In the book "Introduction to Logic" by Copi, Cohen and McMahon, logic is defined
as "the study of the principles and methods used to distinguish correct from
incorrect reasoning." It came from the Greek word LOGIKE.
          Others would define Logic as a science (body of knowledge) of how to
evaluate arguments and reasoning.
          Strictly speaking, LOGIC is different from CRITICAL THINKING, the later
being defined as "a process of evaluation which uses logic to separate truth
from falsehood, reasonable from unreasonable beliefs".
          Likewise, we often use the word Logic when what we really mean is
"reasoning" This should not be the case.
          "Reasoning is the drawing of inference or conclusion from facts known
or assumed" (Webster Dictionary, 1978).
          As defined, reasoning involves "inference". What then is an inference or what
do we mean by  inferring?
        INFERENCE, as a noun, is the process of linking propositions by affirming one
proposition on the basis of one or more other proposition/s. It is a process that may tie
a cluster of propositions together. It may be correct (warranted) or incorrect
(unwarranted). IT IS DETERMINED BY:
a)examining the proposition with which the process begins and ends, and
b)the relations between these propositions.
          These cluster of propositions constitutes an ARGUMENT.
          The act of linking propositions by affirming one proposition on the basis of one
or more propositions is inferring (verb).
              When we reach or AFFIRM one proposition on the basis of other
propositions, we say an INFERENCE has been drawn .
          KINDS OF INFERENCING
          1. IMMEDIATE INFERENCING -when we arrive at a conclusion by using
only one premise. In this kind of argument, there are only two propositions involved-
one premise and one conclusion.
          2. MEDIATE INFERENCING when we arrive at a conclusion by using two or
more premises. one premise is not enough to support the conclusion. it needs the
mediation of another one or more premises. Hence, in mediate inferencing there are at
least three propositions (one conclusion and two or more premises)
               All these mean that when we reason out- we advance from certain
known or assumed facts to a claim – to something you want to prove as true.
Reasoning then is an art or process of advancing from premises known or
affirmed for the purpose, to a conclusion.
             We apply the principles and methods we learn from Logic to evaluate
the drawing of inference made to decide whether or not it is a product of
correct reasoning.
Note: Reasoning is not the only way we support the assertion we make or accept.
HABITS often dominates. APPEAL TO EMOTIONS, or to AUTHORITY etc. are
often used to persuade. But where judgment is relied upon, their most solid foundation
is correct reasoning.
          Allow me to share this passages to you:
          "Logic is the study of the principles and methods of good reasoning. It is a science
of reasoning which aims to determine and lay down the criteria of good (correct)
reasoning and bad (incorrect) reasoning. It probes into the fundamental concepts of
argument , inference, truth, falsity and validity among others. It is by means of logic that
we clarify our ideas, assess the acceptability of claims and beliefs we encounter, justify
and justify our assertions and statements, and make rational and sound decisions.
( Francis Julius N. Evangelista, David Robert C. Aquino, "Logic", page 1-2)
          "Logic, being the science of correct and incorrect reasoning, is indispensable in the
field of law. The efficiency of practicing law depends on the quality to reasoning. Legal
reasoning is what we use when we apply law, rules, and regulations to a particular fact or
cases. Legal reasoning , like any kind of reasoning, is expressed with arguments that logic
is chiefly concerned. (Ibid)

 PROPOSITION
                                                    (THE MATERIAL OF OUR REASONING)

          “Propositions are the building blocks of our reasoning. A

proposition asserts that something is the case or it asserts that
something is not. We may affirm a proposition, or deny it—but
every proposition either asserts what really is the case, or it
asserts something that is not. Therefore every proposition is
either true or false.”  (Copi, Cohen, Mc Mahon, “Introduction to
Logic, 14th edition)
             In their earlier book, Copi and Cohen defined PROPOSITION as an
assertion that something is (or is not) the case’
          A lexical definition of proposition is: “..... 6 Logic an expression in which the
predicate affirms or denies something about the subject” (New World Dictionary of
the American Language, 2  Edition) nd

Note: the meaning of the following:

