SPE 82233
Scale Formation in Oil Reservoir and Production Equipment during Water Injection
(Kinetics of CaSO4 and CaCO3 Crystal Growth and Effect on Formation Damage)
J. Moghadasi*, SPE, Petroleum University, University of Surrey, M. Jamialahmadi, SPE, Petroleum University, University
of Surrey, H. Müller-Steinhagen, Stuttgart University and A. Sharif, University of Surrey.
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE European Formation Damage
Conference held in The Hague, Netherlands, 13-14 May 2003.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
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words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
In the oilfield, due to the extensive use of water injection for
oil displacement and pressure maintenance, many reservoirs
experience the problem of scale deposition when injection
water starts to breakthrough. In most cases the scaled-up wells
are caused by the formation of sulphate and carbonate scales
of calcium and Strontium. Due to their relative hardness and
low solubility, there are limited processes available for their
removal and the preventive measure such as the `squeeze'
inhibitor treatment has to be taken. It is therefore important to
have a proper understanding of the kinetics of scale formation
and its detrimental effect on formation damage under both
inhibited and uninhibited environment.
This paper presents an experimental and theoretical study of
permeability reduction of porous medium caused by scaling.
Two incompatible solutions, calcium and sulfate/carbonate
rich ions were injected into and calcium sulphate or carbonate
generated within the porous medium by chemical reaction.
Mechanisms by which a precipitate reduces permeability
include solids depositing on the pore walls because of
attractive forces between the particles and the surface of the
pore, a single particle blocking a pore throat, and several
particles bridging across a pore throat. The characteristics of
the precipitate influence the extent of formation damage.
Conditions such as large degree of supersaturation, presence
of impurities, a change in temperature, and the rate of mixing
control the quantity and morphology of the
precipitating crystals.
Introduction
The formation of mineral scale associated with the production
of hydrocarbon has been a concern in oilfield operation.
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Depending on the nature of the scale and the fluid
composition, the deposition can take place within the reservoir
which causes formation damage [10, 13, 15, 20] or in the
production facilities where blockage can cause severe
operational problems. The two main types of scale which are
commonly found in the oilfield are carbonate and sulphate
scales [14-15, 22-24, 27-28, 31-35]. Whilst the formation of
carbonate scale [2, 34-35] is associated with the pressure and
pH changes of the production fluid, the occurrence of sulphate
scale is mainly due to the mixing of incompatible brines, [16-
18, 20-21, 35-36] i.e. formation water and injection water. In
the oilfield, the universal use of sea water injection as the
primary oil recovery mechanism and for pressure maintenance
means that problems with sulphate scale deposition, [20-21]
mainly calcium and strontium, are likely to be present at some
stage during the production life of the field. A field example is
the Iranian offshore of Siri field [20] in the southern Persian
Gulf. The oil in this field comes from a formation called
Mishrif; this formation is common between Iran and the
United Arab Emirates. Water injection into the Siri field was
started in 1984 with 9100 bbl/day in order to maintain the
pressure and to increase the oil recovery. But the injectivity
decreased rapidly by 1990 the water injection was only 2200
bbl/day, and subsequently the water injection was stopped.
The history of water injection in the Siri field is shown in
Fig.1 [20] with a drop in injectivity of approximately 7000
bbl/day over a period of six years. Table 1 shows the various
types of scales that are commonly found in oilfield [21]. Table
2 shows the major components of scales found in the Iranian
oilfield [21]. The deposits are seldom pure calcium sulphate or
calcium carbonate, but are usually a mixture of two or more of
the inorganic components plus corrosion products, congealed
oil, paraffin, silica and other impurities. These materials are
trapped in the inorganic lattice and frequently complicate the
removal of the deposit. Of all the scales, calcium sulphate and
calcium carbonate have been singled out for study in
this work.
2 SPE 82233

Table 2 -Typical scale samples in oilfield [21]

10000
Major
Area Formation Minor scale
scale
Injection rate, bbl/day

8000
Persian Gulf (Siri-C) Mishrif CaCO3 SrSO4
CaSO4.
6000 Persian Gulf (Nosrat) Mishrif CaCO3
2H2O
Onshore field CaSO4.
4000 Bangestan CaCO3
(Ahwaz) 2H2O
Onshore field
2000 Bangestan CaCO3 CaSO4.2H2O
(Aghajari)
Onshore field

