Basic introduction to radioactivity,

radiation and radiation dose

Ivo Rausch, PhD
Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

1
Overview
Introduction to radioactivity
Radioactive decays
Radiation types
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation interaction with mater
Interaction with biological tissue
Dose quantities
Stochastic and Deterministic effects
Risk related to dose
Ivo Rausch
Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 2
Introduction

IF you google radioactivity…

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 3
The atom and it’s core

Core Atom Shell

Neutrons Protons Electrons

A Nuclide is caracterized by ist: Notation:

 Proton number Z
 Neutron number N
 Mass number A = Z + N

Atom = Core (protons + neutrons) & electron shell (electrons)

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 4
The atomic core

The atomic core has a shell

structure similar to the
electron shell

Protons and neutrons itself

consist of quarks

The nucleus consists of particles in a “shell-like” structure

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 5
Radioactivity

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 6
Radioactivity

Radioactivity =
Spontaneous emission of
radiation resulting from
changes in the nuclei
Transition to an energetically
Fission
favourable state
a

e+
Discovered by Henry Becquerel
e-
in 1896

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Radioactivity

Different decays:
Fission
 Alpha decay =
emission of an 4He core
a
 Beta decay =
e+
emission of an e- or e+
 Gamma decay =
e-
emission of a photon
 Fission =
splitting of a nuclei

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The alpha decay
The alpha decay is a spontaneous
emission of a He nucleus (2p + 2n)

 A He core is formed within the

nucleus -> gain in binding
energy
 Gained energy causes a
elevation of the He core’s energy
level
 He core is separated through the Image: Hanno Krieger,
ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1
quantum mechanical tunneling
effect.
Alpha decay: emission of a Helium nucleus
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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 9
The beta decay

For nuclei with a fixed mass e+

number a proton can transform to e-
a neutron (+) and vice versa (-)

Image: Hanno Krieger,

ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1

Beta decay: Interchanging protons and neutron

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 10
The beta decay
+ decay - decay
proton excess neutron excess
ve
e+ ve
e-

p n p n

Beta decay needs to fulfill charge conservation

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Electron capture (EC)

proton excess causes Missing electron in shell is

+ decay or EC replaced by other shell
electorns -> caracteristic x-ray
e-
g

p n

A shell electron can be absorbed in a p -> n transition

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Positron annihilation

The positron is the antiparticle

(„anti-matter“) to the electron and
511 keV
thus, will annihilate with an electron

Laws of conservation need to be e+

fulfilled e- ~180°
 momentum conservation:
2 photons in opposite direction 511 keV
 Energy conservation:
2 x 511 keV photons

Positron annihilation = converting mass (e+ & e-) into photons

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The gamma decay

After a particle emission (or fission) a

nucleus may not end up in its ground
state. Similar to excited electrons in the
shell characteristic radiation is emitted
as a nucleaon relaxes to its ground
state.
The energy difference is then emitted
as radiation
 Gamma radiation

Gamma radiation is caused by re-arragnements of the core

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 14
Gamma decay example

Protduction and decay of 99m-TC (common isotope inNuclear

Medicine)

Image: Hanno Krieger,

ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1 Image: http://mt-
lectures.blogspot.co.at/2016/09/lecture-4-
radiopharmaceuticals.html

Energy schemes can be quite complicated in reality

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 15
Law of decay

The activity (A) of a substance is the expected number of

disintegrations in a period of time and is given in Units of
Becquerel (Bq) [1/s].

A spontanious decay is a statistical process and can not be

predicted. However, the probability ( ) of a decay occurres in a
certain time frame (dt) can be given.

Spontaneous radioactive decay follows an exponential law

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Half life

The half life is the time in which ½ of all initial cores have
decayed.

100
Half-life = 10 time units

80
60
A(time) [%]

40
> 5 half-lives almost
no change in A

20
0
/ 0 20 40 60 80 100

time

Half life is the time within which 50% of the isotopes decayed
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Interlude: Bremsstrahlung

Charged particles which are

decelerated loose there energy
by emitting photon radiation

For electrons in matter the

deceleration is caused by the
interaction of the electric field
of the atoms with the electrons
Image: https://thephysicsbehind.com/

Deceleration (Acceleration) of charged particles causes the

production of photons (x-ray) -> “Bremsstrahlung”

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Interlude: X-ray tube

X-ray tubes are based on the production of bremsstrahlung.