STATEMENT-thing stated .To state is to set forth in words esp. in a specific, definite
or
formal way.
                     - to express
ALLEGATION- thing alleged, assertion. To allege is to assert positively or declare or
affirm
                         - to declare without proof.
ASSERTION- ( assertio) formal declaration, positive statement; declaration.
CLAIM – a statement as a fact of something that may be called into question;
assertion.
           Statement is not an exact synonym of proposition. It is used in logic in
much the same sense- the meaning of declarative sentence at a particular time.
In logic, the word, statement is sometimes used instead of proposition.
          If a statement is the very “thing that is stated “ and a proposition asserts that
something is or is not the case, then in a sense proposition is the same as a statement.
This is the reason why some books in Logic use statement instead of proposition.
         When a person asserts that the thing he is holding is a pencil. He is claiming that
his statement is true. But if in fact he his holding an apple then we can say that his
statement “This is an apple” is false.
         All propositions are either true or false. In other words, propositions have the
attribute of having a TRUTH VALUE (it is either true or false).
        In a proposition, there is always a claim.When we assert that something is or is
not, we are actually claiming that something is or is not. In his sense proposition
claims something to be or is not.
Proposition is distinguished from the SENTENCES by means of which they are
asserted (two sentences consisting of different words or arrangement may
have the same meaning)
A proposition is a sentence, but not all sentences are propositions. Proposition is the
term we use to refer to what it is that a DECLARATIVE SENTENCES are typically
used to ASSERT.
          Sentences that questions, commands or exclaims are in their strict sense not
propositions. NONE OF THESE SENTENCES CAN BE ASSERTED OR DENIED.
           PROPOSITION IS SIMILAR TO DECLARATIVE SENTENCE in affirming
or denying something.
NOTE: IMPLICIT IN A PROPOSITION IS A CLAIM THAT THE ASSERTION
THAT SOMETHING IS OR IS NOT THE CASE IS TRUE.
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
1. Simple proposition- a proposition making only one assertion.

2. Compound proposition- a proposition containing two or more simple

assertions (two or more component propositions)
Types of Compound Propositions
1. Conjunctive Proposition- a type of compound proposition asserting all
component propositions are true. This is equivalent to asserting each
propositions separately. All conjuncts are true.
2. Disjunctive (alternative) proposition- a type of compound proposition; if
true, at least one of the component propositions must be true. (1 of the
disjuncts are true)
      Neither of the two components is asserted, only the compound disjunction,
“either-or” is asserted. If this disjunctive proposition is true, either of its components
could be false.
(Both component propositions can be true BUT NOT false at the same time)
3. Hypothetical (or conditional) proposition- a type of compound proposition;
it is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
True in any manner
        Neither of the components is asserted. The proposition asserts only that the first
component” (former) implies the latter (second component) and both could very well
be false.
       No inference is drawn in the statement, no conclusion is claimed to be true. (Not
an argument- just hypothetical statement- no single proposition can by itself be an
argument)
      A hypothetical proposition may look much like an argument, but it never can be
an argument.

       ARGUMENT
NOTE: PROPOSITION IS THE BUILDING BLOCK OF
ARGUMENT
          In the book “Introduction to Logic” Copi, Cohen and McMahon defined
ARGUMENT as “any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from
the others, which are regarded as providing support or grounds for the truth of that
one.”
           The term “argument” came from the Latin word –“ argumentum”” which
means evidence or proof. It is a reason or reasons offered for or against something. It
is usually used in a discussion in which there is disagreement and it suggests the use
of logic and bringing forth facts to support or refute a point.
          An Argument is a structured group of propositions reflecting an inference. (For
every possible inference there is a corresponding argument).
           However, an argument is not a mere collection of propositions. For an
argument to be present, there must be:
           a) some structure within the cluster of proposition - a structure that captures
or exhibits some inference.
           (This structure is described using the terms premises and conclusion)
          Since an argument is made of a group of propositions, no single proposition can
by itself, be an argument. Some compound propositions can RESEMBLE only, but
not, an argument.
STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT:
          Every argument is composed of at least two propositions:    
          A) CONCLUSION- is the proposition that is affirmed on the basis of other
propositions of the argument. It is the proposition in an argument that the other
proposition/s (premise/s) support.
          B) PREMISE/S-those other propositions, which are affirmed (or assumed) as
providing support for the conclusion. A premise is a proposition used in an argument
to support some other proposition.
KINDS OF ARGUMENT (CLASSES)
          The mark of an argument is that every argument makes the claim that its
premise/s provide/s grounds for the truth of its conclusion. There are two ways in
which a conclusion may be supported by its premises: hence the two classes of
argument: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE.
Structure: premise and conclusion
1. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT- claims to support its conclusion conclusively.
Immediate and mediate – valid
Not supported-invalid
2. INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT- claims to support its conclusion only with
some degree of probability.
Mediate inferencing to strengthen argument, more evidence support
conclusion likelihood of the probability is stronger, additional premise might
weaken the argument

Inferencing: good and successful in proving the proposition and conclusion

with probability-Strong/ weak not valid or invalid.