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0 Asmari CaCO3 CaSO4.2H2O
(Gachsaran)
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 BaSO4,
Year North Sea Forties CaCO3
SrSO4
Fig. 1- Water injection history in Iranian Siri oil field [21] 80%
SiO2
Calcium sulphate scale, especially gypsum, still causes CaSO4,
West Texas Queen Sand 20%Ca
unpredictable problems in many oil fields [1, 3, 26]. This type Na2SO4
SO4,
of scale can cause severe plugging of equipment and NaCl
producing formations; it creates the necessity of costly 85%
remedial work. Thus, to understand the formation of these New Mexico Abo CaSO4, Mg, Fe, Si
scale minerals, the kinetics of calcium sulphate scale CaCO3
formation and transformation of one hydrate to another are 84%
particularly important in determining the nature of the scale CaSO4,
formed under field conditions as a function of both 10%
West Texas Sanandress Si, Al
SiO2,
temperature and ionic strength of the solution. 6%
Fe2O3
Table 1- most common scales in oilfield [21]
Chemical Primary
Name
Formula Variables
Partial pressure Previous Work
of CO2,
Calcium carbonate The formation of precipitate starts with nucleation processes in
CaCO3 Temperature,
(Calcite) which attracted atom join to form submicron nuclei [1, 5-6].
Total dissolved
salts When impurities are present in the fluid, the energy required
Calcium Sulphate: to form these nuclei is smaller than in a pure solution. The
Gypsum (Most Temperature, impurities act as nucleation sites, and this process, called
CaSO4.2H2O heterogeneous nucleation, occurs commonly in subsurface
common) Hemi– Total dissolved
CaSO4.½H2O reservoirs where fluids contain mineral particles in suspension.
Hydrate salts, Pressure
CaSO4
Anhydrite Experimental Studies- several experiments studied
Temperature, the extent of permeability damage caused by flowing
Barium Sulphate BaSO4
Pressure precipitates in cores and sandpacks. Some investigators tested
Total Dissolved incompatible waters from the North Sea [19, 31], Middle East
Strontium Sulphate SrSO4
salts [9] and El-Margon [9] oilfield that produced barium, calcium
and strontium sulfate precipitates. They reported that 15 to 20
µm crystals blocked the pore throats inside glass-bead packs
Iron Compounds: and alumina cores by size exclusion and bridging mechanisms.
Ferrous Carbonate FeCO3 Corrosion, Crystals often grew perpendicular to the pore walls, and some
Ferrous Sulfide FeS dissolved gases, crystal aggregates also had the perpendicular to the pore walls,
Ferrous Hydroxide Fe (OH) 2 pH and some crystal aggregates also had the form of "books" and
Ferrous Hydroxide Fe (OH) 3 rosettes. Todd and Yuan [30] also conducted laboratory
investigations using North Sea reservoir brines that produced
barium and strontium sulfate scales. Crystals depositing along
and growing perpendicular to the pore surface caused most of
the reduction in core permeability. They observed that
doubling the supersaturation ratio of both barium and
strontium sulfate produced an increase in the quantity of scale
formed inside the pores and a change in the morphology of the
crystals. Both changes increase the rate of permeability
decline. The basic structures of crystal formed under dynamic
SPE 82233
flow conditions and in a static solution are similar, but some
faces of the crystal disappear and others become more plate-
like when subjected to shear forces. Injection tests on
cemented glass-bead packs showed a 95.5 % reduction in
permeability because of the bridging of 2 to 10 µm calcium
carbonate crystals that blocked 33 µm pore throats [7].
Thronton and Lorenz [30] and Crow [6] showed how sodium
and iron hydroxide colloid particles block the pores of quartz
sand. They suggested two mechanisms by which the plugging
of quartz sand occurs: flocculation/ coagulation of the sodium
and iron hydroxide phase producing a filter cake near the inlet
of the sandpacks and colloid-quartz surface interaction by
which the particles attach to the quartz surface.
Theoretical Studies- geochemical flow models were
developed [4, 10-12, 27, 37-38, 40] for both mineral
dissolution and precipitation processes during convective
transport. These models were based on the assumptions of
local thermodynamic equilibrium and negligible dispersion.
These models did not allow for solid migration, assumptions
that were severely limiting because experimental studies
demonstrate that precipitated solids can migrate with the fluid.
A theory of solids fractional flow was proposed in an attempt
to characterize the local permeability reduction by
incorporating the dominant pore-plugging mechanism [39]. A
fractional flow function for each migrating mineral, coupled
with the mass conservation of each element and the
assumption of local equilibrium between the solid and aqueous
species, provided a complete description of reaction during
flow through permeable media.
Experimental setup and procedure
Experiments were carried out using a test rig, which is
schematically shown in Fig.2.
Fig. 2- Schematic diagram of the test rig
(a)-The Tank; It is made of stainless steel It is heated to
approximately 50°C using four band heaters. Each band heater is
40mm wide and has a power rating of 500W @ 240volts.The
band heaters are heating against a small cooling coil, which is
placed inside the tank, to allow a better control of the liquid
temperature in the tank. The cooling coil is made from 20
stainless steel tubing which has an O.D. of 0.25 inches, and a
3
length of 15 inches. A rotameter is installed to control the
cooling water flow rate. The temperature of the liquid inside the
tank is determined using a thermocouple which is connected to a
controller which in turn will control the band heaters power
output. This will hold the temperature at a desired set point. A
stirrer is also placed in the tank to agitate the liquid to provide a
uniform temperature. The stirrer can rotate between
0-2500 rev./min.
(b)-The peristaltic pump; the pump speed ranges from 0.5-55
rpm so that the liquid flow can be accurately controlled by
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varying the pump speed which is displayed on a digital screen.
The maximum design pressure of the pump is 3 bars which is
achieved by utilising tubing with an internal diameter of 1.6 mm
and a wall thickness of 1.6 mm. The tubing is made from
marprene II, a material that is resistant to water and mineral oil.
(c)-Test section; the test section, which contains the porous
medium, is made of stainless steel. The tube has an internal
diameter of 32 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm. The total
length of the tube is 580 mm. Spiral and longitudinal grooves to
accommodate heating wire and thermocouples measuring the