X-ray tubes basically shoot electrons against a metal

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Radiation

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Types of radiation

Ionizing radiation (in medicine) can originate from radioactive

decays or can be produced artificially (e.g. X-ray)

Particle radiation:
 electrons / positrons Alpha

 -particles Beta

Gamma
Electro Magnetic radiation
 Photons Paper Aluminium Lead

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Ionizing radiation

Radiation which is able to cause ionizations in mater:

One common definition > 10 eV (ICRU Report 85)

Can be particle radiation or photon radiation

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Photon interaction with matter
Image: http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod3.html

For x-ray and Nuk-Med imaging of relevance:

photoelectric effect and Compton scattering
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The photo effect
Absorption of a photon by an electron of the shell.
 Total photon energy is absorbed and converted to kinetic
energy
 The electron leaves the atom
 Most relevant in high Z material for x-rays (bone tissue)
Image: Hanno Krieger,
ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1

~ .

Statement
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The Compton effect
Scattering of a photon with an
electron of the shell
 Part of the photon energy is
absorbed and converted to
kinetic energy of the electron
 The electron leaves the atom
and the photon changes its Image: Hanno Krieger,
ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1
energy and direction
 Most relevant in low Z
material for x-rays (soft
tissue)

Statement
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Different effects for different energies

Lead Z=82
Photo effect
Compton
scattering Pair
production

Ca Z=20

Image: Hanno Krieger,

X-ray ISBN:978-3-8348-0801-1

The dominating effect is dependent on the photon energy and

the attenuation material
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Attenuation of photon radiation

Attenuation of photons means that photons interact with

matter. The linear attenuation coefficient ( ) describes the
percentage of photons interacting with matter per unit path
length (dx).

Attenuation of a single photon is a statistical process and can

not be predicted. However, the probability ( ) of an
interaction along a certain pathlength (x) can be given.

Attenuation of photons can be described by an exponential law

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Radiation
and biological tissue

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Dose Quantities

Physical quantity
• Energy Dose

Radiation protection quantity

• Equivalent dose Img: Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, GER

• Effective dose

Dose is a scalar value -> one value for each point in space

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 29
Energy dose (D)

Locally absorbed energy per unit mass

Ein Eout

D is given in units of Gray = Joule per kilogram

Corresponds to a increase
of T of 0.00024°

Energy dose = deposited energy per unit of mass

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Interaction with biological tissue

Direct interactions
Direct damage of the DNA,
organelles…

Indirect interactions
Formation on reactive
molecules in the water content
of the cell
Reactive molecules cause
damage by chemical reactions

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Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

The LET describes how much energy an ionizing particle

transfers to the traversed material per unit distance.

g


- particles: high LET (therapy)

 - particles: medium LET (therapy)
g - radiation: low LET (diagnosis)

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Interlude: Quality factor

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Equivalence dose (H)
incorporates the biological efficiency of the radiation type. It is
given in units of Sievert.

Q is the “quality factor” and

Type of radiation wr
dependent on the LET of the
X-ray, gamma, e-,e+ 1
radiation. In practice Q is
Protons 5
substituted with wr which is an
Alpha 20
approximation of Q.

Energy dose multiplied by a radiation specific factor

accounting for differences in biological effectiveness

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Effective dose (E)
describes the risk related to radiation exposure for the whole
body. E is, like H, given in Sievert.

is a factor describing the relative sensitivity to radiation for

each organ in the human body. Thus, an E of 1 Sv is describes
the hazard related to irradiation the whole body with 1Gy of
photon radiation.

A measure of the risk related to the radiation exposure

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Effective dose (E)
A simple example:
Just the lung and skin was irradiated each
with 1 Gy of photons )

Lung Skin

This corresponds to the same risk as a

irradiation of the whole body with 0.13 Sv
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Calculating Dose

Energy dose can be calculate if you know:

 Radiation type
 Radiation intensity
 Material composition

Equivalent dose further requires:

 Biological effectivnes of the radiation

Dose calculation can be done using Monte Carlo simulations

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Why radiation protection

Prevent occurrence of serious radiation-induced

conditions in exposed persons. These include acute
and chronic deterministic effects

Reduce stochastic effects in exposed persons to a

degree that is acceptable in relation to the benefits
to the individual and society from the activities that
generate such exposure
After NCRP Report 116, 1993

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Deterministic & stochastic effects
Courtesy of Barbara Knäusl

