Unit 1: Life Skills

1) THE CONCEPT OF LIFE SKILLS

Life skills are the abilities and behaviors that help you deal effectively with the

events and challenges of everyday life. They are the skills that allow you to handle

everything from interactions with others to identifying and processing your

emotions.

Life skills include psychosocial competencies and interpersonal skills that help

people make informed decisions, solve problems, think critically and creatively,

communicate effectively, build healthy relationships, empathize with others, and

cope with managing their lives in a healthy and productive manner.

What are the basic elements of life skills?

These life skills include problem solving, critical thinking, communication skills,

decision-making, creative thinking, interpersonal relationship skills, self-awareness

building skills, empathy and coping with stress skills.

What is the importance of knowing about life skills?

In everyday life, the development of life skills helps students to: Find new ways of

thinking and problem solving. Recognize the impact of their actions and teaches them

to take responsibility for what they do rather than blame others. For instance,

Note

Interpersonal skill is the ability to interact with people through effective listening and
communication. It is important for you to have interpersonal skills because it helps you connect with
people and benefits your personality development too. Generally, you learn interpersonal skills at
school itself with your teachers and classmates. I want you to evaluate yourself about your
application of the interpersonal skills.
 2) TYPES OF ESSAY CONCLUSIONS

Note

Essay conclusions are, as a rule, no more than one paragraph in length. To have a

lengthier conclusion is to introduce a new topic or bring in too much information to

neatly wrap up the essay. Many students are under the impression that the conclusion

should be a summary of the essay, touching on all the points as a reminder to the

reader. While this may be true in some disciplines (especially, within the social

sciences), it is not the most creative or interesting way to conclude an essay for your

English class. Instead, consider one of the following possibilities as you write your

concluding paragraph.

i. The Embedded Conclusion

In some cases, especially with a narrative essay that tells a personal story in

chronological order, the conclusion can be the last paragraph of the body. For

instance, if you are telling the story of how you learned the English language, and

the last paragraph brings us to your current state of increased confidence mixed

with lingering cautiousness, then that last paragraph gives us a solid place to part

company.

Example:

I am now studying English in an ESL class at Cabrillo College. I know this is not the

last leg of my journey, for I have a lot more to learn about American idioms and

phrasing. However, even as I struggle, I feel more confidence than ever before. I

am so far getting “A” grades on all my written assignments. Still, I will always feel

cautious, like I am walking on egg shells, as I try to use a language that is so different

from the one, I was born into in a land faraway.

 ii. The Retrospective Conclusion

For a narrative essay, or for any essay that uses chronology or traces an historic

movement, you may want to consider the retrospective conclusion. This concluding

paragraph uses “hindsight” to consider what came before with new insight gained

from experience.

Example:

Ten years ago, I would never have believed that I would be living in the United States

and using English to buy groceries and make new friends. I would have fainted at the

thought of writing professional documents in the English language. Nonetheless, here

I am, writing an English essay in my first college English class and expecting to

receive an “A.” Time will tell how far my English studies will take me.

iii. The Reflective Conclusion

The reflective conclusion is similar to the retrospective kind, but it allows a broader

train of thought as one considers the various themes, lessons, or insights that have

emerged from the essay writing experience.

Example:

In choosing to approach life’s challenges from a passive position, many teens see

their bad choices as a result of their circumstances. Whether it’s an unwanted

pregnancy, a drug addiction, or an abusive relationship, girls especially can make

excuses so that they don’t have to change. I wish I could tell them that they don’t

have to be imprisoned by their past choices—it’s never too late to take charge of

your destiny.

iv. The Projective Conclusion

This type of conclusion works especially well for research papers but can be used

for most expository essays and some narrative ones as well. It involves projecting a

future outcome of the circumstances you describe. It may project the negative
results of a social issue if it remains unresolved or a threat to humanity. In other

contexts, this conclusion can state a need for further research in an area to enhance

our understanding, or it could predict an interesting, unexpected outcome based on

current trends.

Example:

A crisis continues to brew in our school systems where it is no longer the case of

just bullies turning to serial violence. As we saw in the Columbine shootings, even

victims of chronic bullying, in an attempt to fight back and regain some power or

dignity, are taking up arms and gunning down their classmates. Case after case shows

us that criminal violence amongst school-aged children in America is not limited to

just males or pinned to any one ethnicity or socioeconomic class. It is a crisis of the

generation gap increased by rapidly changing technology and a lack of real

communication. Unless we start talking to each other, more of our youth will die, and

children will be safer on the streets than they are in the schoolyard.