wall temperature have been milled on the outside of the tube.
Bores to insert thermocouples for measuring the sand bed
temperature and on the opposite side, bores for pressure tapping
have been drilled at points shown in Fig. 3. The heating wire is a
single core, cold-ended heater, which are 6 m long and 2 mm in
diameter. It is wrapped around the tube at an 8 mm pitch giving a
heated area of 0.03488 m2. The heating wire is placed inside the
2 mm hemispherical grooves and silver- soldered to the tube to
keep it in position. The whole heated section is covered in silver
solder and lagged to minimise heat losses to the surroundings.
The heating wire has a hot length of 600 cm two cold ends each
100 cm long and two connectors. It has a maximum power
output of 2000 W and a total resistance of 18.6 Ω. The power is
controlled to maintain the wall temperature below the maximum
operating temperature of around 200 °C. The tube had six
pressure taps along its length to measure pressure drops. The
pressure readings, which are performed using the stainless steel
test section, are taken with six pressure transducers, the output of
which is fed to a data acquisition unit for further processing. The
perspex test sections also allow visual observation of the
deposition mechanisms.
4 SPE 82233
1
2 Preparation of test section-Before any tests can be
3 performed, the test sections are packed with appropriate
4 material to form a packed column. The packed bed is a direct
5 mechanisms. In particle deposition with the packed bed
1- Flange.
2- Colette.
82. 3- O-ring.
4- Sintered
6
screen.
5- Test
580 section.
6- Heating
zone.
7- Longitudin
al grooves
380 580
8- Transverse
grooves
10
Fig. 3 Design details of the test section.
(d)-Data acquisition system; the data acquisition system
consists of two boards, namely the CIO-DAS08 and the CIO-
EXP32 cards that are connected to a desktop computer. The
CIO-EXP32 analogue input multiplexer expands the number
of analogue input channels of any A/D board to 32 channels.
Two banks of 16 analogue inputs are multiplexed into two of
the A/D boards analogue channels. Therefore, one bank will
be used for inputting thermocouple voltages from the test
section, while the other bank will be used for inputting
pressure transducer measurements from the test section. The
thermocouples and pressure transducers are directly wired into
the appropriate banks. The analogue signals produced by the
thermocouples and pressure transducers are taken to an
analogue multiplexer in the CIO-DAS08 card by a standard 37
pin `D` type connector. This multiplexer provides 8 channels
of single ended input and is protected against 30 volts
maximum. Two of these channels will be taken up by the
analogue signals coming from the CIO-EXP32 card. One
channel will handle input signals coming from the bank, to
which the thermocouples are connected, while the second
channel will handle input signals coming from the bank to
which the pressure transducers are connected. Two more
channels in the CIO-DAS08 card are used for the flow meter
(if there is one) and for the heating wire control signals. The
flowmeter will send input signals proportional to the measured
flow, while the control box will send input signals
proportional to the power rating of the heating wire. The CIO-
DAS08 card turns the PC into a medium speed data
acquisition and control station suitable for laboratory data
collection, instrumentation, production test, or
industrial monitoring.
method for studying scale formation and solid deposition
technique, a well defined granular material which is usually
made of spherical glass beads or wash sand is packed in a
column to form a porous bed with a fixed porosity. When the
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bed is fully packed, the porous medium fills the space between
the two screens at the ends of the test section. The properties
of the packing materials and those of the fluids are given in
Table 4.
Experimental procedure- Preliminary tests were
performed to obtain the time at which the bed was stabilized.
To achieve this, the tanks were filled with distilled water.
Liquid was then pumped through the bed for about one hour to
obtain a homogenous condition. While all operational
variables of the system were kept constant, pressure readings
were taken at short time intervals until the steady state was
reached. This time, which was determined to be 20 min, was
taken as the time at which the steady state condition is reached
and was observed in all related experiments.
Porosity measurement- The porous media were formed
in the same way as explained before, and then the pore volume
of the dry porous medium was filled with liquid supplied from
the burette connected to the inlet of the bed. Taking into account
the necessary corrections, the porosity of the medium was then
calculated as the ratio of the amount used to fill the pore volume
divided by the total volume of the bed. The same procedure was
repeated several times for each medium and the mean value was
taken to represent the porosity of the medium, see Table 4.
Preparations of test solutions- Scale formation
experiments were performed with aqueous solutions of the
following salts: Na2SO4, Ca(NO3)2.4H2O and Na2CO3. The
criteria for selecting these salts were based on the solubility of
the salts and valence of the respective ions. Each solution
system consisted of two salts, one rich in calcium ions the
other rich in sulphate or carbonate ions, which were kept
separate until after they had entered the porous medium. Since
mixing calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O) and sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) results calcium
sulphate or calcium carbonate crystallizing on the porous
medium. All salts used in this work were Merck reagent grade.
Solutions were prepared for each run by dissolving in distilled
water and allowing it to stand for 12 hours. The range of salt
concentrations used in this investigation is given in Table 3.
Calcium nitrate and sodium sulphate or sodium carbonate
solutions of predetermined concentration were filled into the
supply tanks. Distilled water was fed through the bed until the
system reached a steady state at the desired temperature and flow
velocity. Then the data acquisition system was switched on to
record fluid flow rate, temperatures, and pressures. At this time
the supply pumps were switched to the scale forming solution.
This procedure was repeated for different operating variables.
The range of operating variables is given in Table 3. At the end
of the each experiment the supply pumps were switched to
EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) solution and
flooding continued for about 20 minutes. This was to remove
SPE 82233 5

