Urban Settlements

Geography with Sandeep Sir
Settlement Geography
Urban Settlements
Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

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Hierarchy of Urban Settlements: Concept of Primate City and Rank-Size

Rule
The Urban hierarchy ranks each city based on the size of population residing
within the nationally defined statistical urban area. Because urban population depends on
how governments define their metropolitan areas, urban hierarchies are conventionally
ranked at the national level; however, the ranking can be extended globally to include all
cities. Urban hierarchies tell us about the general organization of cities and yield some
important insights. First, it tells us that within a system of cities, some cities will grow to be
very large, but that number will be small relative to the universe of cities. Second, it refutes
the expectation of an optimally sized city. Lastly, it establishes cities as belonging to an inter-
related network where one city's growth affects others'.
Hierarchy is implicit in the very term city. Cities grow from hamlets and
villages into small towns and thence into larger forms such as ‗metropolis‘, ‗megalopolis‘ and
world cities which are ‗gigalopolis‘. In one sense, all urban agglomerations are referred to
generically as cities but this sequence of city size from the smallest identifiable urban units to
the largest contains an implicit hierarchy in which there are many more smaller cities than
larger ones.
Urban system is defined as any network of interdependent urban places. The

nature of interdependence among urban place may be economic, political, social or cultural.
In the system of cities, the changes taking place in one city such as population, economy,
employment structure, etc. will have consequences on other cities in the system. The idea of
urban hierarchy is central to the concept of urban system. The urban hierarchy concept
considers that the urban places vary in population sizes and economic functions. The analysis
of urban hierarchy mainly relates to the ranked order of cities based on different criteria, such
as population size, economic power, retail sales and number of industrial workers
Types of Urban Settlements
Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban
centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, and megalopolis.
Town: The concept of ‗town‘ can best be understood with reference to ‗village‘. Population
size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always
be clear-cut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and
professional services exist in towns.
City: A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional
rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, ―the city is in fact the physical form of the highest
and most complex type of associative life‖. Cities are much larger than towns and have a
greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial
institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one million
mark it is designated as a million city.

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Conurbation: The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a
large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns
or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples.
Megalopolis: This Greek word meaning ―great city‖, was popularised by Jean Gottman
(1957) and signifies ‗super- metropolitan‘ region extending, as union of conurbations. The
urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the
best known example of a megalopolis.
Million City: The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before.
London reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and
by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate of increase in the number of million cities
has been three-fold in every three decades – around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.
Concept of Primate City
A primate city is the largest city in its country or region, disproportionately

larger than any others in the urban hierarchy. A primate city distribution is a rank-size
distribution that has one very large city with many much smaller cities and towns, and no
intermediate-sized urban centres.
The law of the primate city was first proposed by the geographer Mark
Jefferson in 1939. He defines a primate city as being "at least twice as large as the next
largest city and more than twice as significant. A primate city is number one in its country in
most aspects, like politics, economy, media, culture and universities.
The law of the primate city is one of the most basic generalizations regarding
the size distribution of cities introduced by M Jefferson. The law is established on the
agglomeration effect by which a city ' over and over again the capital city' grows inexplicably
to outshine the rest.
The Law: ‗A country's most important city is always disproportionately large and remarkably
expressive of national capacity and feeling‘. It exerts supremacy on all others not only in
population size but also in its role as a political, economic and social centre for the country.
Examples are following
 London – 7 times that of Liverpool

 Copenhagen – 9 times that of Aarhus
 Mexico City – 5 times that of Guadalahara
Jefferson made a study of 51 countries where he found that in 28 instances, the

primate city was over twice the size of the second largest city and in 18 instances, it was
more than 3 times.
Factors affecting primacy
Attempts were made by Linsky to classify in more accurate terms the factors
probable to produce an elevated degree of primacy or tough domination by the primate city.

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He further demonstrated that countries with an elevated level of primacy have a tendency to
exhibit the subsequent characteristics:
1. Small territorial extent

2. Relatively high population density
3. Low per capita incomes
4. A high degree of dependence upon agricultural exports
5. High rate of population growth and
6. In many cases, a former colonial status
Index of primacy
It is the measure of relative importance of the largest town in a nation or a region.
Index of Primacy = P1/P2
Where P1 = Population of the largest town and P2 = population of the second largest town
There are 2 sets of issues which have been by and large debated with respect to
primate city urban systems.
1. Concerns with its universal applicability

2. Concerns with its desirability or otherwise
Universal Applicability
It is not universally pertinent as a rule, but only under definite conditions
 Prevalent in dual economy or where low level of development is there.

 To begin with as a country grows economically, primacy increases. After a definite
time, primacy decreases – but Jefferson has not talked about any time factor.
In India – Bombay / Calcutta = 1.1 (1991)
Canada – Toronto / Montreal = 1.1
So, high development does not mean low primacy.
Desirability
Many think that elevated level of primacy is an expression of robust regional
disproportion and dearth of development. It has been frequently asserted but not persuasively
substantiated that the primate city contributes to regional imbalances and is a disagreeable
urban system.
With regard to both the issues, the debate is still open to doubt. Nonetheless,
primate city urban systems do occur in quite a lot of countries of the world and several states
of India. The theory fundamental primate city development cannot entirely be disregarded by
urban geographers.
Indian context
No city in India exercises supremacy over the whole nation. There is no

primate city in India at present. The absence of a primate city is partly explained by the large
size of the country, its colonial heritage, and weaknesses in the forces of nationalism in the

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country.
The absence of a primate city has its roots in Indian history. India was never a
politically unified nation until 1947. Primate city development is essentially a politically
directed process and it takes time to assert itself under conditions of political stability.
Further, primate city development at the national level is characteristic of unitary states with
strong central governments.
The Constitution of India envisages a partially federal political set-up with the
states and the Union sharing power. This permits the development of national as well as state
level primate cities.
Primacy at the state level
1. West Bengal – Calcutta/Asansol = 25.08

2. Sikkim – Gangtok/Singtam = 9.10
3. Karnataka – Bangalore/Hubli = 5.53
4. Maharashtra – Mumbai / Pune = 4.88
5. Tamil Nadu – Madras / Coimbatore = 4.66
6. Andhra Pradesh – Hyderabad/Vishakhapatnam = 4.25
Regional Primacy in India
The four largest urban places of India Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai
are located in four regions: Western, Eastern, Northern and Southern region correspondingly.
Each state wants the development of its own metropolitan city. In this Situation the regional
level primacy subsist in Indian urban system. The four mega cities are the largest in their
respective regions. In western region Mumbai remained the largest city and the second largest
city is Ahmadabad.
In Northern region Delhi remained the largest city and Kanpur was the second
largest city. In eastern and Southern regions the second ranked cities have changed positions.
In the southern region Hyderabad was the second largest city in 1951,1961,1971, while
Bangalore fail to notice it in 1981,1991 and 2001.
Kolkata is exhibiting the situation of urban primacy in eastern region. Till

2001 Kolkata was almost seven times bigger than the second largest city of eastern region. At
regional level, Kolkata remained a primate city and experienced an increase in primacy level
in 2011. It was argued by Ramachandaran (1989), that the case of primacy of Calcutta is even
comparable to that of the United Kingdom or other cities of world with primate city
characteristics. West Bengal‘s second largest city, Asansol, was indeed very small in relation
to Calcutta: it was 1/25th the size of Calcutta in 1981 (Ramachandaran 1989).
Kolkata was established by the colonizers as a strategic location for the

administrative, military and business activities. It became the chief reason for primacy of
Kolkata. For so many years it remained the most industrialized metropolis of India and hence
there was a continuous flow of population towards this city.
Kolkata merged as the largest city of Eastern region: it further produced the
agglomerative effect to the whole region. Being the largest urban place of the region, Kolkata
became an important city in terms of employment, education and a centre of many such
opportunities for the migrants. These processes contributed to Kolkata‘s emergence as a

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primate city. The high level of primacy of Kolkata show the way to the situation of scarcity
of other big towns in the eastern regions and at the same time resulted in the low level of
urbanization in Eastern India. In fact it is observed by Ramachandran (1989) that in
Calcutta‘s hinterland there are so few towns. And cities that one town of at least 20,000
populations serves a rural population of 500,000 or more. Calcutta remained the only million-
plus metropolis in the region until 1981. Each of the three other regions of India, North, West
and south had at least two million-plus cities in 1981. Kolkata historically got very slight
competition from any other city of eastern region because of its economic and administrative
importance and this made Kolkata the largest city of eastern region. The case of Kolkata also
explains the relationship between primacy and low level of urbanization in the region (Das
and Dutt 1993).
Primacy exists in the Western region, although comparatively less than that of
the eastern region. The level of urbanisation in western region is much higher in comparison
to the eastern region. Since 1961 there is a slow decline in the primacy of Mumbai in western
region, the exception was period 1991 when the primacy value increased, but it decreased
again in 2001. This is primarily because of the increasing number and size of million plus
cities in this region. In western region Ahmadabad and Pune are the two major million plus
cities which are competing with Mumbai.
In the southern region Chennai was never a primate city, although the relative
primacy of Chennai has declined after 1981. The other two major cities of this region are
giving close competition to Chennai; these cities are Bangalore and Hyderabad. These two
cities became very significant in this region because of their importance as IT hub in post
liberalization period.
Delhi in the Northern region is continuously rising as the primate city. It is the
only city among the four largest cites whose primacy index has not declined since 1951.
Delhi is the capital city of India and the central government is focusing more for the
infrastructure, industrial and over all development of the city. Delhi also has many
educational institutions, all these leading to its increasing steps towards primacy.
Rank-Size Rule
The concept of rank-size settlement system was suggested by G K ZIPF in

1949. He proposed that if all urban settlements in an area are arranged in descending order of
their population, the population of the nth ranking town will be 1/n of the largest city.
Thus the population series will be P, P/2, and P/3 …. P/n where
P= population of the largest city (Primate City).
Pn= P1/n
P1= Primate City population, n= rank, Pn= Population of nth ranking city
The rank-size rule addresses itself to two vital questions:
1. Why larger settlements are fewer in number?