The above four types of conclusions are not meant to limit you but to give you

guidance as you apply your own unique stamp of creativity to your essay. The most

important factor in writing your conclusion is that you give yourself enough time to

experiment with a few possibilities. Don’t deny yourself the creative thrill of that

final flourish!

3) Grammar: Active and Passive Voices

What are active and passive voices?

Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a grammatical subject

performs the action or is being the receiver of the action. In grammar, the voice of
a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb

expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.).

1. Active voice: - means that a sentence has a subject that acts upon its verb.

A sentence is written in active voice when the subject of the sentence is

performing the action.

The Active Voice: Form

(It follows a clear SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT construct)

For example, “John hit the ball.” John (the subject of the sentence) acts in relation

to the ball. Examples

-The award-winning chef prepares each meal with loving care.

-The researchers compared the behavior of two groups of children.

-Students need good study skills to succeed in college.

- We took our children to the circus.

-A thief stole my money.

When Active Voice is Appropriate or Preferred to use?

• To focus readers’ attention on the actor, not what is being acted upon.

E.g. The army kills civilians carelessly.

• When it is important that readers know exactly who did (or said) what to

whom.

E.g. When U.S. troops invaded Iraq, they carelessly killed many civilians.

In the above example, the active voice has been used because the writer wanted to

name or emphasize the actors (U.S troops), not only their actions.
2. Passive Voice: - means that a subject is a receiver of a verb's action. A sentence

is written in passive voice when the subject of the sentence has something done

to it by someone or something.

The Passive Voice: Form (Be + Past Participle)

The passive voice is formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (be, am, is,

are, was, were, being, been) followed by the past participle of the main verb.

For instance, Each meal is prepared with loving care by the award-winning chef.

The children were taken to the circus.

My money was stolen.

The behavior of two groups of children was compared (by the researchers).

Good study skills are needed to succeed in college.

WHEN TO USE PASSIVE VOICE?

Although active voice is generally preferred in academic writing, passive voice is

acceptable under certain conditions. Thus, it is appropriate when we want:

• To focus attention on the process or materials, rather than on the actor, as

in scientific or technical writing.

E.g. -Next, salicylic acid was added to the test tube.

• To focus attention on the object, rather than the actor.

E.g. Paper, the main writing material today, was invented by the Chinese.

Here, this is appropriate when the focus is on the history of paper, not on Chinese

innovations. Choosing passive voice allows the writer to use “paper” as the subject of

the sentence.

• To connect ideas in different clauses or sentences more clearly.

E.g. When interviewing for a job, avoid making grammatical errors.

They are often used by employers to weed out job applicants.

• To emphasize the receiver of the action instead of the doer

Examples:- Quizzes are given regularly.

Grades for all students are averaged.

Questions are encouraged.

• When we do not know who performed the action:

Examples:- Ray's calculator was made in Germany.

The answers have been filled in.

• when we do not wish to mention the doer of the action:

Examples: Many problems have been ignored for too long.

I was given some bad advice.

Note: This use often reveals an unwillingness to take responsibility (or place it on

someone else).

Substitute: For:

“A mistake was made.” ……………………….“I made a mistake.”

“I was given some bad advice.” ..………. “Abebe gave me some bad advice.”

• When we want to sound objective or avoid using the subject “I”

Examples: -Studies have shown . . .

-It is well-known . . .

-It can be assumed . . .

• To keep the focus on the same subject through several sentences or

paragraphs

My sister and I grew up and went to school in Jamaica. We were educated according

to the British system. In 1997 we were given the opportunity to come to the United

States. We decided to finish high school before leaving our own country. We were
concerned that the education in this country might not be as good as the one we

had there, and we wanted to improve our English too.

Note: Reading the following table, compare active voice and passive voice in

different tenses.

Tense Active Passive = Be + Past Participle

Simple Present A committee chooses the winner. The winner is chosen by a

committee
Present Contin. They are presenting an award now. An award is being presented now.

Future They will pick the best movie. They The best movie will be picked. The
are going to pick the best movie. best movie is going to be picked.
Simple Past They announced the winner’s name. The winner’s name was announced.

Past Continu. They were interviewing the winners. The winners were being
interviewed.
Present Perfe. They have chosen the best movie. The best movie has been chosen.