from the porous medium; all salt forming ions which could of the best-fit straight line through the data presented in Figs.
confuse later experiments. The test rig was dismantled cleaned 4-5 as the ratio of µu D K in equation (1). The mean
and dried to be ready for the next experiments. calculated permeability is given in Table 4.
To investigate the effect of the particle size, experimental data
Table 3 Range of operating parameters in scale formation of pressure gradient as a function of flow rate were collected
experiments. for various particle diameters. The data are presented in Fig 5.
Inlet temperature 50ºC-80oC As can be observed, the pressure gradient increases as the
Flow rates 25cm /min -100cm3/min
3
particle diameter decreases. These plots also emphasise the
System pressure 122 kPa linear relationship between pressure gradient and
Solution viscosity 0.7×10-3-1.3×10-3 kg/m.s Reynolds number.

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Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 1.8-13.4 g/l The comparison between experimental and predicted pressure
Na2SO4 2.6-7.8 g/l drop for different particle sizes is shown in Fig. 6. Excellent
Solution agreement exists between the predictions of the models and
Na2CO3 0.8-1.6 g/l
concentration the experimental data.
CaSO4 2.5-7.5 g/l
CaCO3 0.750-1.5 g/l Table 4 Physical properties of packing material
[Ca++]=4.33 g/l

Mean particle
diameter, µm

Permeability,
Solution type A

Particle size
range, µm
[SO4--]=2.6 g/l

Porosity
material
Packing
[Ca++]=8.67 g/l

m2
Solution type B
[SO4--]=5.22 g/l
Solutions used in
[Ca++]=13 g/l
experimental study Solution type C
on scale formation [SO4--]=7.8 g/l 180-250 192 0.3827 2.14E-11
in porous medium [Ca++]=1.77 g/l 250-425 265 0.3830 6.03E-11
Solution type D Sand
[CO3--]=0.8 g/l 400-500 410 0.3839 1.21E-10
1000 1000 0.3853 7.27E-10
[Ca++]=2.36 g/l
Solution type E
[CO3--]=1.06 g/l
180-300 245 0.3787 4.41E-11
Solution type F [Ca++]=3.54 g/l 0.3792
Glass 250-425 338 7.89E-11
Results and Discussions beads 400-600 480 0.3804 1.59E-10
1000 1000 0.3825 7.05E-10
Clean bed experiments
Figs. 7-9 have been prepared to show the variation of
Before carrying out any tests with solutions, it is first
permeability as a function of porosity, particle size and
necessary to have adequate information regarding the flow
Reynolds number. The permeability of the porous medium in
mechanisms in a clean medium. When a fluid flows through a
single phase is independent of the nature of the fluid and
porous medium, the pressure drop, which develops along the bed
depends on the geometry of the medium.
in the direction of flow, is a function of system geometry, bed
Injecting pure water into the porous medium performed the
voidage and the physical properties of bed and fluid. The
first test. No significant changes in the pressure drop or
operating conditions can result in four distinct flow regime
permeability characteristics were observed (see Fig. 9). This
[8]: Darcy or creeping flow, inertial flow, unsteady laminar
result is trivial and is what we expected from the start. Since
flow and chaotic (or turbulent) flow. In the Darcian region the
there are no particles in the injection water and no particles are
pressure gradient is proportional to the flow rate and is
initially present in the porous medium, there is no reason for
mathematically expressed by
any deposition and decrease of permeability of the system
K  ∆p  during the time when water is injected in the porous medium.
uD =  −  (1)
µ  ∆x  As mentioned before, this is only a base test and it is used to
The coefficient K in single phase is independent of the nature discuss the future results.
of the fluid and depends on the geometry of the porous Scale formation experiments
medium. It is called the specific or absolute permeability of The main objective of this part of the investigation is to study
the medium. In the case of single-phase flow, this is permeability reduction caused by the calcium sulphate and
abbreviated as permeability. The measurements of pressure calcium carbonate scale deposition in porous media. A wide
drop as a function of axial distance of different media at range of flow velocities, bulk temperatures and fluid bulk
several liquid flow rates is presented in Fig. 4. The results concentrations are considered. After clarification of the effect
show a linear relationship between the pressure drop and the of these parameters on the deposition process a predictive
axial distance in the direction of flow. The slope of these lines model for permeability and porosity damage due to calcium
increases with liquid flow rate and similarly the pressure drop sulphate and calcium carbonate scale formation is developed.
increases monotonously with increase of the liquid flow rate. Calcium sulphate experiments: The brines used were
Knowing the viscosity of the liquid saturating the medium, the solutions containing various concentrations of calcium and
permeability of each medium can be calculated using the slope sulphate rich ionic solutions. The test rig was originally
6 SPE 82233
designed to operate at temperatures of 50-80 °C, i.e.
reasonable temperatures for oil fields. The flow rates used in
these experiments range from 25 to 100 cm3/min. This
corresponds to solution velocities in the range between
0.05cm/sec and 0.2 cm/sec. These velocities were intended to
reproduce brines flowing through the rock immediately
adjacent to producing wells, where scale is expected to be
most damaging.
During each run the pressure drop across the test section was
recorded continuously. This pressure drop increased during the
experiments as the test section fouled with scale. An increase
in the pressure drop only occurred when a supersaturated
solution was flowing through the test section. This confirms
that the increase is caused by scale formation. The pressure
drop and permeability reductions obtained from the tests are
presented in figures 10 to 11. The change of permeability and
the pattern it follows were the most significant pieces of
information to be gained from the experimental study, as
testified by the linear relation between flow rate and
permeability in the Darcy equation for flow through a porous
medium. The most striking thing about all the permeability
plots shown in the figures is that all the curves are concave
some of them very sharply. The results at various
temperatures, concentrations, flow rates and their effects are
discussed individually.
Effect of temperature- the role of temperature on
solubility and crystal growth of calcium sulphate is very
important. To study the effect on the permeability reduction, a
number of tests were carried out. In these experiments, the
flow rate and concentration of injection solution were kept
constant and the temperature varied. The tests were carried out
at constant injection rates of 25 cm3/min, 4.33 g/l calcium ion
and 2.6 g/l sulphate ion concentration, respectively and
temperatures of 50 and 80°C. Figs. 12-13 show variation of
pressure drop and permeability reduction with time at different
temperatures. The figures show that at higher temperatures the
permeability declines more rapidly. This is because the rate of
precipitation increases with temperature. The increase in
temperature also increases the degree of supersaturation as the
solubility of calcium sulphate decreases. This must have led to
an increase of the rate of precipitation and consequently a
faster permeability reduction.
Effect of flow rate- To investigate the effect of flow
rate on pressure drop and permeability reduction a set of tests
were performed, in which the temperature and concentration
of solutions were kept constant while the flow rate was varied.
These tests were carried out at a temperature of 70°C, 4.33 g/l
calcium ion, and 2.6 g/l sulphate ion concentration
respectively, and rates of 50 and 100 cm3/min. Figs. 14-15
show variation of the pressure drop and permeability decline
as a function of time.
From these figures, it can be seen observed that even at such
low flow rates, the permeability decline of the porous medium
is evident. In this study, the overall permeability of the porous
medium decreased to between 35 and 61% of the initial
permeability, depending on the flow rate used.
In a more general way, the plot of permeability ratio versus
log of the flow rate of fluid (Fig. 17) was found to be linear for
different flow rate of injected fluid. The following relationship
was found:
 K  K  Q 
  −   = m log 2
Q  (2)
 