2. What is the relationship between larger and smaller settlements?

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The explanation to both these questions is based on the appreciation of forces of

diversification and unification.
Forces of Diversification
The location of small settlements is generally determined by nearness to the

source of raw materials. In such a situation, where primary economic activates predominate;
land becomes the basic raw material or resource. Land is tilled by farmers to produce food
and other basic necessities of life. A present society rooted to the land merges with a large
number of village settlements within walking distance of each other. Similarly, apart from
agriculture, other primary activities such as mining, fishing and forestry also generate
dispersed settlements of small size at regular intervals of distance. As society advances,
secondary production makes it possible to locate settlements of greater distances from the
source of raw materials. Thus, the settlements specializing in secondary production can be
located farther apart, and also be larger in terms of population. Nevertheless, a wide range of
secondary economic activities must be located near the source of raw materials so that the
costs of transportation can be minimized. Secondary economic activities generate settlements
of large size and greater distances apart as compared to primary activities.
Forces of Unification
In contrast to the forces of diversification, the forces of unification result in the

emergence of few large settlements. Here, the focus is on tertiary economic activities.
Nearness to the market, rather than the source of raw materials, is the determining factor in
the location of settlements. The size of market is measured by the population of the
settlement itself. Thus, a large settlement in itself constitutes a large market. Tertiary
activities, such as education, health and administration, are all consumer-oriented and tend to
be concentrated in large cities. In recent times, a wide range of secondary activities have
acquired a market orientation (for example, electronic and engineering goods and information
technology industries). These secondary economic activities also tend to concentrate in large
metropolitan cities. These forces lead to the emergence of a few very large cities.
Higher degree of primacy suggests the presence of strong centripetal forces

and hence greater tendency towards agglomeration and unification (i>1). Absence of primacy
suggests the existence of centrifugal forces and their greater tendency towards diversification
(i>0, i<1).
A balance between the two forces i.e. of unification and diversification could
result into the creation of an ideal urban system (i=0), which is possibly desirable and may be
aimed at by the urban planners and policy makers.
Rank-Size rule and application
Zipf studied urban pattern in many countries before propounding this law. It
works better in larger countries like the US and Soviet Union. It also works well in countries
with long urban history and in areas that have a more complex social and economic system.
Exceptions
1. Where primate cities are there in smaller countries – This pattern could disrupt at least
(1) & (2) levels – e.g. France, Mexico

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2. When one or more of the city size groupings are missing e.g. Australia – only big
cities are there, no small cites Canada – only big and small cities, no intermediate
ones. So, the rule will not apply.
Rank-Size Relationship in India
The rank-size relationship is absent in India at the national level as the

population size of Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi is very close to each other. Moreover, a great
majority of states in India also do not conform to the rank-size rule. In fact, primacy exists in
at least 15 out of the 29 states of India and in another eight states (Bihar, Kerala, M.P.,
Punjab, Orissa, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) the leading city is only just larger
than the second city. In Kerala, the three cities of Cochin, Calicut, and Thiruvananthapuram
(Trivandrum) have nearly the same population size; this is also the case with cities of Indore,
Jabalpur and Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, and Ludhiana, Amritsar and Jalandhar in Punjab.
Rank-size relationships appear to hold good in the state of Rajasthan. In brief, rank-size rule
in India is an exception rather than a rule.
Assessment of the Rank-Size &Primates-city systems
The rank-size rule and primate city concept, both are empirical constructs and
their objective is to give explanation of the real world structure of settlement. Although the
rank-size rule covers the whole settlement system at the same time as the law of primate city
focuses only on the leading cities, the rank-size rule has lesser empirical legitimacy.
In the Indian context, rank-size relationships are exceptions, while primate city
characteristics appear to be important in a majority of Indian states. The rank-size rule is
fundamentally economic to a certain extent than a sociological theory of settlement system.
The desirability of both is a matter of debate and inconclusively so. On the other hand, both
concepts can be constructive to the planners.
The rank-size rule given by Zipf is considerably unbending and rarely found in
an exact empirical fit. Furthermore, it attaches great importance to the population size of the
largest city in a region or country. The population size of every other settlement depends on
the size of the largest city. The application of rank-size rule is difficult because there is no
universal definition of city sizes. There are many cities where the built-up area extends
outside the administrative boundaries of the city and where many city workers live further
than the edge of the built-up areas.
Having a look at the problem of application of rank-size rule, it can be better

used for comparative purposes. The rank-size rule is more descriptive rather than explanatory
or predictive.

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Urban Morphology
Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists
of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of
residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention is
given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities
compare with each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the
social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city and conversely, how
physical form produces or reproduces various social forms. This approach challenges the
common perception of unplanned environments as chaotic or vaguely organic through
understanding the structures and processes embedded in urbanization.
There are three basic models in urban morphology
1. Burgess Concentric Model (1929),

2. Hoyts Sector Model (1939),
3. The Multi Nuclei Theory (Ullmann & Harris, 1945)
Although each city is unique in respect of the detailed pattern of its internal
land use, there is nevertheless a considerable degree of repetition in the broad geographical
arrangement of the various categories of urban land use from one city to another. As a result a
number of theories have been formulated which attempt to describe and explain the patterns
involved.
The Concentric Zone theory
This theory put forth by Burgess in 1925 related population mobility and
societal organization to the physical expansion of the city (Burgess, 1929). Burgess was
interested in determining a pattern for the social structure of the city, and studying how the
city grew. Thus, it is a descriptive framework to analyze spatial organization of land use in a
city and its change over time. It was partly based on economic factors. The model made many
assumptions such as uniform land surface, free market, accessibility to a single centered city,
heterogeneous population and a commercial-industrial base (Herbert and Thomas, 1990).
Burgess‘ research on the distributional pattern of various groups of society led him to
conclude that the city was made up of concentric zones with the central business district
(CBD) at the center.
The CBD core had all major commercial, political and social activities. This
was surrounded by a transition zone, which had factories and slums. It also had older
residential districts, which were being taken over by the expanding CBD. The next zone had
lower income housing, and successive zones had higher income residences (Burgess, 1929).
Families moved out into the next zone when their zone was invaded. The basic premise in
this model was that of succession and invasion whereby population groups gradually moved
out as their economic and social status improved. Mobility and migrant influx were thought
of as the main cause of the social pattern.

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This model was based on Burgess‘ experience in the American mid-west

cities, and especially in Chicago. In the early 1920s, most American cities in the mid-west
absorbed many immigrant groups from Europe. These immigrants first found cheap housing
in the inner city. With affluence, they moved to better housing districts (Burgess, 1929). The
movement was towards the periphery. Diversification in employment opportunities gave rise
to the growth of mixed land use development. This also forced an outward expansion. The
public transport system had also improved significantly and allowed the middle-class to
travel from outer zones to the CBD for work. These reasons complemented a concentric zone
development model.
Criticism:
With the few modifications Burgess,‘ theory is popularly and widely used by
current authors. But the Burgess‘ theory is criticized on the several grounds like local
topographical features which affect the residential areas location. While this type of criticism
looks invalid because Burgess himself criticised that point i.e. those zone distortions may
result from variations in relief features. Davie (1972) is the most active critic of the Burgess‘
theory who criticised the theory on following grounds:
(i) The size of CBD‘s is irregular in the pattern; and is often rectangular than circular,
(ii) Commerce and business areas of usually extend along streets from the CBD‘s in a
radial way.
(iii) Along the lines of transportation, near water or rail network Industrial units lie.
(iv) Near to industrial and transportation areas in every zone the houses are low grade
generally, and
(v) Lastly, Burgess‘ theory lacks universal acceptance as a whole. The critics of
Burgess‘s concentric zone theory focus on that the theory is not applicable in the
case of its treatment of wholesaling market. Similarly, in the modern city the large
and heavy industries do not take the form of the concentric belt just outside the
CBD, instead, it forms wedges like areas along transportation lines.

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The theory of Burgess seems weak, in the historical perspective too. The
houses, streets, and railroads of culture areas developed during historical phases very hard to
change their location. The theory was considered generally in time and space, and it was
outdated and limited only to large Western industrial cities by the late 20th century.
The concentric scheme for the ‗pre-industrial city‘ neglected by Sjoberg

(1960)‘ in which privileged classes – the elite, gather at the centre due to the nearness of
governmental and religious buildings. While religion and politics in feudal cities had far more
important than the economic –in which the centre‘s main market being subsidiary to religious
and political structures.
Merits of the Concentric Theory:
The chief supporter of the Burgess theory is Quinn (1950) says a common-
sense observations which tend to the theory confirmation. The probability of the concentric
structure around the dominant retail area in various cities indicates by the Urban-gradients‘
researchers.
The symmetry of concentric may be violated by Local irregularities; the most

cities conformed at least roughly to the Burgess pattern opined by Quinn. The contribution of
Burgess‘s model too had appreciation by Haggett and Chorley (1965); according to them it
was a normative model, ‗which is based on simple structure of reality presenting supposedly
significant features of relationships in a generalized form. To conclude, the illustration of
burgess‘s model of concentric zone theory; is an expansion of the city in its comprehensible
manner by a series of concentric zones.
The Sector Theory
Discrepancies between the concentric model and the reality of the urban land
use patterns have encouraged the formulation of other theories of urban structure. Notable
among these is the Sector Theory proposed by H. Hoyt and M.R. Davie in 1939.
According to the sector theory, pattern of urban

land use are conditioned by the arrangement of routes
radiating out from the city centre which creates sectoral
pattern of land rent values which in turn influences the urban
land use pattern. According to H. Hoyt, a high rent residential
district in one sector of the city will migrate outward by the
addition of new belts of housing along its outer are. Similarly
low rent housing might expand outward in a different
direction. In other words, once contrast in land use has
developed near the city centre, these differences will be
perpetuated as the city expands. This idea of a wedge like
expansion is improvement over the earlier concentric model in
that it takes into account both the distance and the direction of

