Cartography and GIS

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

Ing. Robert KLÍR, PhD., MBA1

Assoc. Prof. Ing. Róbert ROZENBERG, PhD.2
Ing. Stanislav ĎURČO, PhD.3
1
Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Aeronautics, Slovak republic
2
Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Aeronautics, Slovak republic
3
Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Aeronautics, Slovak republic

ABSTRACT
Navigation represents one of the basic means of spatial orientation. It is an inevitable
prerequisite of proper and exact defining one´s and that of the destination required.
The correct way of navigation is performed as the precondition of efficiency in making
the further move. For transportation, navigation is one of the pillars of the efficiency
and safety as well. In our times, navigation makes use of in a wide spectrum
of technical means and equipment, which enable high-precision navigation not only
in aviation. It has not been quite the case in this manner so far. The article is aimed
to point out the fact that within the general navigation there exists a special kind
of navigation. Currently, this kind of navigation is exclusively used in astronautics.
Under terrestrial conditions its role is rather marginal, but still retaining a high level
of importance. It is the only method that enables orientation in an area and by
comparing some parameters also helps defining time, all that without complex technical
means or tools. This very type of navigation is termed as celestial navigation. The parts
of the article are not devoted to the theoretical starting-points, calculation or demanding
terminological apparatus, but instead, to pointing out the simple and more
understandable mechanisms to be made use of quick orientation and finding the actual
fix by means of the major celestial bodies. Part one is focused on the brief description
and categorization of the far remote stars and constellations and their importance for
navigation. The parts that follow are devoted to the basic principles and simple methods
of orientation by constellations and objects of the Solar system, including the Moon.
The separate parts of the article make use of simple and concrete examples to explain
the ways that enable us to most precisely define the actual position, also in time so as to
facilitate planning a journey further along.

Keywords: general navigation, astronautics, terrestrial conditions, stars and

constellations, solar system

INTRODUCTION
Current navigation instruments perform several operations automatically, without
human intervention. The feature facilitates the action, but at the same time provides
opening for lower level of attention in the field of navigation. navigation system failure
or any other kind of unforeseen situation, involving higher stress, might end up at best
in loss of orientation, and at worst case scenario in an accident. If instruments are
functioning to standards, reinstatement of the original mode of operation is a matter of
several seconds, only. More complex situation develops in case when the instruments
fail to operate at all or indicate anomalies, and more to it, all that happens by night.
20th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2020

Paradoxically, it is the night time that provides plenty of points of orientation that might
come handy for quick orientation in a situation like that. This is why navigation by
celestial bodies, used already in the ancient times, has retained its importance even these
days. There are lots of ways of taking advantage of the celestial bodies´ positions not
only for finding one´s actual position on the Earth´s surface.

CELESTIAL BODIES OUTSIDE OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Since the very beginnings of its existence, mankind has been fascinated by the positions
of cestial bodies. Aerial observation enables us to see approximately 6-8 thousand stars
in the night sky. With regard to the shape of the Earth, as much as 3-4 thousand stars
can be seen from a single place. Ancient observers already came to realize that some
phenomena visible in the sky are repeated periodically. In search of some natural laws
underlying those repetions, they uncovered several basic principles and knowledge that
have remained in use till today.
The oldest constellation was defined well before the very first civilizations, more than
6000 years ago. Their given names were reflecting notions taken mostly from the
ancient mythology. This is why we have constellations are called as Cassiopeia (Cas),
Andromeda (And) or Perseus (Per).
Taking into account their actual position, changes due to shifts or turns made in the sky,
lots of fundamental information for navigation can be obtained. According to the actual
positions of the constellations in the sky, it is possible to define the season of the year or
even the time of the day at the very place from where the observer is situated.
In the course of the history the number of constellations has been changing and their
boundaries has never been set unambiguously. The most famous complete survey of
constellation was the one containing 48 constellations defined by Claudius Ptolemy
almost 2000 years ago. The importance of this division classsification has been
acknowledged by the fact that 47 of the 48 are in use in the current atronomy, too. Only
one of them went fell out, namely the Argo Navis, which was subdivided into four
smaller constellations. On the historical maps of the night sky one can find
constellations unknown to the astronomers of these days. They have either been
cancelled or their names have no longer been used. Currently, astronomers divides the
night sky into a total of 88 constellations, which are defined by their specific
arrangement of bright stars with set boundaries. Typical examples of constellations are
those most famous ones such as the Ursa Major (UMa) or Ursa Minor (UMi) on the
northern hemisphere of the Crux (Cru) on the southern hemisphere. Also well-known is
the constellation called Orion (Ori).
Astronomy of these days classifies constellations into three basic categrories, which are
further subdivided into smaller groups, namely:
• According to observable to constellations:
o Circumpolar;
o Rising;
o Non-Rising;
• According to transiting levels, constellations are:
o Ecliptical (Zodiac);
o Constellations of the Celestial Equator;
o Constellations of the Galactical Equator;
 Cartography and GIS

• According to the origin of their names:

o Ptolemaic;
o Modern.

