1.

Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a search-based optimization technique based on the principles of Genetics and
Natural Selection. It is frequently used to find optimal or near-optimal solutions to difficult problems which
otherwise would take a lifetime to solve. It is frequently used to solve optimization problems, in research, and in
machine learning.
2. Soft computing is the use of approximate calculations to provide imprecise but usable solutions to complex
computational problems. The approach enables solutions for problems that may be either unsolvable or just too
time-consuming to solve with current hardware. Soft computing is sometimes referred to as computational
intelligence.
3. Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes
the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software.
Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects.
4.

5. Applications of hard computing are mobile robot coordination and forecasting combinational problems. If we
want to solve the deterministic problems, we can use a hard computing approach. As the problem grows in size
and complexity, the design search space also increases.
6. Hard computing is a traditional computing. It requires a precisely stated analytical model and usually a lot of
computation time. It strictly follows known steps to solve a task as opposed to soft computing which is heuristic.
7. Examples of soft computing
 Handwritten Script Recognition
 Image Processing and Data Compression
 Automotive Systems and Manufacturing
 Soft computing based Architecture
 Decision Support System
 Power System Analysis
 Bioinformatics
 Investment and Trading
8. Characteristics of Soft computing
 Soft computing provides an approximate but precise solution for real-life problems.
 The algorithms of soft computing are adaptive, so the current process is not affected by any kind of
change in the environment.
 The concept of soft computing is based on learning from experimental data. It means that soft
computing does not require any mathematical model to solve the problem.
 Soft computing helps users to solve real-world problems by providing approximate results that
conventional and analytical models cannot solve.
 It is based on Fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, machine learning, ANN, and expert systems.
9.

Parameters Soft Computing Hard Computing

Computation Takes less Takes more computation

time computation time. time.

Dependency It depends on It is mainly based on binary

approximation and logic and numerical
dispositional. systems.

Computation Parallel computation Sequential computation

type

Result/Output Approximate result Exact and precise result

Example Neural Networks, Any numerical problem or

such as Madaline, traditional methods of
Adaline, Art solving using personal
Networks. computers.

10. Applications of soft computing

There are several applications of soft computing where it is used. Some of them are listed
below:
o It is widely used in gaming products like Poker and Checker.
o In kitchen appliances, such as Microwave and Rice cooker.
o In most used home appliances - Washing Machine, Heater, Refrigerator, and AC as well.
o Apart from all these usages, it is also used in Robotics work (Emotional per Robot form).
o Image processing and Data compression are also popular applications of soft computing.
o Used for handwriting recognition.

11. What is Soft Computing?

https://www.elprocus.com/soft-computing/
12. HARD COMPUTING
https://www.worldofcomputing.net/basics/hard-computing.html

Unit- 3
1. What is a Neural Network?
An artificial neural network learning algorithm, or neural network, or just
neural net, is a computational learning system that uses a network of functions
to understand and translate a data input of one form into a desired output,
usually in another form. The concept of the artificial neural network was
inspired by human biology and the way neurons of the human brain function
together to understand inputs from human senses.
2. Applications of neural networks
 Image/pattern recognition,
 self-driving vehicle trajectory prediction,
 facial recognition,
 data mining,
 email spam filtering,
 medical diagnosis,
 and cancer research.
3. Types of neural network
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
 Convolution Neural Networks (CNN)
 Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN)
4. Define adaptive network
https://blockgeni.com/what-is-adaptive-neural-networks/
https://blockgeni.com/what-is-adaptive-neural-networks/
During training or learning phase the weight vectors are continuously updated
according to some learning rule till the target is achieved .hence this phase is
called adaptive
5. Limitations of Adaptive Resonance Theory
Some ART networks are inconsistent (like the Fuzzy ART and ART1) as they
depend upon the order in which training data, or upon the learning rate.
6. Applications of FFNN
 Data Compression.
 Pattern Recognition.
 Computer Vision.
 Sonar Target Recognition.
 Speech Recognition.
 Handwritten Characters Recognition.
7. Deep Neural Networks (DNNs)
Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) are typically Feed Forward Networks (FFNNs)
in which data flows from the input layer to the output layer without going
backward³ and the links between the layers are one way which is in the
forward direction and they never touch a node again.
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN, or ConvNet) which is a class of deep
neural networks which is most commonly applied to analysing visual imagery.
8. Advantages of FFNN;
The handling and processing of non-linear data can be done easily with a neural
network that is otherwise complex in perceptron and sigmoid neurons. The
excruciating decision boundary problem is alleviated in neural network.
9. ADAPTIVE REAONANCE THEORY
The adaptive resonance theory (ART) has been developed to avoid the stability-
plasticity dilemma in competitive networks learning. The stability-plasticity
dilemma addresses how a learning system can preserve its previously learned
knowledge while keeping its ability to learn new patterns.
10. Applications of Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)
 Prediction problems.
 Language Modelling and Generating Text.
 Machine Translation.
 Speech Recognition.
 Generating Image Descriptions.
 Video Tagging.
 Text Summarization.
 Call Center Analysis.
11. The Q-Value is the maximum expected reward an agent can reach by
taking a given action A from the state S
12. Reinforcement learning is an area of Machine Learning. It is about taking
suitable action to maximize reward in a particular situation. It is employed by
various software and machines to find the best possible behavior or path it
should take in a specific situation.
13. Unsupervised learning, also known as unsupervised machine learning,
uses machine learning algorithms to analyze and cluster unlabeled datasets.
These algorithms discover hidden patterns or data groupings without the need
for human intervention.
14. Example diagram of unsupervised ML

15. THE ADAPTIVE RESONANCE THEORY (ART) has been developed to

avoid the stability-plasticity dilemma in competitive networks learning.