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expansion, and acknowledges the importance of transport routes on the growth of the city.
Hoyt‘s theory is based on a vast amount of empirical work. The data for the
theory were collected for 64 cities in America by the Works Progress Administration. The
data of these small- and medium-sized cities were supplemented with surveys of New York,
Chicago, Detroit, Washington and Philadelphia. Thus, it amounts in large part, to empirical
generalizations. Nevertheless, the theory has not gone unchallenged.
Walter Firey‘s Criticism of Hoyt‘s Theory:
Walter Firey carried out a land use study of central Boston. In his study he
explored the role of social factors in shaping urban land use. On this basis, he contradicted
various aspects of sector theory. According to Firey, there is little validity of comparing the
result of work in a number of cities when relief, location on a waterfront and other factors
affected the sector pattern of some cities.
He also criticised cartographic approach on the ground that maps can only
give clues to theories. This needs to be worked out in terms of abstract concepts. Hoyt has not
sufficiently considered the roles of cultural and social systems in conditioning land use.
Wealthy residents can choose to live anywhere and may not follow the ‗normal‘, either sector
or concentric pattern.
Multiple Nuclei Theory
Harris and Ullman (1945); brought together their work on central palace
theory and classification of cities respectively to represent a metropolitan area that was not
defined by distances from the central business district but was based on patterns of land-use
of the surrounding areas of the CBD. During the time of its inception to the present day,
taking place in cities, residential, business, industrial or other elements to accommodate the
growth of multiple nuclei model suggested by them.
Harris and Ullman unlike Burgess and Hoyt stressed upon the development of
special purpose districts instead of social differentiation of residential areas. These districts
were nodes of economic activity that needed specialized facilities and benefitted from
agglomeration economies of different activities centred there. The rise of such special
districts or nuclei was due to numbers of factors which affect the human activities expansion
within a city. These are as fallow:
(a) Some activities require specialized facilities like, CBD; which can function at the
point where maximum accessibility possible.
(b) There are also numbers of activities which is present in cohesion. The densely packed
inner districts of large cities are clustered with clothing industry. Due to cohesion they
get profit.
(c) Some activities are detrimental in nature to one another, and generally seek separate
locations. For example; heavy industry does not prefer to be nearer to the high-class
residential areas.

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(d) While some are unable to pay the rents of most desirable locations; like low income
residential areas or bulk storage facilities have to seek nuclei in remote regions.
The factors which are discussed above along with social, cultural and
economic criteria provide a unique urban landscape with separate nodes. Moreover, this
theory reveals two significant observations based on historical and site elements of
morphology. In one hand the theory produces a model involving complexities of urban
structure which may not be easily and immediately discernible because of historical
stratification of land uses during the process of urban growth. Although there is only one
CBD present in most cities and they have a series of sub-centres around CBD. The peripheral
areas are less specialized than CBD but enough to cope up the needs of smaller sections of
the city. Another one is an observation which is more significant is about the probability of
elements of the concentric and sector models present in its depth. There is nothing new is
involved conceptually in the multiple nuclei model, and, it should not be given the status of a
theory.
Therefore, multiple nuclei theory should be looked upon as an approach which

only road to think about the structure of the city, rather than as a rigid generalization in nature
about urban form.
Mann‘s Model
An interesting attempt to combine elements of both the concentric and sector

theories has been presented by P. Mann (1965). His model illustrates the structure of
hypothetical British city. The model also incorporated a climatic consideration relevant to the
UK by assuming a prevailing wind from the west.

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a) The best residential area (A) is located on the western fringe of the city, upwind and
on the opposite side of town from the industrial sector (D).
b) The areas of the working class and the main council estates are located close to the
industrial zone.
c) The lower middle class housing (B) borders on each side of the best residential area.
The model also identifies a CBD, a transition zone, a zone of small terraced
houses in sector C and D, larger housing in sector B, large old houses in sector A, post-1918
residential areas with post-1945 housing added on the periphery, and dormitory settlement at
commuting distance from the city.

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Classification of Towns or Cities

Classification of Cities on the basis of Age
Taylor‘s Classification:
Griffith Taylor (1949) attempted to identify stages in the development of the

cities. On the basis of these stages he classified cities into six categories.
1. Sub-infantile- The initial cluster in a single ill-defined street town.

2. Infantile - Town in a second stage have no clear differentiation between industrial,
commercial and residential area, through there is a tendency for the bigger houses to
be located near the margins. There are no factories.
3. Juvenile - There is a fairly clear segregation of an extensive commercial quarter
towards the centre of the town, through separation of function is in no way complete.
The residential area also shows no clear differentiation.
4. Adolescence – This stage shows clear differentiation of residential zone.
5. Early maturity – In this stage also there is a differentiation of residential zone, the
different
between the two lies only in degree.
6. Mature -A mature town is one in which there are separate commercial area as well as
four
zone of residential houses, ranging from mansions to shacks.
The classification is interesting from an academic point of view, but is

unpractical as no specific determinants have been stated. Moreover, it is applicable only to
western cities under a particular economic system.
Mumford‘s Classification:
Lewis Mumford (1938) an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of

technology, and literary critic suggested six stages of development of cities. Mumford was
influenced by the work of Scottish theorist Sir Patrick Geddes. His six stages of development
of cities are:
1. Eopolis: The beginning of urbanisation of course is rooted in the rural scene. Men
used to be involved in hunting. As they slowly learned, they became producers and
settled in village. They also indulged in fishing and mining. At this juncture of time
depending upon their religion, they set up a temple, cathedral or mosque.
Subsequently, a market also developed.
2. Polis: As more and more villages developed many found that they have certain things
common with their neighbour‘s. The settlements slowly developed into a brotherhood
of traders and became richer because of accumulation of wealth from nearby villages.
The religious establishments extend further and so does the market squares. There
was a social stratification according to which people belonging to the higher hierarchy

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occupy central place while the others spread outwardly such that the people of lower
level took peripheral places.
3. Metropolis: Small towns and villages in a region come together as a single entity. The
entity is the city which has a compact site, good water and food supply, ample land
etc. This becomes metropolis, the mother of city. As the city streamlines its
production, a surplus occurs. The surplus at this stage is characterized by the
specialization of trades.
4. Megalopolis: The stage is marked by more diversity of cultures. There is migration
from all around. Indifference between the people increases. There is also a class
struggle. Further developments are hence down wards. The city begins to decline.
5. Tyrannopolis: The economic and social scene slowly metamorphoses into more or
less parasitic state. This stage of the development of city is marked by the
indifference. People are involved in pomp and pleasure. This is what happened
towards the end of Roman era. The environment of the city deteriorates and people
flee towards the countryside. The commercial activities are marked by booms and
slumps.
6. Necropolis: The city decays further. The civilization follows a downward trend. War,
famine and diseases erupt and lead the city towards destruction. The cultural
institutions also erode greatly.
Classification of Urban places on the basis of Functions
Urban centres are numerous, and these vary in their functions, location, size
and in their social composition, culture and heritage also. It is therefore meaningful to
classify towns into categories for better understanding about their role in the regional and
national context. There are several methods, ways and means to classify urban centres. Site
and situation of towns, population, size and functions, their social and cultural environment,
etc., are some of the recognized bases to put them into groups. Out of all these bases of
classification, the variable of ‗function‘ is widely accepted and reliable too. ‗Reliable‘ in the
sense that urban place itself is defined as a unit characterized by non-agricultural activities.
Non-agricultural activities here include administrative, industrial, commercial,

cultural, etc. It is rare instance that an urban place is ‗mono-activity‘ centre. Often towns
develop diversified activities and are known to possess multifarious functions like economic,
administrative and cultural. Nearly all towns are supposed to provide various services like
health, education, municipal (water, electricity, and sanitation), transportation and marketing.
Aurousseau‘s Classification:
In 1921, M. Aurrousseau classified towns into six classes with twenty eight
sub types. The six classes were administrative, defence, culture, production-towns,
communication and recreation. This list is quite comprehensive and has sometimes being
found useful. His classification though a simple one, however, suffers from the defect of
over-generalization. Moreover, some of the classes are specific to a particular country at a

15
particular time only. To classify a town into one major category the cut-off point of one-class
has been decided by the arbitrary percentage, and therefore it is subjective.
Economic activities too are neglected. These are important in the sense that a
town also caters for the need of people residing outside its municipal limits. Various classes
of functions as suggested by Aurrousseau create confusion in the sense that both functional
and locational characteristics are mixed; for example, under communication-class group of
towns performing function of ‗transfer of goods‘ are put. Towns with tidal-limit, fall-line
towns, bridgehead towns point out attribute of location in performance of their function. It is
thus doubtful that such towns are exclusively communicational, and not locational. Similarly,
pilgrimage centres are cultural towns, but these equally are significant in their geographical
location on mountainous terrain, in valleys or on banks of rivers.
In spite of all these critics, Aurousseau‘s classification marks a significant

stage and provides a springboard for sophisticated methods. It is actually a comprehensive
scheme bringing together polygonal functional urban activities to classify urban centres.
Harris‘s Classification:
Chauncy D. Harris remedied the deficiencies of the former subjective and

judgement-based classifications. In his paper „A Functional Classification of Cities in the
United States (1943)‟, he was able to identify quantitatively dominant function out of
multifunctional character of cities. He devised a scale of reference from his study of 984
towns (population more than 10,000) in United States based on the data provided by 1930
Census. He used two sets of information – i) employment and ii) occupational figures
reduced to percentages to indicate cut-off points for urban activities varying in importance.
He identified nine principal categories of towns – manufacturing (M),

retailing (R), diversified (D), wholesaling (W), transportation (T), mining (S), educational
(E), resort or retirement (X) and others (P).
Harris‘s classification suffers with some defects and is not universally viable.
He used metropolitan districts as functional units because the industry-group data such as
those published now were not available during that time. Consequently, number of cities
which were too small to have metropolitan districts were left unclassified.
Carter (1975) labelled Harris‘s classification as subjective because the

decisions to access or delete with a minimum number or cut-off points seem to be a personal
one and were set by simple empirical means. Under the class of ‗Transport and
Communications‘, workers engaged in telephone and telegraph services were omitted, which
was nothing more than a subjective decision.

16
Howard Nelson‘s Classification:
Nelson through his classification removed the shortcomings of the earlier

classifications by using a stated procedure that could be objectively checked by other
workers. His paper „A Service Classification of American Cities‟ was published in the journal
Geography in 1955. He decided to base his method of classification entirely upon major
industry groups as listed in the 1950 Census of Population for standard metropolitan areas,
urbanized areas and urban places of 10,000 or more population. He omitted the little
significance groups like agriculture and construction, and finally, arrived at the nine activity
groups (manufacturing; retail; professional services; wholesale; personal service; public
administration; transport and communication; finance, insurance, real estate and mining).
The problem of city specialization, and also the degree of specialization above
the average was solved by giving margins of different degree to different size classes. He did
find a definite tendency for the percentages employed in some activities vary with city size.