 Ki  Q2  K i  Q1  1 
The value of m can be extracted from Fig. 17. It was observed
that the value of m could be expressed as an exponential
function of pore volume injected as follows:
m = 1 − e a PVI (3)
Substituting the value of m in equation (2) results:
( )
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 K  K  a PVI Q 
  −   log 2 
K  K  = 1− e (4)
 i Q  i  Q1  Q1 
2
The above simple relationships can be used to predict the
permeability decline in a similar material at any new flow rate.
From these figures (18-19) it is observed that the permeability
decline due to scale formation is not only a function of pore
volume injected (time), but also depends on the flow velocity.
At higher flow velocity, the process of scaling increases and
therefore, the overall permeability remains lower.
Effect of concentration- to study the effect of the
solution concentration on the permeability reduction, a number
of tests were carried out. In these experiments, the solution
flow rate was kept constant while using various
concentrations. These tests were carried out at an injection rate
of 50 cm3/min, with three different solution concentrations
(solution type A, B and C, see Table 3). Figs. 20-21 shows the
variation in pressure drop and permeability decline with time
for different concentrations at solution injection rate of 50
cm3/min. These figures show that by increasing the
concentration of the solution, supersaturation and plugging
occurs more rapidly and consequently, the permeability ratio
decreases more rapidly.
Calcium carbonate experiments: The experimental
procedure for scale formation with calcium carbonate was
exactly the same as the procedure used for calcium sulphate.
For each run, after steady state conditions were reached, the
experiment started. A series of experiments was designed to
investigate the effect of operating parameters such as flow
rate, temperature and bulk concentration on scale formation
rates of calcium carbonate solutions. The overall pressure drop
was measured in each run for time periods up to 15 hours.
Figure 22 shows measured pressure drop as a function of time.
The shape of the measured pressure drop versus time curve is
characterized by a sharp increase in pressure drop. The
increase in pressure drop at the early stage of scale formation
is thought to be due to the increase in the number of nucleation
sites generated by the deposit. Figures 23 showed sharply
decrease in permeability decline with time, which is the
characteristic of adherent deposits.
Effect of temperature- the variation of pressure drop
and permeability ratio with different temperature at constant
flow rate and concentration is shown in Figure 24. This figure
shows that by increasing the temperature, the rate of
permeability decline becomes faster. This occurred because
the reaction rate constant increases exponentially with
temperature, i.e. the rate of precipitation increases with
temperature. The increase in temperature also causes a raise in
the supersaturation, because the solubility of calcium
carbonate decreases with temperature. This must have resulted
SPE 82233 7

in an increased rate of precipitation and consequently a causes more for calcium carbonate precipitation than
permeability decline. calcium sulphate.
Effect of flow rate- the effect of fluid rate on the
Nomenclature
scale formation is shown in Figure 25 for constant temperature
and concentrations. The results illustrate that at low flow rate, A cross-sectional area, m2
scale formation has already a significant effect on the C total amount of ionic species in solution, M
permeability decline. As, the flow rate was increased, the rate Cs mass solid concentration, kg/m3
of permeability decline become more rapid. At higher flow dc test section diameter, m
rates more calcium and carbonate ions will pass through the dp particle diameter, m
porous medium in a given interval of time. The dp pressure drop, N/m2

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supersaturation at the porous medium will therefore increase dp/dx pressure gradient in x direction, N/m3
the rate of precipitation. This increased precipitation rate will EDTA ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
produce a larger permeability decline. I Ionic strength, mole
K permeability, m2
Figures 26-27 show the variation of permeability ratio as
Ki initial permeability, m2
function of flow rate and log of the flow rate for calcium
m mass fraction, slope or rate of scale deposited, kg/m3
sulphate and calcium carbonate. From these figures it can be
p pressure, N/m2
seen that the permeability decline due to scale formation of
calcium carbonate is greater than calcium sulphate. In other ∆p/l pressure gradient, Pa/m
words the rate of calcium carbonate formation is higher than ∆p pressure drop, Pa
calcium sulphate scaling. Q0 cumulative volume of fluid injected, m3/s
Q volumetric flow rate, m3/s
Conclusions Rem modified Reynolds number, dp . ρ . u / µ . (1-φ)
Ref Reynolds number defined as dp . ρ . uf/µ
1. Permeability decline caused by scale formation in the Reo Reynolds number defined as D. ρ. u/µ
porous bed ranged from less than 30% to more than 90% T temperature, ºC, Kº
of the initial permeability, depending on the solution Ts solid concentration in flow stream, kg/m3
composition, initial permeability, temperature, flow rate t time, min, s
and solution injection period. The pattern of permeability u velocity of flowing phase through porous medium, m/s
decline in a porous medium due to continues scaling was x distance from inlet face of test section or core, m
characterised by a concave curve with a steep initial Greek Symbols
decline, which gradually decreased to a low, but often
significant, constant damage rate. The initial steepness of φ Porosity
these curves generally decreased with increasing distance initial porosity
φi
from the point of mixing of the incompatible solutions.
The shape of the curve was related to changes in the µf fluid viscosity, kg/m.s
pattern of growth of the scale crystals. The concave shape ∇ gradient
of the permeability-time curves was common to the
majority of the porous medium flow tests. Subscripts

