = AWE cosh (1 + tat) << 13.8.10 a pas where ¢ locates the instantaneous vertical position of the liquid Since z =h+G = surface wart, the undisturbed liquid surface (fig. 13.6-1), Bu6 Agk sinh ke sin (wt — #2) 13.811 fe at sinh kz cos (wt kx) 13.8.12 ar i & youghzeroive, 5 ¥S.xis decreasing curve and hence <> g dereass from is postive value ronegative & > p, For concave upward prion of he wave gy aie orn nea 1 st is negative and then P is positive and then P > 2, (1 + tanh?kh) / tanh kh is about 2. Therefore the validity of our assumption demands Sox mon <<} ma << 13.8.14a i.e. the amplitude (C,,,.,) of the wave should be negligible compared to the wave-length (A) (ie. flat wave). 13.8.2 Minimum velocity of the surface wave When the depth (fi) is very high compared to the wave-length (A) of the wave, hI. >> 1, the expression for velocity of surface wave becomes (eq. 13.8.9) v= [84% = (Sh, 2mr 8.15 kp 2m pa _ since tanh ath, 1 for h/N >> 1. When the effect of surface tension (y) is negligible compared to that of gravity, v= sh 13.8.16 2n This is actually the velocity of ong wave (A. -> large). Therefore, the gravity controls the long wave velocity. Now the velocity of small waves (2 —> small) i.e., ripples is given by acy 13.817 pr However, this cannot be sufficiently accurate for the assumption (eq. 13.8.14a) used it the derivation of the eg. 13.8.9. Surface tension, however, controls the velocity of ripples, The velocity of surface wave tends to infinity when 2 tends to either very o¥ or very high values (eg. 13.8.15). Therefore, it must have a minimum value give? > dy ah 0. From eg. 13.8.15 13.818ochonion of Idoal F Fluldo ia Jive, the minimum velocity v,,,, of the surface wave and the corresponding, wave- yiven by ‘min ” , 1 ayy hy > 2m eo and Vin ( , } 13.819 for which the surface tension and the gravity are equally important, For Water Vy,” 23 cals and by 170mm eth 2 4 43.9 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN FLUID MECHANICS 25 and torques ina mechanical system are zero because of Newton's third law (eq, 5.3.7 & sec. 5.5.) and this actually helps to prove the laws of conservation oftotal lincar momentum and total angular momentum in absence of ‘external forces and lorques respectively. In case of a fluid the internal forces are represented by the pressure within the fluid, But the very concept of pressure itself contains Newton's third law implicitly, ‘The forces due to pressure exerted across a surface element within a fluid by ih fluid on the opposite sides are always equal in magnitude and oppositely directed haying same line of action, normal to the surface clement. ‘Therefore, the total forces and torques duc to infernal pressures cancel out, leaving only the external forces and tor- ques (o contribute to the momenta. ‘The conservation of linear and angular momentum thus follow in absence of external forces and torques. QUESTIONS Wha Is an ideal fluid? Find the condition of equilibrium of an ideal fluid under a body force, What condition should this body force satisfy? scal’s aw of transmission of pressure from the condition of equilibrium. From the condition of equilibrium of a uid under gravity (a) find how the pressure will vary with height, and (b) deduce Archimedes’ principle. Whecis meant by the field of low of a fluid? What quantities are of importance in describing thin field? What are flow fines’ and ‘stream lines’ ? What isthe difference between them, and when are they the What is the distinction betw n motion? Establish the relation between them? State the physical content of the equation of continuity in fluid motion, and establish the equation. Find the forms {i) in streamline motion, (ii) for incompressible fluids. What is irrotational flow? What is velocity potential? If} represents velocity potential, what does V9 = 0 imply? What is Bernoulli's theorem? tablish stating clearly the conditions you assume, What ve meant by static head, dynamic head and gravity head? Show how Bernoulli’ theorem is elated to conservation of energy. ‘ye two examples illustrating the action of the theorem and explain them. ratablish Torriceli's theorem, What causes the real flow to depart from the ideal flow? ‘A metal tank has a small hoe in its side 9 fe below the upper level af water, With what velocity will water emerge from the hole? [f this water jet is led by a tube into a closed vessel containing air, what will be the pressure in the vessel? [Ans : 24 fis, 9 fl of water} Deduce Pa: same? between the partial and total time derivatives of a quantity in fluid i