17
The question – ‗When is a city specialized?‘ was solved by using a statistical technique – the
Standard Deviation (SD).
A city can be specialized in more than one activity and to varying degrees.
Thus he showed for each city all activities that qualified for plus 1, plus 2, or plus 3 SDs
above the mean. Table 2 indicates averages and SD in percentages for selected nine activity
groups as developed by Nelson (1950).
Suppose, any city which is classified as Pf 2F, it means that it has 22.87 or
more but less than 28.76 per cent of its labour-force employed in professional service and
4.44 or more but less than 5.69 per cent employed in finance, insurance and real estate. In
short, the table indicates, the number of SDs shows the degree to which the urban centre
stands out for the activity in question. A city which does not fall even under 1 SD, average in
any activity appears as diversified D, in Nelson‘s classification.
Functional Classification of Indian Cities

The urban geographers have applied a number of techniques to classify the
urban places in India on the basis of their functions. Most of the classifications have utilised
the occupational data provided by the Census of India. The first attempt was made by Amrit
Lal (1959). He used the location quotient (L.Q) method to determine the functional
classification of the Class I cities of India. According to Lal, all the Class I cities of India,
except a few, are multifunctional in nature.
Qazi Ahmad (1965) used 62 variables to classify 102 Indian cities on the basis
of their functions. Subsequently, Ashok Mitra (1971, 1973) used seven categories of workers
as variables grouped into three major functional types, e.g. manufacturing, trade, transport
and services.
In India, the problem of classifying urban centres is not an easy task. This is
because of several reasons. First, the number of towns in India is too large to handle on some
viable grounds. The size of towns has a wide span ranging between 5,000 to 10 million.
Secondly, the towns of India have a long historical background and have been under various

18
regimes dating back thousand years from birth of Christ to the present era of democratic set-
up. And finally, the data about functions and economy of Indian cities have not yet been
standardized because of the absence of a suitable urban agency to deal with these. Under
these circumstances classifications and categorization of urban places in India differ from
state to state and from author to author. The most common functional classification of the
Indian cities is –
1. Administrative Cities: The main function of the administrative cities/towns is to

administer the country, state or any other administrative unit. It includes not only the capital
cities of the country, but also all the centres of states, districts and other administrative
divisional headquarters of the country. In the administrative cities are placed the legislative,
executive and judiciary of the respective administrative unit. New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Patna, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Aizawl,
Kohima, etc. are essentially administrative cities.
2. Defence Towns: The dominant functions in a defence town pertain to security and defence
of the country. In fact, such towns are characterised with cantonments, barracks, military
training centres, garrisons, air-force bases, air-fields, harbours, strategic locations, and naval
headquarters. Adampur, Ambala, Halwara, Jalandhar, Jamnagar, Jodhpur, Khadakwasla, ,
Pathankot, Udhampur, Vishakhapatnam, etc. are some of the examples of defence towns.
3. Cultural Cities: These cities perform religious, educational or recreational functions. The
cities of Allahabad, Amritsar, Ajmer, Bodh-Gaya, Dharamshala, Gangotri, Hardwar,
Kushipur, Nashik, Peerankalyar (Uttarakhand), Pushkar, Varanasi, etc. are the religious
centres in which the religious rituals are performed, and the markets are full of religious
books and accessories required for the religious rituals. The educational cities like Aligarh,
Gurukul, Kharagpur, Pantnagar, Shantiniketan, etc. are some of the examples of educational
cultural centres.
4. Collection Centres: The mining towns, fishing ports, lumbering centres are included in
this category. The urban places of Zawar near Udaipur, Digboi in Assam, Ankleshwar in
Gujarat, Bailadila in Chhattisgarh; Kathgodam, Haldwani and Kotdwar in Uttarakhand,
Machlipatnam, Kakinada, Naysari, Mahe, Kozhikode, Cuddalore, etc. are some of the
examples of collection centres.
5. Production Centres: The urban places having manufacturing industries are included in
the category of manufacturing cities. The manufacturing cities are generally well connected
with the areas of raw material and the markets where the manufactured goods can be sold.
Thus, these cities are well connected by roads and railways. Bhilai, Bhadrawati, Bokaro,
Coimbatore, Dhanbad, Durgapur, Jamshedpur, Vijainagram, Vishakhapatnam, etc. are some
of the important manufacturing centres of India.
6. Transfer and Distribution Centres: The main functions performed at the transfer centres
are trade, commerce and services. This category includes several categories of towns. The
market towns are characterised by markets containing wide range of goods, godowns, cold
storages and wholesale markets. The most important commercial centres are Mumbai,

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Kolkata, Chennai, Ahmadabad, Gwalior, Indore, Ludhiana, Muzaffarpur, Phagwara, Surat,

etc.
7. Resorts: The urban places which cater the recreation needs of people are known as resorts
or recreation towns. These towns may be based on health-giving water (hot-springs), sea side
recreation, mountain-climbing, sports facilities, national parks, tiger reserves and places of
aesthetic beauty. Bageshwar, Dehra-Dun, Dalhousie, Darjeeling, Dharamshala, Gulmarg,
Kullu, Manali, Mt. Abu, Nainital, Pahalgam, Panchmadhi, Ooty, Ranikhet, etc. are some of
the examples of resort towns.
8. Residential Towns: Some of the towns and cities are developed just to provide residential
accommodation to the urban people. In Delhi, Rohini, Indirapuram, SaraswatiVihar,
Zakirnagar, etc. are some of the examples of residential towns. Panchkula near Chandigarh,
and Partapur near Meerut are essentially residential towns. Similar residential towns are
found at the outskirts of Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Jaipur, etc.
9. Seaports: The basic task of seaports is to export and import goods. Diamond Harbour,
Haldia, Kandla, Kochi, New Mangalore, New-Tuticorin, Okhla, Paradeep, etc. may be
included in this category.
10. Cities with Diversified Functions: As stated, most of the cities and towns of India are
multi-functional. The capital cities are also the commercial, manufacturing, cultural and
recreational centres. The seaports are engaged in trade and commerce, beside cultural
activities. Cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Jaipur, Allahabad,
and Varanasi, are performing highly assorted functions.
Over the period of time number of cities have seen changes in their functional
character. One has to keep in mind these changes while attempting a functional classification
of cities. For example, some of the important cities of the past have disappeared as they lost
their strategic, administrative, manufacturing or commercial importance.
Mitra‘s Classification of Indian Cities:
Ashok Mitra, a former Registrar General of the Census of India, attempted a

comprehensive classification of all Indian Cities. Ashok Mitra‘s classification is based on
categories of workers classification available in the census of 1961 and 1971. In 1991, an
effort was made to classify all urban places in terms of their functional character with slight
modification by adjusting the industrial categories into five broad economic sectors. The
classification is as follows:
1. Primary Activity
I. Cultivations
II. Agricultural labourers
III. Livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations, orchards and allied activities.
IV. Mining and quarrying

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2. Industry
V. (a)Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in household industry

(b)Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in other than household
industry
VI. Construction workers
3. Trade
VII. Trade and commerce
4. Transport
VIII. Transport, storage and communication
5. Services
IX. Other services
He grouped the seven industrial categories‘ of workers into three broad groups:
(a) Manufacturing Town (percentage of workers in III, IV, V and VI put together is greater
than the percentage in VII + VIII or in IX).
(b) Trade and Transport Town (percentage of workers in VII + VIII is greater than IX or in
III + IV + V and VI put together).
(c) Service Town (where percentage of workers in IX is greater than workers in III +
IV+V+VI or percentage in VII + VIII).
Degree of specialization in each of the three basic groups (a, b, and c) was
identified by a triangular method on a graph. The three sides of an equilateral triangle
represent three groups by 100 values as shown in Figure.
The values of all the three groups are then plotted, and a point for each town
within the triangle‘s perpendiculars was located. Three circles from the in centre point (33
1/3) are drawn proportionately to represent 40, 45 and 50 values respectively. These show

21
increasing tendency for specialization. The points within the first circle show highly
diversified functions; points between first and second circle are moderately diversified; points
between second and third represent specialized predominant function; and the points outside
the outer (third) circle show highly specialized predominant function.
The classification of 2,528 towns shows that as many as 736 were agriculture,
(total number of workers exceeding the number of workers in three non-agricultural groups),
and out of 1,792 non-agricultural towns, 655 were manufacturing towns, 708 as trade and
transport towns, and 429 as service towns.
Mitra‘s classification, on the whole, brings the major categories of cities with
their specialization. It distinguishes three broad functional categories - manufacturing, trading
and service (administration) among cities. Majority of cities show no clear specialization in
one economic activity and have diversified economic base. The diversified city with multiple
functions constitutes the most common and representative type of cities.
Sphere of Urban Influence

The sphere of influence of a settlement describes the area that is served by a
settlement, for a particular function. Its sphere of influence for different functions may cover
vastly different areas. For instance a supermarket may attract people from a 20-mile radius,
whilst a leisure activity, such as going to the theatre may attract them from far further away.
The larger a settlement is the greater its sphere of influence is likely to be, as it
has a wider range of services and functions to attract people to go there. This is shown in the
diagram below. A small village may only have a village store selling the daily newspaper and
food such as bread and milk. People will only travel the shortest distance they need to buy
these products. They are described as being convenience goods. In other words, something
that you can buy easily and for the same price all over the place.
A larger town would have a wider sphere of influence because it would have
shops and services that are more specialist, and so people would be willing to travel further to
use them. An example might be a furniture shop. This sells comparison goods, in other
words products that you might shop around for before going ahead and buying something.