16. Reinforcement
UNIT-4
1. There are three operations: 
 fuzzy complements,
 fuzzy intersections,
 fuzzy unions.
2.

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning/definition Example

≡ equivalence identical to

x x variable unknown value to find when 2x = 4,

then x = 2

:= equal by equal by definition

definition

≜ equal by equal by definition

definition

3. Fuzzy relation defines the mapping of variables from one fuzzy set to
another. Like crisp relation, we can also define the relation over fuzzy sets.
4. Operations of Fuzzy relation
a. Union
b. Intersection
c. Complements
d. Projection
e. Composition
5. Fuzzy composition
Fuzzy composition can be defined just as it is for crisp (binary) relations.
Suppose R is a fuzzy relation on X × Y, S is a fuzzy relation on Y × Z, and T is a
fuzzy relation on X × Z.

6. Membership function
7. important points relating to the membership function −
 Membership functions were first introduced in 1965 by Lofti A. Zadeh in
his first research paper “fuzzy sets”.
 Membership functions characterize fuzziness (i.e., all the information in
fuzzy set), whether the elements in fuzzy sets are discrete or continuous.
 Membership functions can be defined as a technique to solve practical
problems by experience rather than knowledge.
 Membership functions are represented by graphical forms.
 Rules for defining fuzziness are fuzzy too.
8. Fuzzification
It may be defined as the process of transforming a crisp set to a fuzzy set or a
fuzzy set to fuzzier set. Basically, this operation translates accurate crisp input
values into linguistic variables.
9.

10. Fuzzy rule is a conditional statement. The form of fuzzy rules is given by IF
THEN statements. If y is B THEN x is A, where x and y are linguistic variables,
and A and B are linguistic values determined by fuzzy sets.
11. Fuzzy logic is a logic operations method based on many-valued logic rather
than binary logic (two-valued logic). Two-valued logic often considers 0 to be
false and 1 to be true. However, fuzzy logic deals with truth values between 0
and 1, and these values are considered as intensity (degrees) of truth.
12. Fuzzy reasoning, also known as approximate reasoning, is a inference
procedure that derives conclusions from a set of fuzzy if-then rules and known
facts.
13. Fuzzy Inference System is the key unit of a fuzzy logic system having
decision making as its primary work. It uses the “IF…THEN” rules along with
connectors “OR” or “AND” for drawing essential decision rules.
14. A fuzzy expert system is a collection of membership functions and rules
that are used to reason about data. Unlike conventional expert systems, which
are mainly symbolic reasoning engines, fuzzy expert systems are oriented
toward numerical processing.
15. Block diagram – fuzzy expert system

16. Types of Decision

a. Individual Decision Making
b. Multi-person Decision Making
c. Multi-objective Decision Making
d. Multi-attribute Decision Making
17. Properties of Fuzzy Sets:
a. Involution
b. Commutativity
c. Associativity
d. Distributivity
e. Absorption
f. dempotency / Tautology
g. identity
h. transitivity

Unit-5

1. ANFIS:
An adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system or adaptive network-based fuzzy
inference system (ANFIS) is a kind of artificial neural network that is based
 on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system. Since it integrates both neural
networks and fuzzy logic principles, it has potential to capture the benefits
of both in a single framework.

2. The ANFIS structure consists of five layers,

1. fuzzy layer,
2. product layer,
3. normalized layer,
4. de-fuzzy layer, and
5. total output layer
3. Fuzzification layer- In this layer, each neuron represents fuzzy sets.
Fuzzification neuron receives input and output and determines the degree to
which this belongs to the neuro fuzzy sets.
4. The CANFIS model combines fuzzy input with a modular neural network to
rapidly explain poorly defined intricate functions using a basic component of
fuzzy axon which applies a membership function (MF) to the input.
5.

6. Decision Tree is the most powerful and popular tool for classification and
prediction. A Decision tree is a flowchart-like tree structure, where each
internal node denotes a test on an attribute, each branch represents an
outcome of the test, and each leaf node (terminal node) holds a class label.
7. Recursive partitioning is a statistical method for multivariable analysis.
Recursive partitioning creates a decision tree that strives to correctly classify
members of the population by splitting it into sub-populations based on several
dichotomous independent variables

8. CART Algorithm features

  The CART algorithm is nonparametric, which means it does not rely on
data from a particular distribution.
 CART allows you to use the same variables many times in different tree
parts. This ability can uncover complex interdependencies between
groupings of variables.
 To allow decision trees to overgrow, halting limitations can be relaxed,
and the tree can then be pruned to its desired size. This technique
decreases the chances of missing essential structures in the data
collection by finishing too quickly.
 CART does not respond to outliers in the input variables.
 CART can select the input set of variables.
9.