Distinction: Inferential Claim

Similarity: Group of propositions, there is inferencing,

relationship of premises to the conclusion

             The SIMPLEST KIND OF ARGUMENT- consists of one premise and a
conclusion that is claimed to follow from it.
             This will bring us to Inference and Kinds of Inferencing in our future discussion.
Argument – are group of propositions and there is inferencing involved.
RECOGNIZING ARGUMENT
     The main concern of Logic is to evaluate arguments - so as to determine whether the
argument is valid; invalid; probable or not; weak or strong.
     However before one can evaluate an argument, one must first determine whether or
not the passage he is about to evaluate is an argument.
      We must recognize it. We must be able to distinguish argumentative passages in
writing or speech. Doing this assumes, of course, an understanding of the language of
the passage. However, even with a thorough comprehension of the language, the
identification of an argument can be problematic because of the peculiarities of its
formulation. Even when we are confident that an argument is intended in some context,
we may be unsure about which propositions are serving as its premises and which as its
conclusion. As we have seen, that judgment cannot be made on the basis of the order in
which the propositions appear. How then shall we proceed?
CONCLUSION AND PREMISE INDICATORS
     We all know that all arguments would always have premise/s and a conclusion.
      One method of recognizing an argument is by spotting the inference through the
appearance of common indicators - conclusion and premise indicators. If we can identify
the premise/s and the conclusion in a passage then we may be able to say that the group
of statements under investigation is an argument.
      A useful method depends on the appearance of certain common indicators, certain
words or phrases that typically serve to signal the appearance of an argument’s
conclusion or of its premises. Here is a partial list of conclusion indicators: • therefore
for these reasons • hence it follows that • so I conclude that • accordingly which shows
that • in consequence which means that • consequently which entails that • proves that
which implies that • as a result which allows us to infer that • for this reason which
points to the conclusion that •
     A conclusion-indicator is a word or phrase appearing in an argument and usually indicating
that what follows it is the conclusion of the argument.
Examples:
therefore for these reason
Hence it follows that
Thus we may infer
So I conclude that
Accordingly which shows that
in consequence which means that
consequently which entails that
proves that which implies that
as a result which allows us to infer that
for this reason which points to the conclusion
     A premise-indicator is a word or phrase which typically serves to mark the premise/s
of an argument.
Usually what follows any of the following word or phrase will be the premise of an
argument:
since as indicated by
because the reason is that
for for the reason that
as may be inferred from
follows from may be derived from
as shown by may be deduced fromi
in as much as in view of the fact that
ARGUMENT IN CONTEXT
     The words and phrases we have listed may help to indicate the presence of an argument or
identify its premises or conclusion, but such indicators do not necessarily appear. Sometimes it is
just the meaning of the passage, or its setting, that indicates the presence of an argument.
     The words and phrases acting as indicators may help us recognize the presence of an
argument or identify its premises or conclusion. However it is not necessary for these
terms to appear. The fact that an argument has been presented may be indicated by the
meaning of the passage or its setting.
Example:
Any law that prohibits people from expressing their views is unconstitutional. Our
constitution guarantees the freedom of speech.
(No indicators here but clearly it is an argument.)
Copi's exmple:
"....during the intense controversy over the deployment of additional U.S. troops to Iraq
in 2007, one critic of that deployment wrote: • As we send our young men and women
abroad to bring order to Iraq, many of its so called leaders have abandoned their posts.
We have given the Iraqis an opportunity to iron out their differences and they throw it
back in our faces. Iraq does not deserve our help."
PREMISES OR CONCLUSION NOT IN DECLARATIVE FORM
     It is not uncommon for the premises of an argument to be presented in the form of
questions.
     However, if questions assert nothing, and do not express propositions, how is this
possible? On the surface they make no assertions; beneath the surface an interrogative
sentence can serve as a premise when its question is rhetorical—that is, when it suggests
or assumes an answer that is made to serve as the premise of an argument.
     The sentence may be interrogative even though its meaning is declarative.
     A RHETORICAL QUESTION is an utterance used to make a proposition, but which, because
it is in interrogative form and is therefore neither true or false, does not literally assert anything.
     It is sometimes called a suggestive question in the sense that the answer to said
question is obvious or somehow suggested hence may serve as premise to an argument.
Here the suggested answer or the obvious answer (clear and inescapable) may be
considered as in declarative form. Thus, it asserts something.
Ex.
     Used effectively, a rhetorical question being used as a premise augments the
persuasiveness of an argument.
     Because the question is neither true or false, it may serve as a device to suggest the
truth of some proposition while avoiding the responsibility for asserting it.
Ex. Must we re elect officials who turn out to be incompetent and corrupt?
Government officials who turned out to be incompetent and corrupt are government
official who should not be re elected
Are we to believe pathological liars?
We should not believe people who are pathological liars (premise)
A is a pathological liar therefor, we should not believe A.
Suggestive of the answer, answer is already obvious
UNSTATED PROPOSITIONS
Inferencing involved – immediate and mediate inferencing,
     Arguments are sometimes obscure because one (or more) of their constituent
propositions is not stated but is assumed to be understood.
     ENTHYMEME: An argument that is stated incompletely- the unstated part of it being
taken for granted. The premises or the conclusion are not stated explicitly.
     Order of enthymeme:
a) First order-the unstated proposition is the major premise
b) Second order – the minor premised is the one that is being suppressed.
c) Third order – the conclusion is not expressed.
Note therefore that in an enthymematic argument only part of the argument is
expressed and the rest is "understood"
EXAMPLE:
ALL MEN ARE MORTALS (major premise)
SOCRATES IS A MAN (minor premise)
THEREFORE: SOCRATES IS MORTAL (conclusion)
Note: The effectiveness of enthymematic argument – helps in persuasion. One must
relate this to mediate inferencing.
Deductive argument, mediate inferencing = syllogism
Enthymeme Example:
First Order:
SOCRATES IS A MAN (minor premise)
THEREFORE: SOCRATES IS MORTAL (conclusion)
Second Order:
ALL MEN ARE MORTALS (major premise)
THEREFORE: SOCRATES IS MORTAL (conclusion)
Third order
ALL MEN ARE MORTALS (major premise)
SOCRATES IS A MAN (minor premise)