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There are two major ideas to consider when looking at the sphere of influence
of a shop of service. These are called the range and threshold population of a good.
The range of a good or service describes the maximum distance that someone
would be willing to travel to obtain that good or service. A newspaper shop has a small range
because people will not travel far to use them. A cinema has a much wider range as people
are prepared to travel much further to go to it.
The threshold population of a good or service is the minimum number of

people needed to allow that shop or service to be successful. The more specialist a shop is the
larger its threshold population is.
A news agent will have a small threshold; where as a supermarket like D-

Mart's needs a much larger population before it can consider opening a store.
Rural-Urban Fringe
The rural–urban fringe also known as the outskirts, rurban, peri-urban or the
urban hinterland, can be described as the "landscape interface between town and country" or
also as the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix and often clash. Alternatively, it
can be viewed as a landscape type in its own right, one forged from an interaction of urban
and rural land uses.
The urban-rural fringe (URF) is the zone of transition in land use, social and
demographic characteristics, lying between (a) the continuously built- up urban and suburban
areas of the central city, and (b) the rural hinterland, characterized by the almost complete
absence of non-farm dwellings, and of urban and rural social orientation; an incomplete range
and penetration of urban utility services; uncoordinated zoning or planning regulations; a-real
extension beyond although contiguous with the political boundary of the central city; and an
actual and potential increase in population density, with the current density above that of
surrounding rural districts but lower than the central city. These characteristics may differ
both in zonal and sectoral way, and can be modified through time.
The conceptual definition of urban rural fringe was propounded by R.J. Pryor
in 1968. It is a zone of transition between the continuously built-up and suburban areas of the
central city and rural hinterland. The Urban-Rural Fringe Area has also been defined as ―the
area of transition between well recognized urban land use and the area devoted to
agriculture‖. Therefore, urban-rural fringe is a continuous area that starts beyond the urban
limits of cities.
A more comprehensive definition of rural-urban fringe given by Herington

(1984), describes the distinctive characteristics that it is an area which is partly assimilated in
the growing urban complex, which is still partly rural and where many of the residents live in
the countryside, but are not socially and economically forming part of it.
In Indian scenario, ―the Urban-Rural Fringe (URF) is an area of mixed urban

and rural population and land use, which begins at the point where agricultural land use

23
appear near the city and extend to the point where villages have distinct urban land uses or
where some persons, at least from village community commute to city daily for work or other
purposes‖ (Husain, 2007). The URF area is neither truly urban nor truly rural. It has certain
characteristic land use for example, garden centers, fruit, vegetable and floriculture fields,
dairy works, poultry, farm houses, agro-based industries, boarding schools, colleges, new
residential colonies etc. There is constant change in the land use. Land shifts from primary
(agriculture) to secondary and tertiary economic activities. Therefore, these areas provide
good opportunities of employment for both rural and urban population (Asif, 2010).
Metropolitan fringe areas have traditionally been seen as:
i. featuring a diversity of land uses that vary in relation with their urban and rural
linkages;
ii. ―transitional‖ in nature suggesting from one side ―a patterned sequence of uses
that become progressively more agrarian in orientation as one recedes from the
urban centre‖;
iii. inversely, ―agricultural land uses, employment and rural linkages are seen as
giving way to urban-oriented activities as distance to the city centre diminishes‖;
and
iv. Populated mainly by poor residents recently arrived from rural areas, being
engaged in multiple income-generating activities, mostly informal (Browder et al.,
1995).
Functional Characteristics of Urban-Rural Fringe Area
An urban-rural fringe can be described as the hinterland between town and

country or alternatively as the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix and often clash.
An urban fringe is characterized by certain land uses which have either purposely moved
away from the urban area, or require much larger tracts of land. Despite these urban uses the
fringe remains largely open with the majority of the land is in agriculture, woodland or other
rural use. However the quality of the countryside around urban areas tends to be low with
severance between areas of open land and badly maintained woodlands and hedgerows. The
urban-rural fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban
land uses intermix. It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to
urban use. Located well within the urban sphere of influence the fringe is characterized by a
wide variety of land use including dormitory settlements housing middle-income commuters
who work in the main urban area. Over time the characteristics of the fringe change from
largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanization takes place at the urban boundary of urban-
rural fringe. Problems stem from the competing land uses within this zone and the constant
pressure for new development, even in areas that have green belt status (London) or other
forms of protection. The issues of land use and prospective change are significant and are
increasing in number.
An urban-rural fringe is an area characterized by a mixture of urban and rural

features. As a result of the influence of the expanding city, the rural character of the fringe is

24
gradually or sometimes very abruptly replaced by a more urban profile in terms of land use,
employment and income, and culture. With this process of rural urban transformation,
pressure on land rises because of migration from the core city and rural areas and natural
population growth. The pressure on land is further aggravated through the use of land for
urban purposes, such as construction of building, urban residences and garbage disposal.
Increasing pressure on land in the fringe villages not only changes the land-use character, but
also causes degradation of natural resources in the rural areas. Living conditions of the rural
communities are affected due to unstructured land-use planning, lack of adequate civil
services and inability of the administrative system to handle institutional and factual
problems of the changing urban-rural fringe areas.
The urban-rural fringe areas play a key role in providing the essential
commodities needed in urban areas while acting as a playground for the rural economy. In
almost all developing countries, rural areas are the centers of agricultural production, while
the urban areas are the major consumers of it. The conversion of the agricultural produce into
edible and or marketable products takes place often in urban-rural fringe which has an equal
access to the raw materials and the markets which mainly lie in urban areas. In this process of
adding value to the raw agricultural produce, the fringe areas suffer considerably with the
environmental damages in the form waste disposal and resource constraints.
Stages of transformation of Fringe:
I. Rural stage:
1. Characterises the villages which are yet untouched by the urban influence.
2. Farming is the main occupation of the people.
3. Village also comprise of landless labourers and artisans.
4. Movement is restricted only to jobs in urban areas.
II. Linkage stage:
1. With gradual spatial expansion of the city, walls of the close knit rural society gives
way to city influence.

25
2. Villages still retain rural character with respect to occupational structure, mobility.
3. Farming transform from subsistence to commercial farming.
4. Daily movement of villagers to city to sell vegetables, milk and flowers
5. Improvement in amenities.
III. Occupational structure
1. Younger generation develops closer ties with the city and some of the people leave
the farming job for salaried or as low paid wage earners, repair shops.
2. Rest of the people engage in farming activity.
3. Changing pattern of division of labour and mobility.
4. Daily visits to city for job, domestic requirement, recreation, medical facilities.
IV. Landuse change
1. Village fully transforms to city life.

2. Part or whole of the agricultural land acquired by the Government or by the private
developers.
3. Beginning of planned residential colonies in the village areas marks this stage.
4. People involve mostly in non-farming activities.
5. Significant improvements in transportation medium develops
V. Urban villages
1. Entire village land is converted into urban land uses like residential and industrial.
2. Sizeable section of the village population is comprised of migrants in search of job.
3. People are engaged in low paid jobs, small business.
Issues in Urban-rural fringe
Uses Positive Aspects Negative Aspects
Agriculture Many well-managed farms and Farms often suffer litter, trespass, and
small holdings vandalism; some land is derelict in the hope
of planning permission
Development Some well-cited, carefully Some developments, such as out of town

landscaped developments such as shopping areas cause heavy traffic flow and
business and science parks pollution. Unregulated businesses such as
scrap metal and caravan storage. Airport
expansion
Urban Some, such as reservoirs or Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill

Services cemeteries, may be attractive. sites, etc. can be unattractive and polluting
Transport New cycle ways and footpaths can Motorways destroy countryside and promote
improve access to countryside new development, particularly near

26
junctions.
Recreation Country parks, sports fields and Some activities such as stock car racing and
and sport golf courses can lead to scrambling to erode ecosystems and create
conservation. localized litter and pollution
Landscape Many SSSI (sites of special Much degraded land, e.g. land ruined by fly-
and nature scientific interest) and AONB tipping; many SSSIs under threat
conservation (Areas of natural beauty)
Fringe sites are mostly used for dumping garbage and sewage of the city and
for relocation of city‘s slum. The fringe is a zone of haphazard industrial and residential
development. This happens when the rural people lured by attractive prices sell their land
to developers, who may not develop the land before they are sold and the people who
purchase these lands have to wait for decades to obtain basic urban amenities. Fringe areas
lack most of civic services that are found in city like water supply, sewerage because the city
provides these services only to place within the municipal limits. So they have to obtain water
from hand pumps, tube wells, and septic tanks and also adjust themselves to the poor quality
of local medical educational, postal and transport facilities.
Rural-Urban Fringe in India
The occurrence of rural urban fringe in India is rather a recent phenomenon

around the cities. It was non-existent even around the largest metropolitan cities in India
before 1950 because of very slow growth of cities in that period. The cities first began to
expand physically, first through the development of vacant land within the city itself and later
by the slow encroachment on land in areas lying outside the city limits. The poorest sections
stay in the villages around the city and commute to city for work. In India, urban fringe has
become almost messy by joining of settlements. They inherit the evils of conurbations such
as slums full of ‗jhuggi-jhonparis‘, drainage-less unpaved narrow lanes and traffic congestion
not far off the city centre. The delimitation of the R-U fringe involves its structural
composition. It is composed of several attributes like city municipal limits, contiguous small
urbanised towns, urbanised villages around the city, and also villages associated with the city
by virtue of their other functions.
During the British period, a number of villages around existing towns and
cities were totally relocated or in some cases dislocated in order to obtain a space for the
construction of new cantonment or civil lines. During the 19th century there was no real need
for the physical expansion of towns and cities and in half of the twentieth century the increase
in urban population was still marginal. The post-independence period has witnessed a radical
transformation of the urban scene. Over the period of time, population of million cities
increased by more than fifty per cent in a decade. Rapid growth of residential and other urban
land uses occurred in a haphazard manner. Private land developers interested in making quick
profits, industrial entrepreneurs and businessmen played a key role in bringing about the

