TOPIC

SUBTOPIC
IMPORTANT TE MRS

Chemistry Pure Substance

- contains only one substance, with no others
Density mixed in
- measure of mass per unit of volume - they cannot be separated by physical means
- water density: 1g/ml = 1g/cm^3 - made up of only one type of particle (e.g., an
- higher mass, higher density element or compound)
- density and mass are directly proportional - e.g., water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, gold, iron
𝑚
-𝑝= 𝑣
The International System of Units
Significant Figures - modern form of the metric system
1. Non-zero digits - used by the scientific community
- ALWAYS significant
Dimensional Analysis KING HENRY DIED UNUSUALLY drinking chocolate milk

2. Zeros - negative exponent: to the left

- MAY or MAY NOT be considered Base quantity Name of unit Symbol
significant Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
a. Between 2 non-zero digits time Second S
- SIGNIFICANT Electrical Ampere A
current
- ex. 106 = 3 sf Temperature Kelvin K
b. Beginning zeros Amount of Mole Mol
- NOT significant substance
- ex. 0.00462 = 3 sf Luminous candela cd
c. Ending zeros intensity
- with decimal - positive exponent: to the right
60𝑚𝑖𝑛
- SIGNIFICANT ex. 1ℎ𝑟 𝑥 1ℎ𝑟 𝑥 60𝑠/1 min = 3600 𝑜𝑟 3.6 𝑥 103 𝑠
- ex. 231.900 = 6 sf
Temperature Conversion
- without decimal 1. C to F
- NOT significant 9
- 2600 = 2 sf 𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32
5
2. F to C
Physical Change 5
𝐶 = (𝐹 + 32)•

- processes in which one or more substances are

•

9
not converted into other substances 3. C to K
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15
Chemical change
- processes in which one or more substances are Precision (range: highest – lowest)
converted into other substances - degree of agreement among individual
measurements
a. Combustion
- chemical composition is changed into Accuracy (average: add all, then divide)
CO2 and H20 - degree of agreement between the experimental
b. Ripening value and the true value
- fruit changes its color and taste – change
in chemical composition
c. Digestion
- food is broken down into its basic
chemical composition
Properties of Matter - For an extraction to be successful the
1. Extrinsic Property compound must be more soluble in the
- will change solvent than in the mixture.
- dependent on the amount of matter - the solvent and mixture must be
- volume, mass, size immiscible (not soluble in one another).

2. Intrinsic Property 6. Chromatography

- will not change - separating mixtures by using a moving
- independent on the amount of matter solvent on filter paper. ... The solvent
- odor, combustibility flows along the paper through the spots
and on, carrying the substances from the
Compositions of Matter spot. Each of these will, if the solvent
mixture has been well chosen, move at a
different rate from the others.

Metal
- solid at room temperature (except mercury)
- good conductor of electricity
÷ - high melting point, lustrous, ductile, malleable
§ - its oxides react with water to form basic
compounds
÷

÷ Non-metal
- dull, brittle
Es - some are gaseous at room temperature
- non-conductor of electricity
brownian motion
Tyndall Effect
Metalloids
- light scattering in colloidal dispersion
- dull appearance
- low melting point
Separation Techniques
- conductor of electricity
1. Distillation
- separate mixture of liquid by the process
Isotopes
involving the conversion of a liquid into
- same protons, different neutrons
vapour that is subsequently condensed
- in neutral atom: protons = electrons
back to liquid form
- X – chemical symbol
- A – mass number: protons + neutrons
2. Sedimentation
- Z – atomic number: protons
- settling
𝐴
𝑍𝑋
3. Decantation
- after settling, mixture will be poured out
Cation
4. Filtration - positively charged
- using filter to separate mixtures - - electron