ARGUMENTS AND EXPLANATION

Not all passages contain arguments
Purpose: Prove that the conclusion is true
     Passages that appear to be arguments are sometimes not arguments but explanations. Such
may be the case because of the presence of common indicators as "because"; "for"; and
"therefore"which are also used in explanation.
     The appearance of words that are common indicators—such as “because,” “for,”
“since,” and “therefore”—cannot settle the matter, because those words are used both in
explanations and in arguments (although “since”can sometimes refer to temporal
succession). We need to know the intention of the author.
     Explanation is group of statements from which some event (or thing) to be explained
can logically be inferred and whose acceptance removes or diminishes the problematic
character of that event (or thing).
Explain- to account for; state the reason for
Explanans (explicans) – that which contains the explanation
Explanandum (explicandum)- that which needs to be explained
Explanans – a collection of propositions that, taken together, explain another
proposition, the explanandum.
 1. explanandum is a sentence describing a phenomenon that has to be explained,
and the explanans are the sentences adduced as the explanation of tht
phenomenon.
Example:
1.X my ask (explanandum) Why is there smoke? And Y will say will will answer
(explanans) Because there is fire.
2. The accused Hubert Webb was acquitted by the SC because the court found out
inconsistencies in the evidence adduced by the prosecutor.
     Understand the different functions of passages:
     A passage may be considered as an argument or explanation depending on its
purpose.
     If the intention is to establish the truth of a proposition (conclusion) and the other
proposition/s (premise/s) are being used to support the conclusion – the conclusion
BECAUSE OF the premises, then it is an argument.
     If the statement (X) is known (no need to establish it as true) but we use Y to account
for or give an account of WHY statement X is true , then we have an explanation.