27
physical expansion of the city. The villages in the periphery of the city, which had hardly any
administrative or political back up, were always an easy target. The physical expansion of the
city brings with it changes in the social aspects of life in the fringe villages. The growth of
industry, commerce, administration and institution of learning, arts, health generate jobs of an
unskilled nature for rural population. For those who prefer to continue with farming, the
rapidly growing city provides an expanding market for vegetables, fruit and milk. There
becomes a significant change in the rural land uses and even in the attitudes and values of
traditional rural people.
Structure of R-U fringe in India
The city and surrounding area comprise two types of administrative areas –
municipal towns or nagar panchayats and revenue villages or gram panchayats. The
municipal town tend to differ with distance from the main city. Near the main city, smaller
municipal towns are part of the city and have no identity of their own. With distance from the
main city the municipal towns are different as they have their own distinct identity. The area
beyond the metropolitan built up area, but contiguous to it, having other municipal towns,
census towns or fully urbanised villages constitutes the urban fringe part of the rural urban
fringe. The urban fringe is very much like the proper city with residential and commercial
centres, but it generally lacks city services such as piped water supply, sewerage and garbage
disposal facilities. Layout is haphazard and chaotic, streets are narrow winding and poorly
maintained and there is proliferation of squatter settlements and slums. In parts, the urban
fringe is well organised, with posh residential colonies, or industrial townships whose access
roads are well maintained and have all urban amenities.
The rural fringe that lies beyond the urban fringe consists of villages that are
only partly affected by urbanisation. In some places, all the agricultural land is intact in other
villages there are some isolated blocks of urban land use, as seen in the development of
residential plots in patches along the main roads and scattered industrial establishments
outside the village site. Sometimes, portion of agricultural land in village are acquired by real
estate agents for speculative purposes, and these land remain vacant for long period of time.
The rural fringe may contain small towns or number of well-established townships, which are
designated as inner ring towns or suburbs. The rural villages are unaffected by the presence
of the city mainly because of the greater distances separating them from area as the green
belt. Some towns within the rural green belt area have fully developed industrial townships
with residential areas, schools, hospitals and markets. These towns are ringed towns or
satellite towns.
Satellite Towns
The population residing in urban areas has been rapidly increasing, especially
in the developing world, giving rise to the need for cities and urban establishments to adapt
and grow with the change. Satellite cities were developed in the 20th century to shift the
population from congested urban areas to new developments established nearby.

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According to estimates by the United Nations, 66% of the world‘s population

will be living in urban areas by 2050, upward from 54% today (United Nations, 2014). The
rural to urban migration is not only adding a large number of new residents to cities but also
putting pressure on the resources and infrastructure of these metropolitan areas.
As stated in the 101st Inter-Parliamentary Conference resolution (1999), some

issues that hinder the sustainable growth and progress of metropolitan areas include:
 shortage and inadequate state of housing;

 environmental pollution;
 deterioration of building stock;
 inadequacy of infrastructures;
 high unemployment rate; and
 Traffic congestion.
Additionally, as Kotter and Friesecke (2011) note, the influx of people into
cities has environmental consequences that can adversely impact economic activity and
public health. Increase in population density, socio-economic disparities and infrastructure
problems arise that stress the need for sustainable city planning to result in the efficient
running of cities.
Urban infill is one method of increasing capacity within a city, however,

meeting the increasing demand purely through this method is challenging and perhaps not at
pace with the influx of people into the city. Heid found that in three metropolitan areas in the
US while infill development was successful, ‗infill as a percentage of total area growth
remains a minor portion of total growth‘. Alternatives of infill development in order to
accommodate growth in metropolitan areas is thus, necessary. Developing sustainable
Greenfield sites is one way of absorbing some of the pressure.
Satellite towns are one form of greenfield developments. The Oxford dictionary of
Architecture define satellite towns as:
“Towns that are self-contained and limited in size, built in the vicinity of a
large town or city to house and employ those who would otherwise create a demand for
expansion of the existing settlement, but dependent on the parent-city for population and
major services.”
The definition continues to state that satellite towns were influenced by

Garden Cities and makes the distinctions between consumer-satellites that are essentially
dormitory suburbs, and production-satellites that include the capacity for commercial,
industrial and production facilities. The latter are also referred to as New Towns.
Satellite towns were initially developed as a tool to overcome congestion and

overcrowding problems in large cities. With the number of megacities rising and mass
urbanization around the globe underway, planners need to think of creative ways to
accommodate people in a safe and sustainable manner. If designed and built efficiently by

29
conforming to sustainable land use and environmental principles, the development of satellite
cities can potentially alleviate the issue of overcrowding in large cities without resulting in
urban sprawl, as well as help reconnect nature with urban life.
Satellite cities differ from suburbs in that they have distinct employment
bases, commuter sheds, and cultural offerings from the central metropolis, as well as an
independent municipal government. Satellite cities are not bedroom communities.
Objectives of Satellite Towns-
1. Decongestion: Metro congestion is one of the major issues faced due to too many
cars and too many people. For instance, Gurgaon and Noida-satellite towns are quite
successful against urban congestion in Delhi. They absorb huge amount of in
migration. These towns offer best chances to migrants to have proper housing,
financial opportunities, and ecological consciousness, ethnic and social liberties. In
other words decongestion of people can be said as ‗Density Optimization‘.
2. Economic Sub center: Metro cities act as a magnet of investments. The emergence
of small and medium enterprises around the core of metropolitan area boosts the
investment opportunities. It may come out as a sub center for major metropolitans.
3. Optimum utilization of Land: Land is the most important and limited resource
available. The need of the time is to give equal opportunities to the neighbouring
areas and also optimal use of regional resources for physical upliftment of the region.
4. Ecology and Environment: Degradation of environment and urbanization are

interconnected. Faster a city grows more the deterioration of its air and water quality
will be seen. Major reason is the loss of green cover and instigation of concrete
jungles. Satellite towns may act as a solution against the concentration factors of
degradation. Tree plantation, water conservation, recycles and reuse in peripheral and
core areas will add to save the degradation of ecology.
5. Converting Labour Force to Work force-Equal opportunities to the labour force is

necessary for the comprehensive development of a region as well as the nation.
Unemployed, poor migrants, seasonal unemployed agriculture labour can be vital in
various manufacturing and construction industries in the surrounding areas. This
objective can be successfully achieved with creation of employment in small and
medium enterprises.
6. Economy: Satellite towns in the periphery of the major metro will bring new options
for the financial investment. The potential of satellite town for regional growth with
proper resource utilization is more optimum and beneficial to humans.
Significance of Satellite Cities in India
Major cities across India are facing a mammoth challenge on many fronts due
to rapid rate of urbanisation. Massive growth in population is one of the pressing issues faced

30
by these cities. Population growth in metro cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore have
reached alarming proportions that they can be said to be brimming to the rim. Availability of
job opportunities and better living conditions has led to an influx of migrants from different
parts of the country. This has resulted in cities reaching a saturation point in terms of
available developable space.
Satellite cities are developed based on the integrated township model

providing residents easy access to all comforts and infrastructure facilities that they would
experience in major cities. It is a relatively new concept of urbanisation in India and has
gained prominence across all major cities. Besides decongestion of the main city, satellite
cities serve a larger purpose. It provides citizens working in the main city a feasible option
for availing of affordable housing options. Moreover, by itself, a Satellite city provides its
residents with job opportunities, infrastructure facilities as well as commercial and residential
spaces.
Major Satellite Cities in India
There are many renowned Satellite cities in India which have gained
prominence due to their infrastructure development and the potential to develop. Prominent
satellite cities near Delhi are Gurgaon, Noida, Ghaziabad and Faridabad. Mumbai also some
renowned satellite cities like Navi Mumbai, Dombivli and Thane. Important satellite cities in
Chennai are Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram, Sriperumbudur and Tiruvallur, among others. In
Bangalore also there are a few prominent satellite townships like Kengeri and Yelahanka.
Hitech City in Hyderabad, Salt Lake City in Kolkata, Pimpri-Chinchwad in Pune and Mohali
in Chandigarh are other renowned satellite cities.
Advantages of Satellite Cities
Besides providing its residents with superior quality of living in the form of
road connectivity, electricity, water, drainage and other important amenities, it also enables to
propel the local economy. It leads to appreciation in prices of land and residential property in
and around the Satellite city. For residents in the main city who wish to escape from the
stress, pollution and hassles of city life, it provides them with a viable alternative. Transport
infrastructure developed in Satellite cities not only provides its residents easy accessibility
but also enables to decongest traffic in the main city. Moreover, Satellite cities provide a
scientific balance between the population and the resources needed by them leading to
environment-friendly and sustainable development.

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Conurbations and Metropolitan Regions

Conurbation refers to a specific kind of geographical region. Due to rapid
increase in population and industrial and technological development, the city boundary
expands and one urban centre coalesces with another in a slow but continuous process of
urbanisation and regional development. It is thus that conurbations are formed. The word was
used by Patrick Geddes in 1915 with reference to a continuous urban area of more than two
urban centres which may have separate territorial units.
C.B. Fawcett defines a conurbation as ―an area occupied by a continuous

series of dwellings, factories and other buildings including harbours, docks, urban parks and
playing fields, etc. which are not separated from each other by the rural land…‖ J.C. Saoyne
defines conurbation as ―an area of urban development where a number of separate towns
have grown into each other and become linked by such factors as common industrial or
business interest or a common centre of shopping and education‖. R.E. Dickinson calls it an
―urban tract‖ while Jean Gottamman refers to it as ―extended city‖ or ―Super Metropolitan
Region‖.
Development of Conurbations:
Conurbations are associated with a specific stage of urban development.