CELESTIAL BODIES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Rated among the celestial bodies of our solar system is primarily the Sun as a central
star, the planets and their natural satellites. Observation of the planet only with a naked
eye is a relatively difficult for inexperienced observer. The simplest way of detecting
one´s actual position, or orientation, the two largest objects in the sky can be used,
namely the Sun and the Moon.
Determining the four cardinal points using the Sun appears to be a very simple task, at
first sight. The method is based on the fact that the Sun rises in the East and sets in the
West. When defining the cardinal points, however, care must be taken in case when the
observer is standing on the northern or on the southern hemisphere. It is the crucial fact
that affects the accuracy of determining thedirections of the four cardinal points. Based
on the motion of the Sun, not only the cardinal points can be defined but also the actual
position of the observer. Prior to the introduction of modern navigation aids, this task
was readily solved using two devices, i.e. the sextant and the octant. They are still in use
to these days, but not so often as before. In principle, the two instruments are quite
similar, but a relatively complex mathematical knowledge is required to make good use
of them.
The Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. It rises over the horizon in the East and its
trajectory over the sky ends by setting in the West. At first sight, it provides only
a minimum of information for navigation, but the opposite is true.

DETERMINING THE OBSERVER´S ACTUAL POSITION ON THE EATRH

The actual position of the observer can be found out with the help of several celestial
bodies present in the sky. By day it is primarily the Sun that offers a great amount of
information, and by night it is the Moon again as well as the night sky full of stars.
By day there is a simple way of determining the observers position, as the Zenith of the
Sun is in the vicinity of the Terrestrial Equator (varies ± 23,5° of latitude). Despite of
this instability, it is possible to find a relatively precise fix in every season. For exact
location of the observer´s position only a single input is needed, the date. It forms the
basis to futher procedures to be taken. Essentially, there are two ways of finding a
latitude. One is more time-consuming but more accurate, whereas the other one is faster
but less acccurate.
Of high importance at both procedures is the plane of mesurement and a fixed object
capable of casting a shadow. At the fastest way of measurement, it is suitable to ensure
a horizontal plane of measurement, if possible. The procedure of finding the position is
principally similar in both ways. At the beginning, a fixed point in the plane is to be
selected. With the help of the object serving for measurement, it is necessary draw
a circle around that selected point. Its real size is unimportant, as it is relevant only
when highly detailed measurement is required. An important condition, however, is the
perimeter of the circle made. It is to be identical with the length of the object used. Then
the object, which cast shadow, is to be positioned into the marked centre of the circle.
20th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2020

When applying the fastest way of measurement, the shadow–casting object must be
inclined so that the top of the shadow touches the circle drawn up. The angle between
the horizontal plane and the inclined object corresponds to the latitude of the observer´s
position. This condition is satisfied only when the measurement is made at noon and on
an equinoctial day in spring or in autumn. This is the time when the Sun´s Zenith is over
the Terrestrial Equator (equal day and night). The day when at noon the Sun is at its
highest point over the horizon (midday). Therefore, it is important to take into account
both date and time of measurement. Both parameters (date and time) are directly
proportional to the position of the Sun with reference to the horizont, consequently they
directly affect the length of the shadow cast.
When performing measurement on
days other than recommended or at
different times of the day, it is
necessary to take into account the
change in the Zenith of the Sun during
the days of the year individually (see
Figure 1). This can be achieved by
adjusting the magnitude of the absolute
angle between the plane of the
measurement and the object to be used
for casting the shadow. That angle will
always vary by 0,25° every day.
Figure 1 Affect the lenght of the shadow by date Erreur !
Source du renvoi introuvable.[11]

If measurement is made at high noon, i.e. at 12:00 of astronomical time, at the place of
measurement, it is not necesssary to make further corrections of the measured angle, as
the Sun at that time is at its highest point over the horizon for the given day. If
measurement is made at a different time of the day, the position of the Sun with
referenece to the horizon is to be taken into account. The shadows generated by the
sunlight are the longest in the morning and in the evening, when the Sun is low over the
horizon. The correct resulting angle will be generated by the change in the angle
measured by cca 15° for every hour of the time difference between the time of
measurement and the time at noon, 12:00.
Although the longer way of measurement is more time-consuming, on the other hand it
provides the benefit of obtaining more
information necessary for finding the
exact fix of the observer (see Figure 2).
It is of advantage that there is no need
for inclining the shadow casting object
and the time of the day is not to be
taken into account either. However,
one condition is to be fulfilled: the
shadow casting object should be
perpendicular to the plane of
measurement. Vertical positioning can
be achieved in seceral ways not
requiring complex sighting.
Figure 2 More informtion by measuring [9]
 Cartography and GIS

