Module IV

Part 3
 MODULE IV
• Noise: external, internal- signal-to-noise ratio – noise figure –noise
calculations – equivalent noise temperature,-noise figure in cascaded
networks. White noise, filtered white noise, noise equivalent bandwidth,
Narrow band noise.
• Effect of noise in Systems: Linear and angle modulation systems, threshold
effect and threshold extension, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis filtering.

References:
• Simon Haykin and Michael Moher, Communication Systems, John Wiley &
Sons, 5/e, (2017).
• B. P. Lathi and Zhi Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communication
Systems, Oxford University Press, 4/e,(2017)
• K.N. Hari Bhat, D. Ganesh Rao, Analog Communication: simplified
Approach, Pearson

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 2

 Noise in FM Receivers
• The frequency-modulated signal is given by
𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 න 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏]
0
where 𝐴𝑐 is the carrier amplitude, 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency, 𝑘𝑓 is the
frequency sensitivity factor of the modulator, and m(t) is the message signal.
• FM receiver model:

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 3

PRE-DETECTION SNR
• The noise w(t) is a white zero-mean Gaussian process with power spectral density 𝑁0ൗ2
• The FM receiver consists of a band-pass filter, a limiter, a discriminator and a low-pass
filter.
• The bandpass filter has a center frequency 𝑓𝑐 and bandwidth 𝐵𝑇 , determined by
Carson’s rule.
• The average signal power is:
2
𝐴 𝑐
𝐸 𝑠2 𝑡 =
2
• The noise power at the BPF output is 𝑁0 𝐵𝑇
• Hence, Pre-detection SNR is:
𝐴2𝑐 2
𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 2 = 𝐴 𝑐
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑒
𝑁0 𝐵𝑇 2𝑁0 𝐵𝑇

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 4

• In the receiver model, the amplitude limiter, following the band-pass filter
removes amplitude variations caused by the noise.
• The discriminator consists of two components:
• A slope network or differentiator that produces a hybrid-modulated wave in which both
amplitude and frequency vary in accordance with the message signal.
• An envelope detector that recovers the amplitude variation and reproduces the message
signal.
• The post-detection low-pass filter has a bandwidth that is just large enough to
pass the highest frequency component of the message signal, suppressing the
out of band noise.
POST-DETECTION SNR
• The noisy FM signal after band-pass filtering: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡)
• The filtered noise 𝑛(𝑡)at the BPF output in terms of its in-phase and quadrature
components:

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 5

• 𝑛(𝑡) in terms of its envelope and phase is:

• The phase ∅𝑛 (𝑡) is uniformly distributed between 0 and 2𝜋 radians.

𝑡
• FM signal: 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏]
𝑡
• The phase of 𝑠 𝑡 is: ∅ 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• So, the signal at the output of BPF can be written as:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅ 𝑡 + 𝑟(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅𝑛 𝑡

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 6

• Represent 𝑥(𝑡) by means of a phasor diagram, as in Fig, using 𝑠 𝑡 as the reference

r(t) : the amplitude of the noise

ψ𝑛 𝑡 : angle between the noise phasor
and the signal phasor.

ψ𝑛 𝑡 = ∅𝑛 𝑡 − ∅ 𝑡

As ∅𝑛 𝑡 > ∅ 𝑡 , ψ𝑛 𝑡 ≅ ∅𝑛 𝑡

• The phase 𝜃 𝑡 of the resultant is given by

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 7

• We assume that the carrier-to-noise ratio measured at the discriminator input is
large.
• Then the expression for resultant phase simplifies to

• Since

• Using the expression for ∅ 𝑡 ,

1 𝑑𝜃
• The frequency of x(t) at the discriminator input is,𝑓 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 8

• With an ideal discriminator, its output is proportional to 𝑓(𝑡)
• Therefore, discriminator output is
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑘 is proportionality constant (assumed as unity)
1 𝑑𝜃
• So, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡

= 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)
where

• The average output signal power is 𝑘𝑓 2 𝑃 [where P is the average power of the
message signal m(t)]
• Taking Fourier transform of 𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)
1
𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝑄 𝑓
2𝜋𝐴𝑐
CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 9
 𝑓 2
2 2
𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 2 𝑁𝑄 𝑓
𝐴𝑐
• This means that the power spectral density of the noise 𝑆𝑁𝑑 (𝑓) is related to the
power spectral density 𝑆𝑁𝑄 (𝑓) as
𝑓2
𝑆𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 2 𝑆𝑁𝑄 (𝑓)
𝐴𝑐

𝐵𝑇
Where 𝑁0 is the PSD of 𝑛𝑄 𝑡 which is constant over 𝑓 ≤
2
• The discriminator output is followed by a LPF of bandwidth equal to message
bandwidth W.
𝐵𝑇
• For wideband FM, W is much smaller than , where 𝐵𝑇 is the FM transmission BW.
2
CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 10
• Therefore, the power spectral density
𝑆𝑁0 𝑓 of the noise 𝑛0 (𝑡) appearing at the
receiver output is

Figure (a) Power spectral density of quadrature component

𝑛𝑄 𝑡 of narrowband noise
(b) Power spectral density of noise 𝑛𝑑 𝑡 at discriminator
output
(c) Power spectral density of noise 𝑛𝑜 𝑡 at receiver output.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 11

• The average output noise power is determined by integrating the power spectral
density 𝑆𝑁0 𝑓 from –W to +W.

