NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Module 2
Cellular Organization and Function

Overview/Introduction

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Understanding the structure and
function of a cell helps you understand the behaviour of a tissue. In this module, we will be talking in
detail about the structures that are inside and outside of the cell and how their function helps in the
survival and adaptation of an organism. This module includes the behaviour of a cell in its environment
as well as cellular repair and reproduction. Cellular Transport is also an important study because this is
one important foundation in study of diseases.

3. Learning Outcome/Objective

After this module, you are expected to

1. Identify cellular organelles and their function
2. Describe the behaviour of cell in different tonicity of its environment
3. Trace the movement of materials that enters and exits the cell
4. Describe the events happening inside the cell during cell division
5. Compare and contrast mitosis from meiosis

4. Learning Content/Topic

CELLULAR ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTION

The cell is organized in three general sections. The Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm and
Nucleus. The Cell membrane is the outermost covering of the cell. It separates the Cell from its
environment. Everything that enters and exits the cell must pass through the cell membrane. The
cytoplasm contains a lot of organelles which functions differently. The Nucleus contains the genetic
material of a cell in the form of DNA. This DNA is inherited by the person from each parent. Below is
a diagram of a cell

7
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Below are the Functions of a Cell

1. Metabolize and release energy
• chemical reactions that occur within cells
• release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
• cells differ from each other because they synthesize different kinds of
molecules
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis

The Cell Membrane

The cell membrane plays a dynamic role in cellular activity. It encloses the cell and it supports the cell
contents. It protects the cell contents by selectively regulating what goes into and out of the cell. The cell
achieves this function by means of the Membrane Gates and Channels. It also contains receptors in its surface
that receives chemical signals coming from the external environment. These receptors responds to hormones,
neuronal signals, drugs and enzymes making this module an important in the study of pharmacology and
diseases. Enzymes in the Cell Membranes speeds up chemical reactions helping in transport and metabolism in
the cell. The attachment proteins in the cell membranes helps materials like metabolic requirement and
byproduct, hormones, other cells and enzymes connect with the cell. The internal side of the cell, bounded by
the cell membrane, is called intracellular (intra- within, cellular –cell) while the external side of the cell is called
extracellular (extra- outside, cellular- cell). Fluids bounded by these compartments are named intracellular
fluids and extracellular fluids. Extra cellular fluids are again subdivided into intravascular fluids (inside the
blood vessels), interstitial fluids (between the cells), transcellular fluids (fluids in urinary bladder, gall bladder,
eye balls, etc.
The Cell Membrane is made
of a double layer of lipids with
imbedded, dispersed proteins. These
proteins are the marker molecules,
attachment proteins, transport
proteins, enzymes, receptors and
gates discussed earlier. The bilayer
consists mainly of phospholipids and
Cholesterol (20%). Phospholipids have
hydrophobic (hydro – water, phobia –
fearing) tails and hydrophilic (hydro –
water, philia – loving) heads. The
cholesterol in the other hand gives the
cell membrane added strength and
flexibility. You can imagine the cell
membrane like a basin with lots of
pingpong balls and other type of balls
like baseball, soccer ball, basketball,
volleyball, tennis ball. They float and
move pass with each other.
Materials move pass through
the cell membrane through various methods namely osmosis, diffusion, mediated transport and vesicular