Modal You can see the movie on DVD. The movie can be seen on DVD
 UNIT II

SPECULATIONS ABOUT THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE

Part II Grammar: Future Tense

In grammar, a future tense is a verb form that generally marks the event described

by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future

(Wikipedia). It is the verb tense used to describe a future event or state of being.

For example, -I will jump in the lake. (This is a future activity.)

-We shall move to another city. these examples are future indefinite tenses

-He will come to New York.

There are four future verb tenses in English:

1. Simple future tense. {Subject + will + V1}

The simple future is a verb tense that's used to talk about things that haven't
happened yet. For instance, this year, Kadir will study peace and development.
It will be hard, but she has determined to do it.

Uses:
 The simple future tense is used when an action is promised/thought to occur in

the future.

E.g. I hope, You will marry me. The president will allow this. She will be a doctor soon.

 The simple future tense is used to predict a future event.

E.g. It will rain tomorrow.

 Use the simple future tense to express a spontaneous/instant decision.

In short, we need to use the simple future tense to talk about an action or condition
that will begin and end in the future.
 2. Future continuous tense.
Form: (Subject + will + be + the present participle (the root verb + -ing).

The future continuous tense, sometimes also referred to as the future progressive tense,
is a verb tense that indicates that something will occur in the future and continue for
an expected length of time. It also refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in
progress at a time later than now.

Examples: - When you arrive, I will be sitting in the park.

-I will be waiting for you.

Uses:
❖ The Future Continuous tense is used to express an action at a particular moment in

the future in which the action will have started before that moment but it will not

have finished at that moment.

For example, tomorrow I will be starting work at 2pm and stop it at 6pm.

❖ The future continuous tense is used to talk about future events that will be in

progress at a specific time in the future.

❖ We often use this tense to make a contrast between a present event and

a future event. E.g. This time tomorrow I will be lying on the beach.

3. Future perfect tense.

Form: {Subject + Will + have + the past participle of the verb}

The future perfect tense is a verb form or construction used to describe an event that
is expected or planned to happen before a time of reference in the future (Wikipedia).

Examples: -We will have spent all our money by this time next year.
-I will have finished my assignment by tomorrow.
-By next week, we will have earned lots of money.

Uses:
✓ The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE is used to indicate that an action will have been
completed (finished) at some point in the future.
 ✓ The future perfect tense is used to indicate a future event that has a definitive
end date. E.g. Bekele will have graduated by 2021.

Generally, the future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When

we use this tense, we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at

an action that will be completed sometime later than now. It is most often used with a time

expression (with point of time).

4. Future perfect continuous tense.

Form: (Subject + will + Have + Been + v-ing)

The future perfect continuous tense, also sometimes called the future perfect progressive,
is a verb tense that describes actions that will continue up to a point in the future.

Examples:-I will have been working for seven hours by the time the boss comes.

-She will have been sleeping for two hours when her husband gets home.

-Tadesse will have been studying in the library before he comes to the class.

-We will have been watching a movie in the Cinema before you come.

Uses:

We use the future perfect continuous to show that something will continue up until

a particular event or time in the future.

Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in

time and to look back.

Just like with the other perfect continuous tenses (and the future perfect simple),

we can use the future perfect continuous to say 'how long' for an action that will

continue up to a point in the future.

It is used to express actions or processes that will be completed at a specific time

in the future.
 UNIT III

Environmental Protection

Part II Grammar: Modal Verbs

What are Modal Verbs? What are the purposes of using them?

Which of the following verbs do you know? What are their functions?

Notes on Modal verbs and their functions

Modal verbs are those helping verbs, which express the ‘mode’ or ‘manner’ of the

actions indicated by the main verbs. They are always accompanying the base form of

another verb having semantic content. They express modes such as ability, possibility,

probability, permission, obligation, advice, request, suggestions, etc. The most

commonly used modal verbs s are shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might,

must, ought to, used to, need and dare. These verbs are auxiliary verbs that

provide additional and specific meaning to main verbs in sentences.

Examples:- Tadesse can write poetry very well (Ability).

-May I borrow your dictionary? (Permission)

-The proposal should be finished on time (Advice).

-You must speak loudly with your friends (Obligation).

-Our company might get the order if the client agrees to the price (Possibility).

Modal verbs are used to:

1. Ask permission------- may, can, could

Examples: May I come in?

Could I use your pen, please?
2. Make a request--------- can, could

Example: Could you please give me the doctor’s telephone number?