At this way of finding the observer´s fix it is mportant to add markings on the plane of
measurement at regular time intervals namely at the point where the top of the shadow
is situated. The duration of intervals is unimportant, but their lengths, however, are of
high importance and they must be equal. In doing so, there appears a second circular
sector on the measurement plane. Judging by the mutual position of this circular sector
and the original circle drawn at the beginning, it is not only possible to find the
relatively accurate position of the observer but also to exactly determine the four
cardinal points.
The shortest shadow is cast at high noon and is directed towards the geographical pole.
If the observer is situated on the northern hemisphere, then the shadow will be directed
to the north pole. If the observer is situated on the souther hemisphere, the shadow will
direct to the southern geographical pole. Therefore, it is also important to find out as
first on which hemisphere the observer is situated. In this case, it is about adhering to
the simplest procedure. It suffices to monitor the movement of shadows cast by
anything in the vicinity. If the shadow tops are moving clok-wise, the observer is
situated on the northern hemisphere. If counterclokwise, i.e. in the opposite direction,
then the observer is situated on the southern hemisphere.
Determining the approximate position according to the night sky is a bit simpler than by
day, as there are lots of points for orientation. In this regard, an important role is played
by the Moon and the constellations as well.
According to the phases of the Moon, it is not only possible to determine the four
cardinal points but the time or even the actual poistion of the observer. This process is
dominantly affected by the orbit of the Moon around the Earth and the actual phase of
the Moon, too. What the observer on the Earth can see is either the gradually increasing
of sun-lit surface of the Moon, which at the latitudes of Central Europe, at the beginning
of the cycle appears to take the form of the the letter „D“, which following the Full-
Moon is gradually reducing and transforming into the letter „C“ until New-Moon.
However, it is completely different at other latitudes of the Earth as a result of the
different position of the observation planes. In the area of the Terrestrial Equator the
sunlit face of the Moon is turned by
90° and at the southern hemisphere by
180°. It means that in the equatorial
area, one can observe a phenomenon
when in the first quadrant the upper
hemisphere of the Moon is lit and in
the last quadrant it is the lower
hemisphere of the Moon that is fully
lit. On the southern hemisphere of the
Eatrh it is quite the opposite to the case
as in Europe (see Figure 3). This
phenomenon can be used to determine
the observer´s position and the four
cardinal points as well. Figure 3 Phases of the Moon

If the observer connects one of the perimeters of the sunlit surface of the Moon with the
second perimeter of sunlit or dark Moon surface, then the imaginary extension of this
line towards the horizon will always point towards the Terrestrial Equator. It means that
20th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2020

the line will point to the south on the northern hemisphere and to the north on the
southern hemisphere. The inclination of the imaginary connetion of one sunlit end of
the Moon´s surface with its other end will produce a relatively accurate position of the
observer. On the geographical poles, the connecting line of these two point will be
perpendicular to the horizon, while at the Terrestrial Equator the connecting line will be
parrallel to the horizon.
An important role in searching for the observer´s actual position is played by the
circumpolar constellations. By changing the observer´s position in north-south direction
causes all circumpolar constellations of the northern hemisphere to gragually change
into rising and later into non-rising ones. On the other hand, on changing observer´s
position further to the south, after crossing the terrestrial equator new (southern)
circumpolar constellations are starting to appear. It follows that being familiar with the
individual constellations will be of great help in defining the latitude of the observer´s
position with high level of accuracy, all that without any technical equipment.
It is also easier to define the cardinal points according to the circumpolar constellations.
On the northern hemisphere rated among the most important ones are the Ursa Major
(UMa) and Ursa Minor (UMi), and on the southern hemisphere is dominated by the
Crux (Cru). The importance of the Ursa Minor constellation is emphasized by the
Polaris star (α UMi). It is the 48th brightest star of the night sky on the northern
hemisphere and from the Earth it appears to be the northernmost star. It means that its
Zenith is above the imaginary geographical north pole. Currently, the anti-pole of the
Polaris star (α UMi) is the smallest constellation, namely the Crux (Cru). This group of
stars is made up only of four stars, and its Zenith is situated over the imaginary
geographical south pole. By measuring the angle between the position of these stars on
the horizon and the perpendicular line drawn towards the Earth´s surface, it is possible
to obtain a relatively accurate latitude of the actual observer´s position.