8
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

transport. Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of greater concentration to an area of lower
concentration with a solvent. The movement can be visible until the solvent is uniformly saturated with the
solute. This state of uniform distribution of solute molecules within a solvent is called equilibrium. The mixture
of liquids, gases or solid in which the substances are uniformly distributed with no clear boundary between
substances is called a solution. The solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. The concentration
difference between two points is called the Concentration gradient. You can better appreciate this concept if
you have a hot water in a transparent cup and pour in a teaspoon of black coffee. The color of the water where
you dropped the coffee turns black until the coffee diffuses to the entire cup of hot water. Once the coffee
reaches equilibrium, it looks like the movement of coffee has stopped. Try it now.
Diffusion of substances across the cell membranes behaves differently. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse
directly through the plasma membrane, most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through
plasma membrane while some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels
or other transport proteins.
The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane via diffusion is called
osmosis. In diffusion, the solute moves (coffee in our previous example) while in osmosis, water will be the
one moving. Always remember that water follows where the solute (salt and sugar in most discussions later)
when placed in a selectively permeable membrane. The force required to prevent the movement of water
across a selectively permeable membrane. Given a two compartment with different osmotic pressures
bounded by a selectively permeable membrane, water will move to the area with greater osmotic pressure,
usually the one with greater concentration of solutes. You can observe this using a succulent fruit like papaya
or sayote. Try grating the fruit and pour salt into it and let it stay overnight. You will soon observe that the fruit
sagged and your container had a lot of water because salt has a high osmotic pressure and it attracted the
water inside the fruit. In the practice of nursing, you will soon be administer Intravenous Fluids and enemas to
your patient. You will also be rotated in the dialysis units. This concept of fluid balance is one of the most
important foundation in these practices. Isotonic or isosmotic (iso – same, tone- tonicity or concentration)
solutions have the same concentration of particles as a reference solution. Most of the fluids administered
intravenous (intra-within, venous – veins) are isotonic or isosmotic. Hyperosmotic or hypertonic (hyper- high)
solutions have a greater concentrations of solute particles than a reference solution. Hyposmotic or hypotonic
solutions have a lesser concentrations of solute particles than a reference solution. The blood responds
differently to different solutions. If the blood is bathed in a hypertonic solution, the solution will attract the
water molecules inside the blood thereby allowing the blood to shrink. If it was placed in a hypotonic solution,
the salt in the blood will attract the towards the blood making it swell or hemolyze (hemo-blood, lyze – lysis or
burst open

Mediated Transport
Mediated Transport is the process by which proteins mediate, or assist in, the movement of ions and
molecules across the plasma membrane. The transport system is specific, meaning each transport protein
moves only a specific type of molecule. There also exist a competition when similar molecules or ions compete
for a transport protein. If all the transport proteins are saturated, the rate of transport cannot increase
because all the transport proteins are in use. You can picture this when people are trying to ride a bus or train
during rush hours. There is only one door where people can enter the bus or train. If the door is already used,

9
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

other passengers cannot use it until the door is vacated. There are three general types of transport
proteins. Channel proteins are simple form of membrane channels. Some molecules can only enter a cell when
they bind to a carrier proteins. Carrier proteins binds to molecules or ions and transports them. Examples of
Carrier proteins are uniport, symport and antiport. Uniport (Facilitated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule
down its concentration gradient. Symport (Cotransport) moves two or more ions or molecules in the same
direction. Antiport (counter transport) moves two or more molecules in opposite directions.

The last type of Mediated transport is the ATP - Powered pumps where ions and molecules are moved against
their concentration gradients using the energy from Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). These high energy
molecules changes configuration to the transport proteins to allow movement of molecules without regards to
concentration gradients. ATP are the energy used by most cells, and it came from the nutrients we take into
our body after being metabolized. A classic example of this is the sodium-potassium pump (additional reading)

Vesicular Transport (Mass Transport)

This is the transport of large
particles and macromolecules across
plasma membrane. Endocytosis is the
movement of materials into the cell by
formation of a vesicle. Phagocytosis
(Phage-eating, cyto – cell), commonly
called “cell eating”, is the movement of
solid materials into the cell. The cell
engulfs the material to be absorbed. This
is the common method how the White
Blood Cells take in bacteria or dead cells
and viruses for disposal. Pinocytosis
(Pino-drink, cyto – cell) commonly
known as “cell drinking”, is the uptake of
small droplets of liquids and materials in
them. Receptor – mediated endocytosis
involves plasma membrane receptors
attaching to molecules that are taken
into the cell. The secretion of materials
from cells by vesicle formation is called Exocytosis (exo- exit, cyto – cell). This commonly happens when
proteins are formed and exits the cell to be distributed to the to the different tissues of the body.

The Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the area between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane (membrane
covering the nucleus) it consists of cytosol (cyto – cell, sol – liquid) and organelles (organ – functioning
structures, ---ells – small). The cytosol is fluid part where chemical reactions occur. It contains cytoskeletons

10
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

(cyto-cell, skeleton – support) and cytoplasmic inclusions. Cytoskeletons support the cell and enables cell
movements. These movements can be achieved because of the Microtubules (micro-small, tubules –rods)
which provides support and aids in cell division. The actin filaments support the plasma membrane and define
the shape of the cell while the intermediate filaments provide mechanical support to the cell. Cytoplasmic
inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell. Usually these are raw
materials or materials produced of cellular metabolism.

The Organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are specialized subcellular structures with specific functions. They are either
membranous or nonmembranous. Membranous organelles are Mitochondria, Peroxisomes, Lysosomes,
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus. Examples of nonmembranous organelles are centrioles and
ribosomes.

The Nucleus
The nuclear envelope consists of two separate
membranes with nuclear pores. This membrane encloses
the jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and associated proteins are
found inside the nucleus. DNA is the hereditary material of
the cell and controls the activities of the cell. It contains
the genetic linrary with blueprints of nearly all cellular
components. It also dictates the kinds and amounts of
proteins to be synthesized. It is safe to say that most of the
proteins in the body is copied form the blueprint coming
from the information hidden in the DNA Understanding
this concept in a greater detail will help you understand
the disease process of mutation and cancer formation.
(additional readings). The information in the DNA is
transcribed to (Ribonucleic Acid) RNA and translated into a
usable protein. Any damage in the DNA information may
lead to the formation of different protein and could start a
disease. (name substances that could cause damage to the
information stored in the DNA).
The nucleoli are a dark staining spherical body
within a nucleus. It consist of RNA and proteins and
produces the ribosomal RNA (rRNA). This is the site of
ribosomal subunit assembly. The Ribosomes are site of
protein synthesis. These organelles come as free
ribosomes where they are not attached to other organelles. They function as site of protein synthesis inside
the cell. Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These
ribosomes produces proteins that are secreted from the cell and sent to other cells needing the proteins.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

These are series of membrane forming sacs and tubules
that extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm. The two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum are
the Rough ER and Smooth ER. The rough ER is studded
with ribosomes and is the major site of protein
synthesis. The proteins synthesized in the rough ER are
usually transported out of the cell. The Smooth ER does
not have ribosomes attached to it. It is usually involved
in lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of
glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifying drugs.
In testes, it is responsible for the formation of the
steroid based hormone testosterone. In skeletal and

11
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

cardiac muscles, it is called sarcoplasmic reticulum and is involved in the storage and release of calcium used
for muscle contractions.

The Golgi Apparatus

This organelle is a series of closely packed
membranous sacs that collects, package and
distributes proteins and lipids produced by the Rough
and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. It packages the
secretions into small, membrane- bound sacs that
transports material from the Golgi Apparatus to the
exterior of the Cell. The process of transporting
materials from the cell is called exocytosis, mentioned
earlier. Blue Print of DNA are stored in the nucleus
and transcripted into an RNA and then transported to
the rough ER for translation, these proteins are then
transported to the Golgi Apparatus to package for
exocytosis

Lysosomes
These are membranous bags containing
digestive enzymes. Its main function is to digest
bacteria, viruses and toxins. It also degrades non-
functioning organelles. Lysosomes helps the body
metabolism by breaking down glycogen to
produce glucose and releases thyroid hormones.
None useful tissues and cells are also broken
down. Lysosomes are also important in bone
remodelling because it breaks down bones to
release Calcium ions. Most of these organelles are
found in white blood cells and immune cells.
Lysosomes can be formed by the endoplasmic
reticulum and buds off from the Golgi Apparatus

Mitochondria
The body metabolism and activity require energy. This
energy comes from the food a person eats. These foods
comes in the form of Carbohydrate, Protein and Fats. These
food products are absorbed in the intestines and
transported by the blood to the cells. It then is transformed
into an Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) inside the
Mitochondria. The mitochondria is the major site of ATP
production via aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is a
type of metabolism that requires Oxygen. This in turn is the
reason why we have to breath oxygen. There is another type
of metabolism called anaerobic (an-basence, aero – air)
metabolism where oxygen is not needed. The Mitochondria

12
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is infolded to produce cristae. It contains its own
DNA and can produce some of their own proteins. It can also replicate independently of the cell

Peroxisomes

These are membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases and functions to breakdown fatty acids, amino
acids and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). They detoxify harmful substances and neutralize dangerous free radicals.
Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons like Oxigen Free radicals and Hydroxil
Radicals (OH). A common household substance related to this is the “Agua Oxinada” or some Brands of bleach
that is made of hydrogen peroxides. (look at your activity). When you wipe a wound with cotton bathed with
Agua Oxinada, you can observe bubbles forming out. This is because the peroxidase in your peroxisomes are
neutralizing the Hydrogen Peroxides forming Oxigen gas bubbles. This is an effective disinfectant because we
as humans have peroxidases while bacteria, viruses and fungi don’t have these peroxidases. Hence, Hydrogen
Peroxide can’t harm us while becoming toxic to microbes.