• Hence, Post-detection SNR is:

2 2𝑘 2𝑃
𝐹𝑀
𝑘𝑓 𝑃 3𝐴 𝑐 𝑓
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 = =
2𝑁0 𝑊 3 2𝑁0 𝑊 3
3𝐴2𝑐
• The post-detection SNR of an FM demodulator has a nonlinear dependence on
both the frequency sensitivity and the message bandwidth.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 12

FIGURE OF MERIT
𝐴2𝑐
• For FM modulation, the average modulated signal power is
2
• The average noise power for a message of bandwidth W is 𝑁0 𝑊
𝐴2𝑐
• So, the reference SNR is 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
2𝑁0 𝑊
• Hence, for FM modulation
3𝐴2𝑐 𝑘𝑓 2 𝑃
𝐹𝑀
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 2𝑁0 𝑊 3 3𝑘𝑓 2 𝑃
Figure of Merit = = 2 =
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴𝑐 𝑊2
2𝑁0 𝑊
• For single tone message signal 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡,
𝐴2𝑚 3𝑘𝑓 2 𝐴2𝑚
power P = , 𝐹𝑂𝑀 = 2 = 1.5𝛽 2 , where 𝛽 is the modulation index.
2 2𝑓𝑚
𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 ∆𝑓
{𝛽 = = }
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 13

• Since 𝛽 is proportional to 𝐵𝑇 , FOM is proportional to square of the transmission
bandwidth 𝐵𝑇 .
• Thus, when the carrier to noise level is high, unlike an amplitude modulation system, an
FM system allows us to trade bandwidth for improved performance, in accordance with a
square law.
Transitory value of 𝜷:
• Equate the FOM of a conventional AM receiver with 𝜇 = 1, with that of FM receiver.
𝜇2 2
อ = 1.5𝛽
2 + 𝜇2
𝜇=1
1
= 1.5𝛽 2
3
∴ 𝛽 = 0.5, This value is known as transitory value of 𝛽. It defines the boundary between
wideband and narrowband FM.
If 𝛽< 0.5, then narrowband FM & If 𝛽> 0.5, then wideband FM.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 14

Capture effect in FM:
• Consider an FM signal with carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 .
• If there is another FM signal , whose spectral content is centred around 𝑓𝑐 , then
the second signal is known as the interference signal.
• All FM systems have inherent ability to minimize the effect of noise and
interferences.
• This is true only when the interference signal is weaker than the desired FM.
• When the interference signal is stronger than the desired FM, the FM signal is
suppressed.
• When they are of equal strength, the receiver output will fluctuate.
• An FM discriminator will always respond to the stronger of the two signals,
suppressing the weaker one. This property is known as capture effect.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 15

Threshold effect in FM:
• Carrier-to-Noise ratio (CNR) : Ratio of average power of FM signal s(t) to noise
power in transmission bandwidth 𝐵𝑇
• The expression for post-detection SNR of FM is valid only when CNR>>1.
3𝐴 2𝑘 2𝑃
𝐹𝑀 𝑐 𝑓
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜 = 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 =
2𝑁0 𝑊 3
• When CNR is reduced, the discriminator output is more and more corrupted by
noise.
• Initially, occasional clicks are heard in FM receiver and if CNR further decreases,
continuous clicks or cracking/spluttering sounds are heard.
• The FM receiver is said to breakdown when clicks are heard. Near the breaking
point post-detection SNR is less than that given by equation. This phenomenon is
called threshold effect.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 16

• The threshold is defined as the minimum CNR that yields an actual 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜 , not
very much different from that given by the expression assuming a small noise
power.
• Consider an unmodulated FM corrupted by noise at the input of the discriminator
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑟(𝑡)cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅𝑛 𝑡
• The corresponding phasor diagram, assuming 𝐴𝑐 ≫ 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) or 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)

• As the amplitudes of random components of 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) and 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡) changes with time,
the point 𝑃1 (tip of x(t))moves around 𝑃2 (tip of carrier).
𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)
• tan 𝜃 𝑡 =
𝐴𝑐 +𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 17

• Since 𝐴𝑐 ≫ 𝑛𝐼 (𝑡) or 𝑛𝑄 (𝑡),
𝑛𝑄 (𝑡)
tan 𝜃 𝑡 ≈ 𝜃 𝑡 =
𝐴𝑐
• When CNR<< 1 , the point 𝑃1 occasionally moves around origin O fully
in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction, increasing or decreasing 𝜃 𝑡
by 2𝜋 radians.
1 𝑑𝜃
• The discriminator output is proportional to .
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
• Hence random variations in 𝜃 𝑡 and becomes significant as
𝑑𝑡
shown in fig.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 18