DETERMINING THE ACTUAL TIME AT THE OBSRVER´S POSITION

In order to obtain an accurately define the actual observer´spoition, it is inevitable to
know not only the latitude, but the longitude as well. If the observer is knowledgable of
the actual astronomical time at the observation post, it is then possible for him to define
the exact geographical longitude of his position. To do so, a simple expression is used,
namely the time-difference of 60 minutes corresponds to the 15° difference
geographical longitude. By comparing the time determined with the help of celestial
bodies with the GMT or with that for the position known in advance, it is possible to
obtain a relatively accurate geographical longitue at the given position.
In order to determine astronomical time by the Sun, it is necessary to have the cardinal
points as first. If they are known, then it is possible using the cardinal points and an
imaginary dial plate to define the approximate astronomical time at a position. When
determining time, it is inevitable to take into account the system of time (summer /
winter) as well as the actual position of the observer, present either on the northern or
southern hemisphere. The procedures of determining the time applied to the each of the
cases will differ slightly.
During the night, it is possible to determine time relatively quickly. The approximate
astronomical time can also be deterermined by judging the individual phases of the
Moon and its position over the horizon (See Table 1).
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Table 1 Position of the Moon by phases and time

waxing first waxing full waning third waning
time
crescent quarter gibbous moon gibbous quarter crescent
06 PM SW S SE E NE --- ---
09 PM W SW S SE E NE ---
midnight NW W SW S SE E NE
03 AM --- NW W SW S SE E
06 AM --- --- NW W SW S SE
Accurate determination of time or season of the year is possible by way of making best
use of our knowledge regarding the ecliptical constellations. Based on the constellations
rising on the eastern horizon, it is possible to determine and define not only the season
but the approximate date in the year, all that with great accuratcy.
Time on the northern hemisphere can be defined quite accurately with the help of the
Ursa Major (UMa) and Ursa Minor (UMi) constelations. However, it will provide the
momentary star time not the astronomical one. If the observer is
knowledgable of the star time and the actual date, then, based
on the astronomical time, it is quite simple for him to calculate
what the time is. These clock are single-pointered, which is
always rotating around the Polaris (α UMi). The pointer is
created by the connecting line between the Polaris and the 4th
star of the drawbar connecting the car with the wheels.
The dial of this clock is divided into 24 parts, when the hand is
aiming northward (down) i tis 00:00, when pointing eastward, it
is 6 o´clock, when pointing southward (up) , it is 12 o´clock,
and if it is pointing twestward, it is 18 hours of the star time
(see Figure 4). An important fact that these heavenly clocks are
running counter-clockwise. Figure 4 Star clock [8]

There is a difference between star time and daily time, which is caused by the fact that
the Earth is revolving around the Sun. Both times are equal only on the equinocturial
day in autumn. Otherwise it holds that the star time is running ahead of the solar time by
4 minutes per day, making almost two hours per month. Consequently, if the shows 6
hours of the star time, on the 23rd of December, in fact it is 0 astronomic time (6-2*3 =
0), i.e. exactly midnight. December is three months later after September (autumn
equinoctial date), so the difference between the star-time and solar-time is exactly 6
hours.

CONCLUSION
Whereas travellers and companies making use of the services offerred by transport
companies are interested primarily in the beginning the destination and the length of
time it takes to get there, transporting companies are concerned with safety as first.
Consequently the crew must be knowledgeable not only where from, and where to, and
along which route to travel but also where they actually are at the given moment. It is of
particular importance in aviation or naval transportation where there are no fixed routes
compared to with road traffic and railway.
20th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2020

These days, almost everything is controlled automatically, employing more and more
complex technical means and technology. All that also involves a substantial deal of
risk in terms of failures or malfunctioning of instruments failures. Therefore, it is
recommended to have created some conditions for quick orientation for the crew such
as making use other sources available. Celestial bodies, such as the Sun, Moon and the
planets of our solar system, as well as the stars and constellations existing billions of
kilometers far away provide some level of certainty for quick orientation when lost, or
experiencing failure of the modern navaids.
The article has been basically aimed not to offer a detailed manual for navigation by
celestial bodies. Many of the procedures described above are so simple that they cannot
be applied to aviation or naval transport under standard conditions. It was aimed to
point out mainly the fact that for the purpose of orientation in an area it is not inevitable
to rely on sophicticated technical means, but there exists a less demanding way of
finding one´s poistion quickly, safely and without the help of technical equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The paper was prepared within project APVV 17-0167 Application of self-regulatory
methods in preparation of flight crews.

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