5. Extraction Anion
- selectively removing a compound of - negatively charged
interest from a mixture using a solvent. - + electron
 2. Azimuthal QN, (l)
- determines the shape of the ‘volume’ of
space that the electron occupies
- possible values of l: from 0 to n-1

n=1, l=0
n=2, l=0 or 1
n=3, l=0,1, or 2

- l = 0 (s orbitals)
- 1 = 1 (p orbitals)

3. Magnetic QN, (ml)

- determines the orientation of the orbital
in space
Law of Definite Composition - possible values of ml: from -l to l,
- compounds have a definite composition including 0
- given chemical compound always contains its - if l=1 (p orbital), m1=-1,0,1
component elements in fixed ratio and does not - if l=2 (d orbital), m1= -2,-1,0,1,2
depend on its source and method of preparation - 3 orientations in space

Law of Conservation of Mass 4. Spin QN, ms

- no detectable change in the masses of the - refers to the spin of the electron
substances involved before and after the - possible values: ½, -1/2
reaction FREQUENCY
Frequency ENERGY

Law of Multiple Proportions - directly proportional with energy

- if two elements can combine to form more than - high frequency, high energy
one compound, the masses of one element that - low frequency, low energy
combine with a fixed mass of the other element
are in the ratios of small whole numbers SPDF
-s=2
compound Ratio of masses Ratio of O -p=6
N O - d = 10
NO 14 16 16:32 or - f = 14
NO2 14 32 1/2
Chalcogens
N2O 28 16 16:48 or
- 6 valence electrons
N2O3 28 48 1:3
Common name of some of the groups in the
Molar Mass
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 periodic table
% 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥100 Valence
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
electrons
4 Quantum Numbers Grp 1 Alkali metal 1
- electrons Grp 2 Alkaline earth 2
1. Principal QN, (n) metals
- refers to the main energy level Grp 16 Chalcogens 6
- the larger the n, the farther the electron Grp 17 Halogens 7
from the nucleus Grp 18 Noble gases 8
- possible values of n: 1,2,3,4..
- max no. of electrons: 2𝑛 2
Balancing Chemical Reactions ÷ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
- balancing by inspection
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
1. pick an element to balance (appears once on 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 𝑥 1023
𝑚𝑜𝑙
either side of the reaction, pick hydrogen and
oxygen last) atoms that combine
2. find least common multiple and factors needed p
to
stable
Units of Particles be
to make the element equal on both sides 1. Atoms – elements
/ in order
(8 valence
e- )

3. use factors of coefficients in equation 2. Molecules – covalent compounds

4. recount and repeat until balanced 3. Formula units – ionic compounds
4. Ions – charged particles
Common types of Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis/Combination Empirical Formula
- two or more elements or compounds - simplest ratio of atoms in a compound
combine to make a more complex - CH2O
substance
- a+b=ab Steps in determining the empirical formula
- S+O2 SO2 1. Calculate the mass of the elements
2. Calculate the number of moles of each
2. Decomposition element
- opposite of synthesis 3. Calculate the mole ratio of each element
- compounds break down into simpler based on the element/s with the lowest
substances number of moles
- ab a+b 4. If the result are not whole numbers,
- 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2 multiply each by a common factor that
will make them all whole numbers
3. Single Displacement
- occurs when one element replaces Molecular Formula
another one in a compound - gives the exact number of atoms of each
- ab+c ac+b element in a compound
- Zn+2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 - e.g., C6H12O6