Urban centres that have poor contact with neighbouring towns in their initial stage of growth
may later emerge as conurbations due to developments in industries, trade and transport.
Conurbations may develop due to the expansion of a metropolitan city (London conurbations,
for instance); or two expanded cities may form a conurbation; or more than two city- level
centres may coalesce to form a conurbation.
Characteristics of Conurbations:
Conurbations may be broadly seen as having the following features:
(i) A conurbation is a continuously built-up area but it does not include ribbon
development. It also does not necessarily exclude a built-up area separated
by a narrow rural land from the main built-up area to which it is well-
attached.
(ii) A conurbation shows high population density; its population is much
greater than that of the nearby towns.
(iii) A conurbation has various miscellaneous industries operating in it which
rely on the reserves of labour, excellent transport, etc. in the conurbation.
(iv) Owing to the cheap and excellent transport facilities, a conurbation serves
as a shopping centre for the hinterland surrounding it.
(v) Conurbations have financial individuality that varies in degree.
In India, conurbations are determined after considering the composite index of

density of population per square kilometre, per cent of built- up area, per cent variation of
population, number of towns in the urban agglomerations and the manner of working

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factories. Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai have long been identified as conurbations. A huge
conurbation is developing including Delhi and nearby towns and cities.
Problems Associated with Conurbations:
Conurbations are growing at a rapid rate in India and other parts of the world
and this has become a cause of concern. The frantic growth results in lack of proper
infrastructural facilities and civic amenities to cater to the entire population.
There is increase in urban slum and squatter settlements and in poverty,

unemployment, insecurity and crime. Administration of the entire area in an efficient manner
becomes a problem. There is traffic congestion and severe environmental degradation as well.
Metropolitan Regions
Metropolises play their role in determining the ‗urban system‘. In India, the
urban system primarily is rotated around four principal metro areas, of Mumbai, Delhi,
Kolkata and Chennai.
In the first quarter of the 20th century Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai were the
premier urban centres. Their commercial supremacy along with railway transport had enough
to support their status. These largest urban centres of the country had massive Roman style
buildings used as administrative institutions reflecting alien culture. But the indigenous
residential areas were haphazardly crowded.
It was during the post-independence period that million-cities appeared. Since

1951, considerable urban growth has been witnessed around the million-cities. Around Delhi,
the metropolitan area came into existence with the amalgamation of the standard urban areas
of Ghaziabad, Faridabad and Gurgaon. But the phenomenon of this sort took place in the case
of only a few of million-cities.
The Census recognizes the term ‗metropolitan area‘ for places with a
population of a million or more. There are 53 urban agglomerations in India with a
population of 1 million or more as of 2011 against 35 in 2001.
Spatial patterns of metropolitan areas have considerable significance in their

growth and they deserve attention for urban geographers. The four principal metropolises
account for the absence of million-cities in a number of states. Delhi has its shadow over
Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana. Kolkata has influenced the
states of Bihar and Orissa. Kerala comes under the shadow of Chennai.
Some eight metropolises are located on the banks of the rivers for the reasons
of supply of water for industrial establishments and also for providing water for irrigation to
their surrounding areas. Their riverside location has been also important strategically and
Delhi, Kolkata, Kanpur and Varanasi have been important during medieval and modern era
turmoil‘s in history.

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Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Vishakhapatnam and Surat have been significant

in their location on sea coast having their trade relations with the countries of the western
hemisphere and also with China and south-east Asian islands from very ancient times. Most
of the metropolitan areas are best equipped with rail-road transportation. The railways were
aligned to connect these even before their existence.
The railways followed the ancient trade routes and integrated various parts of
the country through the metropolises. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi
through their rail networks have joined the country‘s east-west and north-south corridors,
enhancing their economic and cultural ties which have been advantageous for the unity of
federal states. The Mumbai-Kolkata axis has emerged as a major corridor on which are lying
urban industrial cities of the national level.
The impact of metro culture is being felt in these states administratively and
economically around the nucleus only while the areas which are farther and even farthest
from the metro city remain affected by much lesser degree. Nonetheless the significance of
metro city cannot be totally ruled out because in these states, metro cities are less like capitals
and possess close political links.
Urban agglomerations have also their close relationship with the metropolitan
areas in India. Actually ‗town group‘ forms an agglomeration, and in India since 1971, urban
agglomeration came into vogue instead of ‗town group‘. The Kolkata metropolitan areas is
the strongest having more than 120 urban units.
Out of these nearly 25 possess population of more than a lakh. Other metro
cities which have shown the trend of agglomerations are Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai and
Ahmedabad. The larger the city, the greater attraction it possesses to agglomerate
surrounding urban centres. But the phenomenon of agglomeration has given rise to spatial
problems associated with slums, squatters including housing, water, electricity, transportation
and pollution.
Metropolitan regions are based on the aforesaid characteristics in India.

Primary region is governed by the principal metro cities of India. Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai have been under the colonial rule. They have been playing significant role in the
country‘s economic, social and cultural spheres since the beginning of the 19th century.
They command their influence on several states and have their impact over
areas far and wide covering most of the northern, southern and eastern India. North-western
India has been under the sway of Delhi. The entire country of India politically is being
integrated through Delhi. But Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai were leading commercial and
industrial metro port cities, and are still at the top of the country‘s urban scene.
Thus, four major regions under the command of principal cities of metropolitan status
may be:
(a) Kolkata bound eastern section,

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(b) Mumbai bound the western section,
(c) Chennai dominated the southern parts, and
(d) Delhi region controlling the western Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Punjab, J&K, Haryana and the northern half of both Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Within the principal metropolitan region after tremendous economic growth and population
increase during the last three decades sub-metropolitan areas have appeared. Recently with
the development of economy there has been tremendous increase in the population of major
cities.
The change in economy as well as in administrative status because of the state

re-organization and also with exodus of people from rural areas there has been emergence of
sub-metropolitan centres. Some eight centres had their place even in 1981, but eleven new

35
centres attained the status of sub-metro cities under the command of principal four
metropolitan areas.
Urban Sprawl
Urban growth is a critical cause of Sprawl - as cities get bigger, they expand
around their Peripheries. But sprawl is more specific in nature; it is defined as „uncoordinated
growth‟: the expansion of a community without a real concern for consequences of poor
environmental conditions or environmental impact.
Urban sprawl is also known as ‗horizontal spreading‘ or ‗dispersed

urbanization‘. The uncontrolled and disproportionate expansion of an urban area into the
surrounding countryside, forming low-density, poorly planned patterns of development is
described as urban sprawl. Appearing both in high-income and low-income countries, urban
sprawl is often characterized by a scattered population who live in separate residential areas,
with long blocks of houses and poor access, often population is over dependent on motorized
transport and the place is missing well defined hubs of commercial activity.
Burgess (1998) defined sprawl as "...expanding physical development, at decreasing

densities, in metropolitan regions, where the spatial growth exceeds population growth".
The Oxford English Dictionary (2001) defines the word as "the straggling expansion of an
indeterminate urban or industrial environment into an adjoining countryside; the area of this
advancement."
Reasons for the Development of Sprawl
Urban sprawl can be caused by a variety of different things. These causes will mainly
include:
 Lower Land Rates: Lower cost land and houses in the outer suburbs of the cities,
because the centers of urban development have really made people want to stop
settling in these areas and want to venture further out.
 Improved Infrastructure: There is increased spending on certain types of
infrastructures, including roads and electricity. This is something that hasn‘t always

36
been available, and there are still some areas that don‘t have these luxuries. That
doesn‘t mean that they aren‘t working on it.
 Rise in Standard of Living: There are also increases in standards of living and
average family incomes, which means that people have the ability to pay more to
travel and commute longer distances to work and back home.
 Lack of Urban Planning: People love to find areas that are less trafficked and more
calm, which leads them to sprawl out to other sections of the town. Unprecedented
development, cutting of trees, loss of green cover, long traffic jams, poor
infrastructure force people to move out to new areas.
 Lower House Tax Rates: Cities will usually have high property taxes, and you can
usually avoid these taxes by living in the outer suburbs because the taxes are usually
lower than they would be in other situations.
 Rise in Population Growth: Another factor that contributes towards urban sprawl is
rise in population growth. As number of people in a city grows beyond capacity, the
local communities continue to spread farther and farther from city centers.
 Consumer Preferences: People in high income groups have stronger preferences
towards larger homes, more bedrooms, bigger balconies and bigger lawns. This also
causes urban sprawl as this option is not available in crowded cities. People generally
look out for low-density residential areas where they can get home according to their
preference.
Effects, Impacts and Consequences of Urban Sprawl
The places of sprawl and the region that is impacted by it are distinct from
each other. When sprawl takes place at the periphery of a certain city it could have its direct
or indirect impact on other parts of the city within its administrative border or on a
neighbouring city. Generally, two conflicting views are taken about the consequences or
effects of sprawl. On one hand some authors argue that it is harmful and strong measures
should be taken to fight it, others support and even encourage it. Urban sprawl may have both
positive and negative consequences and impacts; but, negative impacts are often more
highlighted as this is an uncontrolled or uncoordinated growth and eventually the negative
impacts obliterate the positive sides.
There are some positive impacts of urban sprawl, like increase in economic
production, increase in opportunities for employment, better opportunities and better services
creating better living conditions, better lifestyles. Urban sprawl can extend better basic
services, infrastructure as well as social capital such as transportation, sewer, and water,
better educational facilities, health care facilities to a larger population. However, since it is
an uncontrolled and uncoordinated growth resulting in sprawl, the positive impacts is covered
up inviting focus only on the negatives.
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, in developed countries,

urbanisation was created from and it also lead to industrialisation. Surplus population from
the villages were motivated to make a mass movement towards cities because of new job

37
opportunities created there. For the cities too, these migrants provided cheap labour for the
newly established factories.
Due to present globalized scenario and opening up of economies, the

circumstances are similar in developing countries. The huge concentration of investments in
cities attracts large number of migrants from villages who are looking for employment. This
creates a large surplus labour force, and because of which the wages remains low. Developed
and developing countries of the world differ not only in the number of people living in cities,
but also in the way in which urbanisation is occurring. In many megacities of developing
world, urban sprawl is a common problem and a substantial amount of city dwellers live in
slums within the city or in urban periphery in poverty and degraded environment .These high-
density settlements are often highly polluted owing to the lack of urban services, including
running water, sewer, trash pickup, electricity or paved roads. Nevertheless, cities provide
poor people with more opportunities and greater access to resources to transform their
situation than rural areas.
Evidence of the environmental impacts of sprawl continues to mount. Kirtland

et al. (1994) report that the impact of urban land on environmental quality is much larger than
its spatial extent would imply. The consequences and significance of sprawl, good or ill, are
evaluated based on its socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Often these are
overlapping or one may have several indirect impacts.
Some organizations and planners see sprawl as a sign of economic vitality and
not as ecological threat. They claim that for countries like America with large land area, there
are too vast farmlands and open spaces to worry about how much land is converted. They
also stress the primary advantage of sprawl, which is decentralization of employment to
different parts of a city. They argue that car culture enables people to commute shorter
distances at any time and own bigger homes. In addition, it is not healthy for people to live in
areas with increased densities and smaller meter square of space per individual ratios since
this creates psychological and health problems. Therefore, their recommendation is for
people to live in bigger plots with their own green spaces away from city centres and work
areas.
Major consequences of urban sprawl can be summarised as follows:
Ecological Impacts
– Land consumption: The amount of open space used by each inhabitant has increased in the
last 20 years by two or three times.
– Energy consumption: The level of gas consumption can be used as a parameter of the level
of car use. The United Nations and the European Union have moved in favour of the compact
city embracing the position, supported by research (that more dense cities consume the least
amount of energy for transport.
-Atmospheric pollution: The level of pollution due to motorcar dependency can more easily
be connected to population densities.