 3. Express a possibility------- may, might, could

Example: It might rain during the night.

4. Give advice or suggestion---------- should

Example: You should wear a head covering while riding your motorbike.

5. Express necessity or compulsion----------- must, have to

Examples: We must slow down while driving in front of a school.

I have to submit my project by tomorrow.
6. Express prohibition----------- must

Example: You must not talk loudly in the library.

7. Express a promise or intention---------- will, shall

Example: I will mail you my address.

8. Express a wish---------- may

Example: May you have a long life!

May God bless you!
NB: To summarize it,

❖ A modal verb does not change according to the number or person of the subject.

Examples: He can learn. I can learn. You can learn. They can learn. We can learn.

❖ A modal verb is always used with a verb in its basic form. The modal takes the

tense while the main verb remains in its dictionary form.

Examples: I can run. I may run. I could run. I might run.

❖ Modals can be used alone in response to a question.

Examples: -Can you sing? I can.

- Will you sing? I will.
-Will you come? I may. /I will.
❖ Modals, when joined with ‘not’ to form a negative, can be contracted.

Examples: I cannot run. I can’t run.

I do not run. I don’t run.
I will not run. I won’t run.
 Unit IV

Indigenous Knowledge
Part II Grammar: Reported speech

What are Reported Speech?

Reported speech is when we tell someone what another person has said. It is also

known as Direct (quoted) and Indirect speech or narration. In direct speech, we repeat

the exact words of the speaker, whereas in indirect speech, we convey the speaker’s

message in our own words using the reporting verbs.

Examples: Direct Speech: '’I work in a National Bank of Ethiopia,’' said Daniel.
Indirect Speech: Daniel said that he worked in a National Bank of Ethiopia.
Thus, the others’ message can be conveyed in two ways: either using direct or indirect

speech.

Types of Reported Speech

There are two main types of reported speech: direct speech and indirect speech.

1. Direct Speech (Quoted Speech)

Direct or quoted speech is spoken or written text that reports speech or thought in its

original form phrased by the original speaker. It is a report of the exact words used by

a speaker or writer.

In direct speech, the actual words (with no change) of speaker are quoted.

The most common reporting verb is said. The reporting clause may come first or second.

There is always a comma or a colon after “said” that introduces the spoken words.

For instance: He said, “I am going to School”

In narrative, it is usually enclosed in quotation marks, and the cited speaker is either

mentioned in the speech or implied (Wikipedia).

Where to Use Direct Speech?

Using direct speech means repeating the spoken phrase or word exactly as it was said.

You can use this to repeat something that was said in the past – but you can also use it to

express something being said in the present, too.

2. Indirect (Reported) Speech

Indirect speech is a means of expressing the content of statements, questions or other

utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech.

For example, He said "I'm coming" is direct speech, whereas He said (that) he was

coming is indirect speech (Wikipedia).

Reported or indirect speech in English is usually used to talk about the past; so we

normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell',

'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas

or quotation marks are not used in reported speech.

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes.

Usually, indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Akililu said, or they

said.

Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these

cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. For example:

Direct Speech: She said, “I am watching a movie”.

Indirect Speech: She said that she was watching a movie. (Tense changed)

Examples of Reported Speech:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!". The doctor told me to stop smoking.

"Get out of the car!" said the policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of the car.

"Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet.

She said, “I am watching a movie”. She said (that) she was watching a movie.
What is the difference between Direct and Reported Speech?

Direct and reported speech are the two different ways to say what someone else said.

❖ In direct speech, we quote the exact words that a person said, however,

❖ Reported speech doesn't usually repeat the words exactly as the person said them.

It typically changes the tense of the verbs.

How do you Convert direct speech in to Reported Speech?

➢ To convert direct speech in to reported speech, we must change all the present

tenses in the direct speech to the corresponding past tenses in the reported speech.

Example: -Direct Speech: Bekele said, "I am too late."

-Indirect Speech: Bekele said (that) he was too late.

To convert direct speech to reported speech:

✓ when the direct speech is in the form of a request or order, we use the

suitable reporting verb in the reported speech (requested, ordered, etc.).

✓ While reporting a command/order, we use the verb 'told'.

✓ While reporting a request, we use 'asked/requested'.

Note:

Generally, when you change the direct speech into indirect speech, you have

to change verb tenses, pronouns, adverbs of time and place.