4. Double Displacement Ideal Gas Equation

- occurs when different atoms in two - PV = nRT
different compounds trade places 𝑃𝑉
- 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇
- ab+cd ac+bd
- HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
- where:
5. Combustion Reaction P – pressure
- oxygen combines with a compound to V – volume
form carbon dioxide and water N – no. of moles
- A + O2 CO2 + H2O T – temperature
- C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O R – universal gas content
(𝐿)(𝑎𝑡𝑚)
- 0.0821 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)(𝐾)
Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reaction 𝐽
- 8.314
1. Concentration – higher concentration (𝑚𝑜𝑙)(𝐾)
2. Temperature – higher temperature
3. Surface Area – bigger surface area
4. Catalyst – increases the rate of reaction by
providing a lower activation energy
The Gas Laws Strength of IMFA
1. Boyle’s Law (P,V relationship) - H-bonding > dipole-dipole > London
- states that the volume a mass of gas held dispersion
at constant temperature is inversely - stronger IMFA =
proportional to its pressure - higher melting and boiling point
1
- 𝑉 2 - lower vapor pressure
Intramolecular Forces
- P1V1 = P2V2 at constant T
- forces within molecules
1. Ion-ion
2. Charles’ Law (V,T relationship)
2. Covalent bonds
- states that the volume of a gas varies
directly with absolute temperature (K) if
pressure is held constant
- 𝑉 𝑇
𝑉1 𝑉2
- 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃 Phase Diagram

3. Gay-Lussac’s Law (P,T relationship)

- states that the pressure of a fixed
amount of gas is directly propotional to
its absolute temperature if the volume is Physical States
held constant 1. Solid
- 𝑃 𝑇 - have definite shape and volume
𝑃1 𝑃2
- 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉 - particles are closely packed
- high density
4. Combined Gas Law (P,V,T relationship) - very low compressibility and
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 expandability
- 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
- particles can’t move and vibrate only at
fixed position
5. Avogadro’s Law - lowest kinetic energy
- states that equal volumes of gasses at - strong forces of attraction
the same temperature and pressure
contain equal number of moles 2. Liquid
𝑉1 𝑉2
- 𝑛2 = 𝑛2 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇, 𝑃 - indefinite shape
- definite volume
Intermolecular Forces (IMFA) - takes the shape of the container
- attractive forces between molecules - have high density
1. London dispersion forces - particles slide/flow
- present in all molecules (polar and non- - higher kinetic energy
polar) - less forces of attraction
- the only IMFA present in non-polar
molecules 3. Gas
2. Dipole-dipole - indefinite shape and volume
- present polar molecules - takes the shape of the container
3. Hydrogen-bonding - low density
- special type of dipole-dipole wherein H - highly compressible and expandable
is bonded to highly electronegative - very diffusible
elements like N, O, F - particles loosely packed
4. Ion - high kinetic energy
- dipole interaction – ions and polar m. - negligible forces of attraction
 4. Plasma Dissolution process
- indefinite shape and volume - process of dissolving
- takes the shape of the container - dependent on:
- ionized gas - particle size
- high kinetic energy - temperature
- electrostatic forces of attraction - pressure (for gaseous substance)
- e.g., lightning, solar wind, aurora : carbonated drinks
- amount of solute
Heat of Fusion (Hf) : more solute, harder to dissolve
- the amount of heat required to convert a Units of Concentration
specific amount of a solid into liquid without a 1. Percent by weight
change in temperature 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
%w/w = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑔) 𝑥100
- for water at its normal freezing point of 0
degrees Celsius, Hf is 333.6 J/g. This means that
to convert 1g of ice at 0 degrees Celsius to 1g of 2. Dilution equation
water at 0 degrees Celsius, 333.6 J of heat must - procedure for preparing a less
be absorbed by the ice concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
Boiling point/Condensation point : rate of - 𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝐶 𝑉
evaporation = rate of condensation - 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 2
1
- So, as the number of water vapor molecules - where:
increases in the air above the water, the - C1 – concentration of the solution
condensation rate increases, too. The before dilution
condensation rate will continue to increase until - V1 – volume of the solution
it matches the evaporation rate, which is a state before dilution
called equilibrium, meaning the condensation - C2 – concentration of the solution
rate equals the evaporation rate. after dilution
- V2 – volume of the solution after
Freezing point/melting point : rate of dilution
crystallization
Colligative Properties
- these are properties of a solution that is
dependent on the amount of solute and not on
their nature
- these include boiling point elevation, freezing
point depression, vapor pressure lowering and
osmotic pressure
1. Boiling point elevation
Types of Solutions - higher amount of solute, higher boiling
1. Unsaturated solution point of solution
- more solute is dissolves - ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇 0 𝑏
- ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚
2. Saturated solution
- no more solute dissolves 2. Freezing point depression
- may onting solute na hindi na - higher amount of solute, lower freezing
madissolve point of solution
- ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇 0𝑓
3. Supersaturated solution - ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑚
- becomes unstable, crystals form
- super dami ng solute kaya di na
madissolve
 3. Vapor pressure lowering Rules in Assigning Oxidation Numbers
- higher amount of solute, lower vapor 1. Atom in elemental form
pressure - oxidation number is always 0
- e.g., H2,O2,P4… = 0
- ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0 − 𝑃
- ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 2. Monoatomic ion
- oxidation number is equal to the charge
4. Osmotic pressure of the ion
- minimum pressure which needs to be - e.g., Na^+ = 1, Ca^2+ = 2
applied to a solution to prevent the
inward flow of its pure solvent across a 3. Nonmetals
semipermeable membrane a. Oxidation number of oxygen is usually
- 𝜋 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇 -2
b. Oxidation number of hydrogen is
Lower pressure = more formation of gas usually +1
molecules c. Oxidation number of fluorine is -1
4. Sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 in a neutral compound is zero
Molality = 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
- e.g., H2O
H: 1x2 = 2
Exothermic process O: -2x1 = -2
- heat is released by the system +2+(-2)=0
- the temperature of the surroundings increases
- produces heat therefore products have lower 5. Sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in
energies than reactants a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of
Endothermic process the ion
- heat is absorbed by the system - e.g., NO3^-
- the temperature of the surroundings decreases N: x
- absorbs heat therefore products have lower O: -2x3 =6
energies than reactants X+(-6) = -1
X=5

