COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

- Computer organization basically defines the computer components, inside computer

as hardware.
- It is also said the attributes or features of computers.
- All the hardware mus be interconnected in order to be an computer organization.
- There is change in computer organization from the previous generation
organization.
- For exam hardware having 8085 mp can't perform multiply task but 8086 mp computer
organization can perform multiplying task.
Hence, all the components, attributes or hardwares of a computer which are
interrealted with each other is known as computer organization.

Introduction to Computer Architecture

- Architecture of computer system can be considered a a catalogue of tools or
attributes that are visible to the user that have direct impact on logical
execution of
program such as instruction sets, number of bits used for data, addressing
technique, etc.
- It includes Design, Logical(attribute, instruction, data, addressing modes,
instruction size), Programming, ALP (Assembly Language Programming),
- An organization is done on the basis of architecture.

MIPS - Million Instruction Per Second

It's Architecture
- Fixed 32 bit instructions
- 3 instruction function
- 32 general purpose register
- Registers size 32 bits
- Two addressing modes: Register addressing mode and Immediate addressing mode

HOMEWORK: Architecture of 8085 mp and 8086 mp.

Why to study computer organization and architecture?

- Computer is the heart of computing.
- Without it, most of the disciplines and theoritical math are of no use.
- There is a need of understanding the computer system functional components, their
characteristics, performance and interaction.
- To select most effectivw computer for use throughout a large organization.

Functions of Computer
- Data Processing: Computer should be able to process data
- Data storage: Computer must store dara at a certain data
- Data movement
- Data control
Note: Memory
is simply a combination od data and address.
Under
CPU => ALU-Control unit-Regidter-Bus
Top level structure of computer
- consists of CPU, Manin memory, input-output and Bus.
- CPU controls the operation of computer and perform its data processing function.
- Main memory stores instructions. It contains RAM and ROM and instruction is
stored by ROM.
- Input-output units moves data between the computer and its external environment.
- Bus is a system interconnection. Connects and comminicates CPU, main memory and
input-output.(group of wires connecting all things together)
- Three types of Bus: 1) Address Bus: By adding addres we can only go to memory.
2) Data Bus: : It helps to connect with data.
3) Control Bus: It controls signals.
Design performance of Computer
- Usually tradeoff standard, cost, memory capacity, latency and throughput.
tradeoff = samjhauta
- Other consideration such as features, size, weight, reliability, expandability
and power consumption also.
- Performance is measured in terms of clock speed (processor frequency).
- Performance can also be measured with the amount of cache memory.
- Other factors such as main memory capacity, Bus speed, Parallel processing, power
consumptions etc.

Computer Functions
- Execution of program which consists of set of instructions stored in memory.
- Instruction processing consist of two steps:
- PROCESSING FETCHES AND DECODE INSTRUCTION FROM MEMORY. fetch: to read
the instruction from the memory address.
decode: to identify the
function or task of the instruction.
- Processor executes each instruction. execute: to
run the instruction to obtain output.
- The processing time requires for single instructions called instruction cycle.

Instruction cycle state diagram

In copy

Bus Interconnection
- Is a communication path way that connects two or more devices.

Traditional Bus is slow because

- not only by memory processor but by all the parts of computers
- there is no involvement of PCI bus

ani high bus architecture ma traditional ko limitation overcome garyera ho

CHAPTER 3

DATA REPRESENTATION
Introduction:
- Digital computer is a digital system that perform various computational tasks.
- All the signals are transferred digitally in computer as binary.
- The word "digital" implies that the information in computer is represented by
variables that take discrete values.
- For e.g; 0, 1 provide 2 discrete values.
- It is easier to realize computing machine with a logic that has only two states.

0-1 = bits
8 bits = 1 byte
2 bits = 1 word

Number Systems
a)Non positional number system: romans
b) Positional number system: binary, octal, hexa, decimal

Binary Number System

- first ko lai most significant bit (msb) ani last ko lai least significant bits
(lsb)
Codes used in Computers
- BCD codes
- XS3 codes
- Gray codes
- ASCII codes

BCD Codes
- Binary Coded Decimal or BCD is simply the 40bit binary code representation of a
decimal digit with each decimal digit replaced in the integer
and fractional parts with its binary equivalent.
- It is dissappeared or not in use because it's 1 digit is equal to 4 bit so it is
not relevant.
For e.g; (10)#base 10 = (1010)base 2 in binary
In BCD (10)#base 10 = (00010000)base BCD which is not correct.

XS3
NOTE: Paila BCD jhikni ani 3 le plus gardini tyo vanyeko 0011.

GRAY Code: can be in any bit 2, 3 ,4 ,5 bits NOTE: IT USED TO GIVE

ANGLES TO THE COMPASS FOR SHIPS
- bit changes when going to next number from right to left. digit ma
- Gray code is also called as Binary Reflected code.
- binary to gray plus garni left to right ma
- ani gray to binary jaada tala bata mathi ko plus garni carry neglect garyera.

ACII Code
- stands for American Standard Code for Informantion Interchange
- It's a 7-bit character code where every single bit represents a unique character.
- It used to send thw signals from one base to another base in military forces.

Complements
- It is used in the digital computers in order to simplify the subtraction
operation and for the logical manipulation.
- For each radix-system (radix represents base of number system) there are two
types of complements.
- Radix complement referred to as the r's component.
- Diminished radiz component is referred to as (r-1)'s complement.