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 19
• The impulse like components are heard as clicks.
• The clicks are produced only when 𝜃 𝑡 changes by ±2𝜋 radians.
• As CNR decreases, the average number of clicks per unit time increases.
FM THRESHOLD EXTENSION (REDUCTION):

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 20

• Threshold reduction in FM may be achieved by using an FM demodulator with
negative feedback, referred to as an FMFB demodulator or by using a phase-
locked loop demodulator.
• Such devices are called extended-threshold demodulators.
Block diagram of an FMFB demodulator:

• The local oscillator in the conventional FM receiver is replaced by a VCO, whose

instantaneous output frequency is controlled by the demodulated signal.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 21

• FMFB demodulator uses an important information that even though the carrier
frequency of incoming FM will have large frequency deviations, its rate of change
will be at the baseband rate.
• An FMFB demodulator is essentially a tracking filter that can track only the slowly
varying frequency of a wideband FM.
• Consequently, it responds only to a narrowband of noise centred about the
instantaneous carrier frequency.
• The bandwidth of noise to which the FMFB receiver responds is precisely the
band of noise that the VCO tracks.
• The end result is that , FMFB receiver is capable of realizing a threshold extension
on the order of 5-7 dB.
❖The phase-locked loop demodulator is also a tracking filter, with simpler circuit.
But it is not as good as an FMFB demodulator.
Improvement with PLL demodulator is only on the order of 2 to 3 dB.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 22

 FM Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis (Ref: Communication Systems, Haykin)
• The PSD of the noise at the output of the discriminator is proportional to the
square of the frequency as in fig.(a)
• In practical message signals, the PSD falls off as frequency increases as in fig. (b)
• So, the high frequency components of the message are affected most by the
noise.

(a) PSD of noise (b) PSD of message

• This problem can be overcome by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 23

• At the transmitter high frequency components of message m(t) are boosted using
a filter called pre-emphasis filter.
• The detector produces high frequency components at a higher amplitude level.
So the amplitude distribution of the message is disturbed at the detector output.
• An inverse operation is needed at the discriminator output to bring back the
amplitude level of high frequency components to original level, and thus the
amplitude distribution is restored.
- This is done by another filter called de-emphasis filter.
• The de-emphasis filter also reduces the high frequency components of noise
- The net effect is improved output SNR.

Use of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis

in an FM system
CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 24
• To recover original message signal without distortion, the transfer functions of
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis filter must have inverse relationship.
1
𝐻𝑑 𝑓 = , −𝑊 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑊
𝐻𝑃 𝑓
Where 𝐻𝑑 𝑓 and 𝐻𝑝 𝑓 are transfer functions of de-emphasis and pre-emphasis
filters.
• The filter implementation using RC components (a) pre-emphasis filter (b) de-
emphasis filter

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 25

 𝑟 𝑗𝑓
𝐻𝑝 𝑓 = [1 + ] and
𝑅 𝑓1
1
𝐻𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑗𝑓
1+𝑓
1
1
Where 𝑓1 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
𝑟
• Here, 𝐻𝑝 𝑓 𝐻𝑑 𝑓 = , a constant.
𝑅
• The noise component of discriminator output is 𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)

• Taking Fourier transform of 𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)

1
𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝑄 𝑓
2𝜋𝐴𝑐
2 𝑓2 2 𝑓2
𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑁𝑄 𝑓 ∴ 𝑆𝑁𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑆 (𝑓)
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝑁𝑄

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 26

• After LPF, the power spectral density
𝑆𝑁0 𝑓 of the noise 𝑛0 (𝑡) is

Figure (a) Power spectral density of quadrature component

𝑛𝑄 𝑡 of narrowband noise
(b) Power spectral density of noise 𝑛𝑑 𝑡 at discriminator
output
(c) Power spectral density of noise 𝑛𝑜 𝑡 at receiver output.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 27

• So, average noise power is (at the input of de-emphasizer)

• The average power of noise 𝑛𝑑𝑒 (𝑡) at the output of de-emphasizer:

𝑊 2
𝑓 2 𝑁 𝑑𝑓
𝑃𝑛𝑑𝑒 = න 2 𝐻 𝑑 𝑓 0
𝐴
−𝑊 𝑐
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)
• Thus, the improvement factor , 𝐼 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑛𝑑𝑒 (𝑡)
3
2𝑁0 𝑊
3𝐴2𝑐 2𝑊 3
= =
𝑊 𝑓2 2 𝑁 𝑑𝑓
𝑊
3 ‫׬‬−𝑊 𝑓 2 𝐻𝑑 𝑓 2 𝑑𝑓
‫׬‬−𝑊 2 𝐻𝑑 𝑓 0
𝐴𝑐
Since 𝐻𝑑 𝑓 <1, we get improvement factor >1.

CE I Module IV Prof. (Dr.) Shahana T.K. 28