2. Many influencing factors on scale formation have been hr hour

examined. Temperature change had a remarkable effect i initial or inlet
on the scaling rate. At higher temperatures calcium l liquid
sulphate and calcium carbonate scale is increased because L length
the solubilities of calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate m matrix, mean and medium
decrease with temperature. This must have increased the PV pore volume
rate of precipitation and consequently the PVI pore volume injection, permeability variation index
permeability decline. sph sphere
3. It was observed that brines of higher degree of T tube, pore
supersaturation produced a more rapid decline in TC thermocouple
permeability. This was to be expected since increased
supersaturation would result in a more rapid rate of References
scale precipitation.
4. As the flow rate was increased, the rate of permeability 1. Atkinson, G., Raju, K. and Howell R.W.: “The
decline becomes more rapid. At higher flow rates more Thermodynamics of Scale Prediction,” paper NO. 21021,
calcium and sulphate/carbonate ions will pass through the present at the Society of Petroleum Engineers
porous medium in a given interval of time. The International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry,
supersaturation will therefore increase, producing a higher Anaheim, CA, 1991.
rate of precipitation. This increased precipitation rate will 2. Bezmer, C. and Bauer, K.A.: “Prevention of Carbonate
produce a larger overall permeability decline. Flow rate Scale Deposition- A well Packing Technique with
8 SPE 82233
Controlled Solubility Phosphates,” J. Pet. Tech., Vol. 246,
pp. 505-14, 1969.
3. Blout, C.W. and Dickson, F.W.: “Gypsum-Anhydrite
Equilibrium in Systems CaSO4 and CaSO4-NaCl-H 2O,”
Amer. Min, Vol. 58, pp. 1746, 1973.
4. Civan, F., Kapp Roy, M. Ohen Henry, A.: “Alteration of
Permeability of Fine Particle Processes,” Journal of
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1989.
5. Cowan, J.C. and Weintritt, D.J.: “Water Formed Scale
Deposits,” Gulf Publishing Co., pp. 586, Houston 1976.
6. Crow, C.W.: “Evaluation of Agents for Preventing
Precipitation of Ferric Hydroxide From Spent Treating
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7. Cusack, F., Mc-Kinley, V.L., Lappin-Scott, H.M., Brown,
D.R., Clementz, D.M., and Costerton, J.W.: “Diagnosis
and Removal of Microbial/Fines Plugging in Water
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Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers held in Dallas, TX
September 27-30, 1987.
8. Dybbs, A. and Edwards, R. V.: “Department of Fluid,
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Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media (PB-252-387)
(NTIS: Springfield, VA) pp. 228, 197
9. El-Hattab, M.I.: “Gupco’s Experiences with Treating Gulf
of Squeeze Seawater for Water Flooding the El-Morgan
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10. Khatib, Z.I.: “Prediction of Formation Damage Due to
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paper No. 28488, Society of Petroleum Engineer 69th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
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11. Khillar, K.C. and Fogler, H.C.: “Colloidally Induced
Fines Migration in Porous Media,” Reviews in Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 4(1 & 2), pp. 41-108, 1987.
12. Khillar, K.C. and Fogler, H.C.: “Colloidally and
Hydrodynamically Induced Fines Migration in Porous
Media,” Chapter-19, in Encyclopaedia of Fluid
Mechanics, Vol. 10, Surface and Ground Water Flow
Phenomena, Ed. N.P. Cheremisinoff, pp. 623-663, 1990
13. Krueger, R.F.: “An Overview of Formation Damage and
Well Productivity in Oil Field Operation”, JPT, pp. 131-
152, Feb. 1986.
14. Krumine, P.H., Mayer, E.H. and Brock, G.E.: “Scale
Formation During Alkaline Flooding,” JPT, pp. 1466-
1474, Aug. 1985.
15. Lasetr, R.M., Grander, T.R., and Glasscock, F.M.: “Scale
Deposits are Controlled Now With Liquid Inhibitors,” Oil
and Gas J., pp. 88-63, Jan. 15, 1968.
16. Leon, J.A. and Scott, E.M.: “Characterization and Control
of Formation Damage During Water Flooding at High
Clay content Reservoir,” Paper SPE 16234 Presented at
the SPE Production Operation Symposium, Oklahoma
city, Mar. 8-10, 1987.
17. Lindlof, J.C. and Stoffer, K.G.: “A Case Study of
Seawater Injection Incompatibility,” J. Pet Tech., pp.
1256-62, July 1983.
18. Liu, S.T. and Nancollas, G.H.: “The Kinetics of
Dissolution of Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate,” Journal of
Inorg. Nucl. Chem., Vol. 33, pp. 2311, 1971.
19. Mitchell, R.W., Grist, D.M., and Boyle, M.T.: “Chemical
Treatments Associated with North Sea Projects,” Journal
of Petroleum Technology, pp. 904-12, 1980.
20. Moghadasi, J., Jamialahmadi, M., Müller-Steinhagen, H.,
Sharif, A., Ghalambor, A., Izadpanah, M.R. and Motaie,
E.: “Scale Formation in Iranian Oil Reservoir and
Production Equipment during Water Injection,” Paper
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SPE 80406 Presented at the 5th International Oilfield
Scale Symposium and Exhibition held in Aberdeen, UK,
29–30 January 2003.
21. Moghadasi, J., Jamialahmadi, M., Müller-Steinhagen, H.,
Sharif, A. and Izadpanah, M.R.: “Formation Damage in
Iranian Oilfield,” Society of Petroleum Engineers paper
No. 73781, Presented at Society of Petroleum Engineer
Formation Damage Control International Symposium and
Exhibition, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, 20-21 Feb., 2002.
22. Nancollas, G.H. and Campbell, J.R.: “The Crystallization
and Dissolution of Strontium Sulphate in Aqueous
Solution,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 23, No.6,
pp. 1735-40, 1969.
23. Nancollas, G.H, Eralp, A.E and Gill, J.S.: “Kinetics of
Growth of Calcium Sulphate Scale Formation: A Kinetic
Approach,” Society Petroleum Engineers Journal, pp.
133-138, 1978.
24. Nancollas, G.H. and Liu, S.T.: “Crystal Growth and
Dissolution of Barium Sulphate,” Society Petroleum
Engineers Journal, pp. 509-16, 1975.
25. Nancollas, G.H. and Sawada, K.: “Formation of Scale
Calcium Carbonate Polymorphs: the Influence of
Magnesium Ion and Inhibitor,” Journal of Petroleum
Technology, pp. 645-52, March 1982.
26. Oddo, J.E and Tomson, M.B: “ Why Scale Forms and
How To Predict It,” Society of Petroleum Engineers
Production and Facilities, Feb. 1997.
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Injectivity Decline in Water Injection Wells,” Society of
Petroleum Engineers paper No. 28489, Society of
Petroleum Engineers 69th Annual Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, La., Sept. 25-28, 1994.
28. Shen, J. and Corsby, C.C.: “Insight Into Strontium and
Calcium Sulphate Scaling Mechanisms in Oil Producing
Wells,” J. Pet Tech., pp. 1249-55, July 1983.
29. Singley, J.E.: “Corrosion Prevention and Control in Water
Treatment and Supply Systems,” Noyes Publication,
Houston, 1985.
30. Thronton, S.D. and Lorenz, P.B.: “Role of Silicate and
Aluminate Ions in the Reaction of Sodium Hydroxide
with Reservoir Minerals”, Paper SPE 16277 Presented at
the SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry,
San Antonio, TX, Feb. 4-6, 1987.
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Scaling Tendency in Oilfield Operations,” SPE
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32. Valone, W.F. and Skillern, K.R.: “An Improved
Technique for Predicting the Severity of Calcium
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SPE 82233 9