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Centrioles are cylindrical organelles

located in the centrosome. They are
Pinwheel array of nine triplets of
microtubules (micro-small, tubules-
tubes). The cytoplasm has a
specialized zone called centrosome
where the site of microtubule is
formed. Microtubules called spindle
fibers extend out in all directions from
the centrosomes. This is evident
during cell division and is prominent
in the flagella of sperms, cilia and
microvilli of other special cells.

Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli.

Flagella is a whiplike structure at the posterior end of a sperm. they function in propulsion and
locomotion of the sperm so that it could reach the egg for fertilization (union of sperm and egg) to occur. Cilia
is a broom like structure at that helps propel materials along the cell surface. Examples of these structures are
found in the airway of the respiratory system. These cilia brushes mucous and inhaled dusts towards the
throat so that it will be moved for the person to cough out or swallow. Microvilli are finger like projection in
the cell membrane and functions in increasing the surface area of for absorption. This can be found in the
intestines where absorption of nutrients happen. Do not confuse yourself with the “villi” from microvilli. The
villi are extensions of the intestinal wall while microvilli are extensions of intestinal cells, though their function
are both for increasing the surface area for absorption of nutrients

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
13
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Proteins are either structural or enzymatic. Structural proteins are important for repair of damaged
tissues and for growth. Enzymatic proteins are important in improving the chemical reaction process in the
body. These proteins are formed inside the cell where the DNA serves as master blueprint. The DNA is made of
Nucleic Acid base pairs of purine and pyrimidine. The DNA controls enzyme production and cell activity. The
DNA contains segments, called genes, carrying instructions for a polypeptide (poly – many, peptide- bonds
forming proteins) chains. These genes are read in triplets of nucleotide bases forming a genetic library. Each
triplet specifies coding of an amino acid.
Proteins Synthesis is a twostep process. During Transcription, the cell makes a copy of the gene
necessary to make a particular protein, the Messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA then travels from the nucleus
to the ribosomes where the information is translated into a protein. During Translation, the mRNA enters the
ribosomes and a Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the amino acid necessary to synthesize the protein carried by the
mRNA. (watch the uploaded video for a visual explanation).

Here is a step by step overview of protein synthesis.

1. DNA contains information necessary to produce produce proteins. During the Transcription, one DNA strand
results in mRNA, which is a complimentary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make protein.
2. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome
3. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosomes by tRNAs
4. in the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds
and arrangement of amino acid in the polypeptide chain

1. Teaching and Learning Activities

Library work (supplemental topics)

Study of Anatomy and Physiology has its unique vocabulary. Medical Terminologies used are very
dynamic such that root words, prefixes and suffices are used. In addition to the directional terms and
regional terms used in this module, list as many terms using the table below as a format

Term Root word Prefix/Suffix Meaning

Example
Adrenal Renal (Kidney) Ad (above) An organ above the kidney

Tachycardia Cardia (heart) Tachy (increased) Increased heart rate

Hyperventilation Ventilation Hyper (increased) Increased depth and rate of breathing
(Breathing)

Experiential learning
Write your experience about the following activities.
1. Using a thermometer, measure your temperature and describe how you feel
2. Wear two sweaters and jog stationarily for 1 minute.
3. Describe how you felt and experience before, during and after the activity.

6. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

You will be given Edmodo problem sets after completion of this module
Watch my lecture about this chapter in my YouTube Channel (MARK GALING CHANNEL) and then like,
comment and subscribe.

7. Assessment Task
1. Using your own language or dialect, define Anatomy and Physiology and describe their
relationship
2. Arrange the organization of human body from smallest to biggest
3. Match the body system with their function (matching type)
4. Supply the regional terms that matches each landmark

14
 NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ISU Echague – College of Nursing

5. Identify the characteristics of life that is being described

6. Give examples of positive and negative feedback mechanism

8. References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

Geb, Elaine N. (2019), Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8th Edition

Philip (2009), Seely’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, McGraw Hill Publications

15