Binary Complement
- There are 2 components: 1's component and 2's component.
- To change binary into 1's component change 1 to 0 and 0 to 1.
- To change binary into 2's component chanfe the binary into 1's component and then
add 1.

9's complement: r = 10 - 1
= 9
Formula: (10^n - 1 - N)
n is equal to the number of digits.

10's complement : 9's complement + 1

10's complement nikalda 10^n matrw hunxa

Representation of Binary Numbers

- Binary numbers can be represented in sign and unsigned way.
- Unsigned for positive only - xutai bit use na garyera sign use garni
- Signed is for both positive and negative (mostly signed way are used) xuttai bit
use garni
2's complement is most significant way for signed numbers
- A signed binary is a specific data type of a signed variable
- Computer uses IEEE standard floating point number. It defines the structure of a
floating point number.

New chapter
Install Linux Inside Windows Using Virtual Box
- Virtual Box is free and open source virtualization software from Oracle.
- it enables you to install other operating systems in virtual machines.

Virtual box
https://www.virtualbox.org/
ISO for Linux
https://www.ubuntu.com/desktop

LOGIC GATES
Definition:
- Logic gates are the block of hardware's that produces the certain output when
input condition are satisfied.
- Basic building blocks of any digital system
- It is an electronic circuit having one or more than one inputs and only one
output.
- AND, OR, NOT gates

Truth Table
- It is the table that contains the inputs and outputs.
- The output is the possible combination of all iutputs.

Types of Logic Gates

- Basic gates
- NOT gate
- AND gate
- OR gate

NOT gate
- y = A'
- It is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output.
- Also known as inverter.

OR gate
- It is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its
inputs are high
- A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation
- It perform logical addition

AND gate
- It is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs
are high

Derrived Logic Gates

- NAND gate
- It is the combination of NOT gate and AND gate.

- NOR gate
- The inclusive NOR (Not-OR) gate has an output that is normally

Universal gate
- NAND logic gate and BIR logic gate are universal logic gates.
- Individual logic gates can be connected together to form a variety.

- Derrived gates
- Buffer gate : j input diyo tei output aauxa (input == output)
- NAND gate:
- NOR gate
- XOR gate
- X-NOR gate

NAND gate and NOR gate are in copy

Exclusive OR gate (XOR)

- the output is HIGH if one, and only one, of the inputs is HIGH. If both inpusture
LOW or both are LOW, the output is LOW.
- same input vayo vanye 0 different xa vanye 1
- Formula: A'B + AB'

Exclusive NOR gate

- input same xa vanye 1 different xa vanye 0.
- Formula: A'B' + AB

Boolean Algebra (10 marks question aauna sakxa)

- It is used to analyze and simplify the digital(logic) circuits.
- It uses the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or
logical Algebra
- Invented by George Boole in 1854.

Memory Capacity
memory - semiconductor device/transistors
stores data and information
DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
- It is read write memory.
- Most common, cheap, less electric power, less heat, smaller space
- Volatile: must be refreshed (recharged with power) 1000's of times each second

SRAM (static RAM)

- volatile

ROM
- Read-only Memory
- ROM is not volatile which means after the shutdown of computers its memory
doesn't lost.

EEPROM
- Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
- It means by using electric circuit we can erase ROM

Fetch-Execute Cycle
- Two-cycle process because both instructions and data are in memory

Fetch
- It reads the instructions from the memory.
Decode
- to find out the functions of instructrions.
Execute
- To show the result of the functions of instructions.

BUS
- The physical connection that makes it possible to transfer data from one location
in the computer system to another.
- Processor, ALU lai interconnect garni lai internal bus vaninxa.
- Sabai vanda important bus Systmem Bus.
It contains Address Bus
Data Bus
Control Bus
- Input/Output Bus- It is used to connect I/O devices and processor.

Bus Characteristics
- Number of separate conductors
- Data width in bits carried simultaneously
- Addressing capacity
- Distance between two endpoints
- Lines on the bus are for a single type of signal or shared
- Throughput - data transfer rate in bits per second

NOTE:
Processing fast input output ma slow huda handshaking use garinxa.

CPU khojyeko data cache memory ma xaina vanye miss and vetiyo vanye chai meet.

Three I/o Technioques

- Program- program run garyera file ya data transfer garyo vanye program vaninxa
- Intr- jaba data hari kunai wire bata transfer garunxa vanye teslai intr vaninxa
- DNA

Liquid Crystal Display

- Fluroscent light or LED panel.
- 3 color cells per pixel

Types
Active matrix LCD
- One transistor per cell
- More expensive
- Brighter picture

Passive matrix LCD

- One transistor per row or column
- Each cell is lit in succession
- Display is dimmer since pixels are lit less frequently

OLED Display technology

- No backlight
- Consists of red, green and blue LEDs
- Each LED lights up individually
- Very thin displays with panels less than 3mm thick

Laser Printer Operation

- Dots of laser light are beamed onto a drum.
Tank of black powder = toner.
Drum passes to another wire called corona wire.

OPERATING SYSTEM
Definition
- It is the type of system software or collection of computer programs which
integrate the hardware resources of the computer.
Note: The operating system itself consists of hundreds or thousands of programs,
each specialized for particular OS tasks.

ConCurrent Operations
- Multitasking
- Multiprocessing

Scheduling
- High-level scheduling: Placed in queue based on level of priority and eventually
executed
- Dispatching: Actual selection of process(es) that will be executed at any given
time
Preemtive: euta kei kam vai rakhda tei bela aru kam aauda tyo kal le vai
rako kam ko process lai rokyera aafno kam garni