AIME International Oil Field and Geothermal Chem.

Symp., Dallas, Paper No. 10549, pp. 11-32, 1982.
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34. Vetter, O.J. and Farone, W.A.: “Calcium Carbonate Scale
in Oilfield Operations,” Society of Petroleum Engineers
paper No. 16908 presented at the 62nd Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, September 27-
30, 1987.
35. Vetter, O.J., Farone, W.A., Veith, E. and Lankford, S.:

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“Calcium Carbonate Scale Considerations: A Practical
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17009 presented in the International Symposium of
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17, 1987.
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of the Scale Problems Due to Injection of Incompatible
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and Reliable Model for Predicting Oilfield Scale
Formation,” SPE paper No. 25166 presented at the SPE
International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 1993.
10 SPE 82233

10000 80000
Flow rate = 200 cc/min
9000 Flow rate = 175 cc/min 70000
♦ Glass bead particle diameter 480 µm
■ Glass bead particle diameter 338 µm
8000 Flow rate = 150 cc/min

Pressure gradient, Pa/m

▲ Glass bead particle diameter 264 µm
Flow rate = 125 cc/min 60000
Pressure drop, Pa

× Glass bead particle diameter 245 µm

7000 Flow rate = 100 cc/min
6000 Flow rate = 75 cc/min 50000
Flow rate = 50 cc/min
5000 40000
4000
30000
3000
20000
2000

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1000 10000
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250
Axial distance, m 3
Flow rate, cm /min
Fig. 4 Variation of pressure drop as a function of axial distance
Fig. 5 Variation of pressure drop as a function of flow rate
35000 7E-10
♦ Glass bead particle diameter 480 µm
Predicted pressure drop, Pa

30000 ■ Glass bead particle diameter 338 µm 6E-10

▲ Glass bead particle diameter 264 µm
× Glass bead particle diameter 245 µm
25000 5E-10

permeability, m2
20000 4E-10

15000 3E-10

10000 2E-10

5000 1E-10

0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Experimental pressure drop, Pa Particle size, mm

Fig. 6 Comparison between experimental and predicated pressure drops Fig. 7 Variation of permeability as a function ofparticle size
7E-10 1.8E-10
1.6E-10
6E-10
1.4E-10
5E-10 ♦ Glass bead particle diameter 480 µm
permeability, m2

1.2E-10 ■ Glass bead particle diameter 338 µm

Permeability, m2

× Glass bead particle diameter 264 µm

4E-10 1E-10 ▲ Glass bead particle diameter 245 µm

3E-10 8E-11
6E-11
2E-10
4E-11
1E-10
2E-11
0 0
0.375 0.38 0.385 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Porosity Reynolds number, Re
Fig. 8 Variation of permeability as a function of porosity Fig. 9 Variation of permeability as a function of particle size
4000 1
3500 0.9
0.8
3000
Pressure drop, Pa