Biomolecules
1. Carbohydrates
- composed of monosaccharides linked by
glycosidic bonds and contain 4.2kcal/g
2. Proteins
- composed of amino acids linked by
Reduction-Oxidation Reaction peptide bonds and contain 4.0kcal/g
- reactions that involved the transfer of electrons 3. Lipids
- as a result, the oxidation states of the atoms are - composed of glycerides; fats and oils are
changed examples of simple lipids; contain 9kcal/g
4. Nucleic Acids
Mnemonic - composed of nucleotides; DNA, carrier of
1. LEORA (reactant sides) genetic material, and RNA for protein
- loss of electrons, oxidation, reducing synthesis
agent
2. GEROA
- gain of electrons, reduction, oxidizing
agent
Types of Radioactive Particles Mixtures vs. Compounds
Compounds Mixtures
Definition Formed by Formed by
chemical simple mixing
combination of substances
of atoms
Composition definite Components
can be varied
Separating Can’t be Can be
components separated by separated by
Le Chatelier’s Principle physical physical
means method

Rules on Electronic Configurations

1. Aufbau Principle
- electrons will occupy first the orbital
with the lowest energy = electron config.
- follows the n+l rule

2. Pauli Exclusion Principle

- no two electrons have exactly the same
9696 quantum numbers
Lower pressure = more formation of gas - orbitals can hold max of 2 electrons
molecules
3. Hund’s Rule
Comparison of the Properties of Solution, Colloid 14 2536
- punuin muna same before yung next
and Suspension 94%96 orbital

Chemical Bond Formation

- lasting attraction between atoms, ions or
molecules that enables the formation of chemical
compounds