Probability of effect
Severity of effect

Threshold

Dose Dose

Damage depends on absorbed dose Severity is independent of absorbed

Threshold exists dose Probability of occurrence
depends on absorbed dose

Example: cataract, erythema, Example: radiation induced cancer,

infertility genetic effects

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Example deterministic Effect
Local iradiation during multiple angiography procedures
accumulated to ~ 20 Gy
www.auntminnie.com

6-8 Weeks 16-21 Weeks 18-21 Months

Depigmented Deep necrosis
Erythema skin with central with atrophic
necrosis borders
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Deterministic Effects
Deterministic effects start at about 250 mGy
0.25-1 Gy slight changes in Blood detectable
1-2 Gy nausea, changes in blood (Lymphozytes )
2-3 Gy nausea (vomiting). After ~2 weeks, anorexia, diarrhoea, sore throat..
3-6 Gy same as above within a few hours, infections…
~1000 Gy immediate death due to destruction of nerve system

Mouse

Human

Dose – effect curves LD 50/30 table

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Stochastic effects
Risk assessment based on the atomic bomb survivors of WW2
1 Sv ~ 5% increase in risk of dying from cancer

>1Gy

~500 mGy

< 5mGy
Douple et al. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2011

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Annual per capita exposure in AUT
Effective dose [Sv]: 1 Sv ~ 5% increase of cancer risk

Example: Annual radiation exposure per capita in Austria

Medicine

source: www.ages.at

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Typical medical radiation doses
https://www.dochandal.com

Nuclear medicine examinations: 1 mSv – 10 mSV

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Dose of medical personnel
Heidbuchl 2014

Accumulation of dose can be a problem for medical staff

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Radiation exposure

External External Internal

Irradiation Contamination Contamination
Inhalation
* Activated air; dust

Ingestion
Contaminated food

* Permeation
Skin, cuts

Multiples pathways for a radiation exposure

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Radiation protection

Four basic principles:

1. Source strength
2. Time
3. Distance
4. Shielding

If there is less radioactivity you get less dose

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Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering 47
Radiation protection

Four basic principles:

1. Source strength
2. Time Dose
3. Distance
4. Shielding

Time

Half the time in the radiation field means half the dose

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Example: Staff exposure
Chest dose [mSv] to staff per 1’000 patients and 370 MBq FDG per patient

optimized procedure

1.75
1.50
1.25
dose at chest [m Sv]

1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
daily QC unpacking, dispensing transport to injection patient to patient connecting I- removing patient off
to hotlab patient toilet positioning contrast drip needle table
injector

Pakbiers et al, EANM Conference records, abstract #471, 2005

Careful patient positioning vs. Staff exposure
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Radiation protection

Four basic principles:

1. Source strength
2. Time
3. Distance
4. Shielding Distance Dose
2-fold 1/4
3-fold 1/9
10-fold 1/100
1/2 4-fold

Double the distance reduce the dose by a factor 4

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Radiation protection

Four basic principles:

1. Source strength
2. Time
3. Distance
4. Shielding

Use shielding … where appropriate !!!

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Limitations for Effective Dose

Calculations are not subject specific – just general estimations

JNM 1993

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Risk is related to age

G Brix et al. EJNMMI 36, 2009

370MBq FDG FDG-PET/CT Huang et al. Radiology 251, 2009

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Risk assessment for small doses
WR Hendee and MK O‘Connor.
Radiology, 2012

• Impossible to predict cancer incidence/death in

a population of individuals exposed to doses
< 100mSv.

• Children are recognized as part. susceptible to

radiation injury, and care should always be
exercised to keep dose as low as possible

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Risk assessment for small doses

Douple et al. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2011

It is unclear what happens after exposure to small doses

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Nuclear Medicine Patients

Indications for PET/CT

Oncology 86% Cardiology 2%

Neurology 11% Other 1%

Average patient age ~60 a

Most patients have an extremely low probability to live long

enough to see a radiation induced late term effect
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What you should remember…

 Radioactivity (what means isotope, different kind of decays,

decay law)
 Radiation (kinds of radiation, definition ionizing radiation)
 Interaction of photons with matter (Compton scattering and
photoelectric effect, law of attenuation)
 Interaction with biological tissue (direct-/indirect interaction,
stochastic-/deterministic effect)
 Dose quantities (Energy-, equivalence- and effective dose and
limitations)
 Most important factors for radiation protection (Time,
Distance, Shielding)

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ivo.rausch@meduniwien.ac.at
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