Permeability ratio

0.7
2500
0.6
2000 0.5
1500 3
Flow rate: 25 cm /min. 0.4
Flow rate: 25 cm3/min.
Temperature: 50°C 0.3 Temperature: 50°C
1000 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
Solution type: A 0.2 Solution type: A
500 [Ca+2]= 4.33 g/l, [SO4-2]=2.6 g/l -2
[Ca+2]= 4.33 g/l, [SO4 ]=2.6 g/l
Overall section (0-41.5 cm) 0.1 Overall section (0-41 5 cm)
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 10 Variation of pressure drop as a function of time Fig. 11 Variation of permeability as a function of time
SPE 82233 11

4000 1
3500 0.9
0.8
3000
Pressure drop, Pa

Permeability ratio
0.7
2500
0.6
2000 0.5
1500 Flow rate: 25 cm3/min. 0.4
Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm Flow rate: 25 cm3/min.
0.3 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
1000 Solution type: A
Temp.=80C [Ca+2]= 4.33 g/l, [SO4-2]=2.6 g/l 0.2 Solution type: A
Overall section (0-41.5 cm) Temp.=80 C [Ca+2]= 4.33 g/l, [SO4-2]=2.6 g/l
500

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Temp.=50C Overall section (0-41.5 cm)
0.1 Temp.=50 C
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 12 Variation of pressure drop as a function of time Fig. 13 Variation of permeability as a function of time
18000 1
Q= 100 cc/min
0.9 Q= 50 cc/min
16000 Q= 50 cc/min
Q= 100 cc/min
0.8
14000
Pressure drop, Pa

Permeability ratio
0.7
12000
0.6
10000 Temperature=70 C
0.5
Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
8000 Solution type: A 0.4
Overall section (0-41.5 cm) Temperature=70 C
0.3 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
6000
Solution type: A
0.2 Overall section (0-41.5 cm)
4000
0.1
2000 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time, min Time, min
Fig.14 Variation of pressure drop as a function of time Fig. 15 Variation of permeability as a function of time
1 1
Temperature=70 C
0.9 Temperature=70 C 0.9 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm Solution type: A
Solution type: A Overall section (0-41.5 cm)
Permeability ratio

0.8
Permeability ratio

Overall section (0-41.5 cm) 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3
40 60 80 0 100 20 120 10
100 1000
3 3
Flow rate, cm /min Flow rate, cm /min
Fig.16 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of flow rate Fig.17 Exponential relationship between flow rate and permeability ratio
1 1
t= 400 min. t= 400 min.
t= 600 min. t= 600 min.
0.9 t= 900 min. 0.9 t= 900 min.
Log. (t= 400 min.) Log. (t= 600 min.)
Permeability ratio

Permeability ratio

0.8 Temperature=70 C 0.8 Temperature=70 C

Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
Solution type: A Solution type: A
0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6
m=-0.1601
0.5 0.5
m=-0.1631
0.4 0.4
m=-0.1611
0.3 0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 10 100 1000
3 3
Flow rate, cm /min Flow rate, cm /min
Fig.18 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of flow rate Fig.19 Exponential relationship between flow rate and permeability ratio
12 SPE 82233

18000 1
Solution type A
16000 0.9
Solution type B
Solution type C 0.8
14000
Pressure drop, Pa

Permeability ratio
0.7
12000 Flow rate: 50 cm3/min.
Temperature 70 C 0.6
Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
10000 0.5
8000 0.4
0.3
6000 Solution type A
0.2

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Solution Type B Flow rate: 50 cm3/min.
4000 Temperature 70 C
0.1 Solution type C
Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
2000 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200
300 400 500 600
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 20 Variation of pressure drop as a function of time Fig. 21 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of time
8000 1
overall section (0-41.5 cm)
7000 0.9
middle section (16-25.5 cm)
0.8

Permeability ratio
6000 Flow rate: 50 cm3/min
Pressure drop, Pa

Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm 0.7

5000 Temperature: 50°C
0.6
[Ca++]=1.77 g/l, [CO3--]=0.8 g/l
4000 0.5
Flow rate: 50 cm3/min
3000 0.4 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
Temperature: 50°C
0.3 [Ca++]=1.77 g/l, [CO3--]=0.8 g/l
2000
0.2
middle section (16-25.5 cm)
1000 0.1 overall section (0-41.5 cm)

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 22 Variation of pressure drop as a function of time Fig. 23 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of time
1 1
Temperature= 80 C Flow rate = 75 cc/min
0.9 0.9
Temperature= 50 C Flow rate = 25 cc/min
0.8 0.8
Permeability ratio

Permeability ratio

0.7 Flow rate: 50 cm3/min 0.7

Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
0.6 Solution type: E 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
Temperature: 50 C
0.1 0.1 Glass bead mean diameter: 480 µm
Solution type: E
0 0
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 25 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of time
Fig. 24 Variation of permeability ratio as a function of time
1 1
t= 900 min., solution A CaSO4, Temp.= 70 C t= 900 min., solution A CaSO4, Temp.= 70 C
0.9 0.9
t= 900 min., solution E CaCO3, Temp.= 70 C
0.8 t= 900 min., solution E CaCO3, Temp.= 70 C 0.8
Permeability ratio
Permeability ratio

0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
m=-0.1611
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2 m=-0.2193
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 10 100 1000
3 3
Flow rate, cm /min Flow rate, cm /min
Fig. 26 Exponential relationship between flow rate and permeability ratio Fig. 27 Exponential relationship between flow rate and permeability ratio