Types of Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic bond
Compound MM HAH MAI
- involves the electrostatic attraction
- has a definite boiling point and the components between oppositely charged ions of
are combined in definite ratio by mass (law of % metals and non-metals
definite composition %
°
-

held together by strong forms chemical bonds

2. Covalent bond (molecular bond)
-_

Element - involves sharing of electron pairs

Cy
- made up of only one substance Cy between atoms of non-metal
-

only one atom a

Mixture Octet Rule

- composed of two or more substances combined - refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to
in a variable proportion have eight electrons in the valence shell
- solution: type of mixture Fe - when atoms have fewer than eight electrons,
g
-

not
chemically bonded s
Fe they tend to react and form more stable
s
Fe
compounds
Types of Compounds 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
Mole Ratio = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
1. Metallic Bonding
- metal + metal
- atoms seek stability
- atoms release their electrons to become
cations
- can be bended without breaking
- can conduct electricity and heat
- high melting and boiling point

2. Ionic Bonding
- metal and non-metal
- atoms seek stability
- ability to conduct may depend on state
- easily breaks
- high melting and boiling point

3. Covalent Bonding
- non-metal + non-metal
- atoms seek stability
- fragility depends on state
- ability to conduct may depend on state
- low melting and boiling point

Collision Theory
- in order for a chemical reaction to occur, the
reactant particles should collide with enough
energy at correct orientation

1. Reactants moving slowly

- molecules bounce, no reaction

2. Reactants not facing the right way

- reactants bounce, no reaction

3. Reactants with correct energy and

orientation
- chemical reaction

Mole Conversion Diagram

Formulas Boyle’s Law
M
• Density - 𝑉 2
1
𝑚 p v
𝑝= - P1V1 = P2V2 (at constant T)
𝑣
Charles’ Law
• Temperature Conversion
C to F - 𝑉 𝑇
𝑉1 𝑉2
9 - 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 (𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃)
𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32
5 Gay-Lussac’s Law
F to C - 𝑃 𝑇
5 𝑃1 𝑃2
- 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 (𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉)
𝐶 = (𝐹 + 32) •
•

9 Combined Gas Law

C to K 𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15 - = 𝑇2
𝑇2
• Molar Mass Avogadro’s Law
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉1 𝑉2
% 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥100 - 𝑛2 = 𝑛2 (𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇, 𝑃)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
• Types of Chemical Rxns Graham’s Law of Effusion
Synthesis 𝑟1 𝜌
- = √𝜌2
a+b=ab 𝑟2 2

Decomposition - 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠

ab a+b - P – density of gas
Single Displacement Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
ab+c ac+b - 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛
Double Displacement - 𝑃𝑛 = partial pressure of the gas
ab+cd ac+bd • 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Combustion Percent by mass/weight (w/w %)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
a + O2 CO2 + H2O - 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑔) 𝑥100
• Stoichiometry 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
÷ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 - 𝑥100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒+𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑔)
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 - 𝑥100
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 𝑥 1023 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛+𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (v/v%)
• Empirical Formula 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝐿)
- 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝐿) 𝑥100
1. Calculate the mass of the elements
2. Calculate the number of moles of each 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 (%m/v)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
element - 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝐿) 𝑥100
3. Calculate the mole ratio of each element Dilution Equation
based on the element/s with the lowest - 𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
number of moles 𝐶 𝑉
4. If the result are not whole numbers, - 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 2
1
multiply each by a common factor that • Colligative Properties
will make them all whole numbers Boiling Point Elevation
• Molecular Formula - ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇 0 𝑏
- MF = EF(x) - ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Freezing Point Elevation
- x = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇 0𝑓
• Gas Laws
- ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑚
Ideal Gas Law
Vapor Pressure Lowering
- PV = nRT
𝑃𝑉 - ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0 − 𝑃
- 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 - ∆𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Osmotic Pressure
- 𝜋 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇
• Molarity/Molality/Mole Ratio/Mole Fraction
Molarity
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
M = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)
Molality
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
m = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Mole Ratio
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
- 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
Mole Fraction (x)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
- 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Dilution
- 𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2
• Percent Yield Formulas
- Theoretical Yield – calculated
amount of product using the
balanced chemical equation
- Actual Yield – the actual amount of
product obtained from the reaction
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
- % 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 × 100