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Loss of Natural Resources
All sprawl leads to loss of an important limited resource that is land. Over the
years, sprawl has directly contributed to and resulted in the degradation and decline of natural
habitats such as wetlands, woodlands and wildlife. It has also reduced farmland and open
spaces. Water use and energy consumption has increased. Sprawl leads to land-use patterns
which are unfavourable to the development of sustainable transport modes and hence,
increase the use of private car that in turn result in increased trip lengths, congestion, increase
in fuel consumption and air pollution. It is in general a threat to ecology. Even though
automobile and truck engines have become far cleaner in recent decades, motor vehicle
emissions are still the leading sources of air pollution. As homes and businesses spread
further and further apart, local governments are forced to provide for widely spaced services
and infrastructure leading to higher costs and increased tax burden.
Impacts on Wildlife and Ecosystem
In areas where sprawl is not controlled, the concentration of humans in

residential and industrial areas of the sprawl may lead to an modification of ecosystems
patterns and processes (Grimm et al. 2000). Development associated with sprawl not only
decreases the amount of forest area, farmland, woodland, and open space but also breaks up
what is left into small chunks that disrupt ecosystems and fragment habitats. The reach of
urban sprawl into rural natural areas such as woodlands and wetlands ranks as one of the
primary forms of wildlife habitat loss. Roads, power lines, subdivisions and pipelines often
cut through natural areas, thereby fragmenting wildlife habitat and altering wildlife
movement patterns. The fragmentation of a large forest into smaller patches disrupts
ecological processes and reduces the availability of habitat for some species. Some forest
fragments are too small to maintain viable breeding populations of certain wildlife species.
Loss of Farmland
Urban sprawl and urbanization contribute to loss of farmlands and open

spaces. Only in the United States, urban sprawl is predicted to consume 7 million acres of
farmland, 7 million acres of environmentally sensitive land, and 5 million acres of other lands
during the period 2000–2025. Preferred taxation and landuse policies work in sync to create
financial pressures that drive farmers to sell arable land to speculators. Low and unfair prices
of farm commodity often results that it is far more profitable in the long term for farmers to
sell their land than to continue farming it. Also, thousands of small parcels of farmland are
being severed off to create rural residential development. Collectively, these small lots
contribute to the loss of hundreds of hectares of productive agricultural land per year. The
loss of agricultural land to urban sprawl means not only the loss of fresh local food sources
but also the loss of habitat and species diversity, since farms include plant and animal habitat
in woodlots and hedgerows. The presence of farms on the rural landscape provides benefits
such as greenspace, rural economic stability, and preservation of the traditional rural lifestyle.

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Lessening of the Productivity of City
It is an economic theory that productivity is much more enhanced with dense

development since ideas move quickly when people are in close proximity. But when jobs
move to the suburbs, people follow them. This may reduce productivity in the city leading to
social loss. In addition, authors state that sprawl leads to creating regional imbalances, such
as pulling jobs and people further away from poor communities, increasing inequality.
Sprawl also creates segregation of rich and poor or social isolation in general. The problem
lies not to the people who have moved to the suburbs but rather to the people who have been
left behind. The low-income groups are abandoned in the downtown because they cannot
afford car-based lifestyle. Role of transport technology can explain this social fragmentation.
The much congested and deteriorated central towns end up being favorable places for crime
and social unrest.
Deterioration in the Air Quality
The lifestyle dependent on automobiles especially cars forced by sprawl leads

to increases in fossil fuel consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases Urban sprawl
contributes to poorer air quality by encouraging more automobile use, thereby adding more
air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ground-level ozone, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, volatile organic carbons, and microscopic particles. These pollutants can
inhibit plant growth, create smog and acid rain, contribute to global warming, and cause
serious human health problems. Apparently it seems that low-density urban growth or sprawl
can provide better environmental condition and fresh air, but Kahn and Schwartz (2008)
found that urban air pollution progress despite sprawl.
Urban Sprawl in India
India is said to be on the brink of an urban revolution with its urban population
expected to reach 600 million by 2031. However, much of this growth will not be in the core
city but on its peripheries. Urbanization in India‘s mega-cites is characterized by urban
sprawl and not increasing urban density. A 2013 World Bank report, Urbanization Beyond
Municipal Boundaries, found that rural areas adjacent to municipal boundaries are generating
higher economic growth and employment than the city.
Urban sprawl is characterized by dispersed outgrowth of areas outside the

city‘s core, engulfing many villages around it. This poses many economic, ecological and
institutional challenges. These areas are often characterized by the absence of basic
infrastructure and services like water, sanitation, electricity, roads and transportation. With
changes in land use, as seen in the commercialization of agricultural land, the ecosystem of
the region is also threatened. In the midst of such a transformation, the livelihoods of people
in peri-urban areas is increasingly become precarious.
What should the state‘s response be to such a phenomenon? Initially, it was to

discourage urbanization and contain the outgrowth of cities. While there are many benefits in

40
keeping cities compact, urban expansion has become inevitable. The key question hence is
not how to contain urban expansion, but how to respond to the challenges posed by it.
The state cannot afford to turn a blind eye to peri-urbanization since private
developer-led growth in these areas only leads to the development of certain pockets like
gated communities, with no attention paid to public infrastructure. The recent water-logging
crisis in Gurgaon demonstrates how untrammelled development without the provision of
basic urban amenities like a proper drainage system can result in an urban dystopia. In
Bengaluru, the civic woes of peri-urban areas like Whitefield have arguably gotten worse
after its amalgamation with the municipal corporation in 2007. While the area of the
corporation grew by almost four times, its institutional capacity to respond to the needs of the
newly added areas remains weak.
Even when the state takes a proactive role to peri-urban growth through
ventures like industrial corridors, the interests of the people living in these areas are often
ignored. Agricultural land in the urban periphery is acquired for mega-projects from farmers
at very cheap rates and then transferred to various business and commercial units. The
landowners and cultivators are left out of the development process and are often made to
relocate.
As Indian cities grow outwards, we need a policy response that goes beyond
callous neglect, hasty amalgamation and brazen land acquisition. Instead of merely
amalgamating peri-urban areas with the city or giving real estate developers a free rein over
these areas, a better approach is to plan for the future by identifying areas for growth and
taking steps to ensure that these areas are first provided with basic urban infrastructure and
services. An interesting venture in this regard is the Urban Expansion Initiative, a project
housed at New York University‘s Stern Business School, which promotes a ―making room
approach‖ to urban expansion by identifying areas that are projected to urbanize and
procuring land for public amenities beforehand.
In India, the Union government‘s National Rurban Mission (and its earlier
avatar, Provision of Urban Amenities to Rural Areas) seeks to provide high-growth rural
areas with infrastructural amenities, economic activities and planned layouts similar to those
available in cities. While the mission aims to develop 300 ―rurban‖ growth clusters, the same
principle of providing urban amenities first can be applied to peri-urban areas adjacent to
India‘s mega-cities which may not administratively come under an urban local body (ULB).
If the challenge of increasing urban expansion has to be addressed, we also

need an institutional framework that espouses vibrant urban governance and planning
processes. However, even after the passage of the 74th constitutional amendment which
sought the empowerment of elected municipal governments, India‘s urban governance and
planning regime remains paralysed. Though the amendment tasked the ULBs and the
Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) with urban planning, various ‗development
authorities‘ working under the state governments continue to perform this function in most
cities.

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For responding to a phenomenon like peripheral urban growth, an institutional

framework that provides for a metropolitan-level planning and governance mechanism is
essential. But to ensure that these processes do not get overly centralized, it needs to be
supplemented by appropriate mechanisms at the city and neighbourhood level. Hence, each
level of urban governance—ward, zone, city and region—needs to be fortified. A useful
framework for multi-scale urban planning is provided under the Union government‘s Model
Urban and Regional Planning and Development Law, which provides for planning at state,
metropolitan and local level.
An institutional framework that provides for the formulation and

implementation of plans and policies at multiple scales can ensure that the vision of overall
development of the metropolitan region as well as the needs of specific localities are in sync
or settled through an inter-institutional dialogue. Hence, the challenges posed by urban
sprawl can be better addressed by an institutional framework that establishes multi-scale
governance and a policy approach that prioritizes the provision of urban amenities in peri-
urban areas.
Sprawl Will Cost India $1.8 Trillion per Year by 2050
Indian cities, like several others around the world, are growing in a concerning
manner: They‘re expanding outward at a rate that outpaces their population growth, and they‘re doing
so haphazardly—without heed to principles of urban planning, without adequate water, electrical,
waste management, or transportation infrastructure and services, and without a regard for the
environment.
The price that the country stands to pay for this pattern of urbanization, if it
continues, is enormous: $330 billion to $1.8 trillion every year by 2050, according to new working
paper from the New Climate Economy. This is the flagship research project of the Global
Commission on the Economy and Climate, an international initiative looking into the pathways to
sustainable economic growth. For India‘s GDP, that translates into a loss of 1.2 to 6.3 percent shaved
off annually.
Just like American-style sprawl, Indian urban dispersion has negative economic consequences. On the
other hand, the country stands to add 6 percent of its GDP to its bottom line if it adopted smart growth
policies.
As the authors put it:
Getting urbanisation wrong—through an unplanned, sprawled urban growth model—could be very

costly for India.
How sprawl manifests in Indian cities like Delhi and Mumbai is different than, say, Houston or
Phoenix. Ani Dasgupta, global director of the Ross Center for Sustainable Cities at the World
Resources Institute (a managing partner of New Climate Economy) explains in City Fix:
India isn‘t ―sprawled‖ in the traditional way—Indian cities are among the densest in the world.
But the problem is that it is not productive density. Instead of multi-level buildings organized
into accessible neighbourhoods, many Indian cities are filled with short, overcrowded buildings,

42
and lack public transit and pedestrian spaces. So for each square mile of space, there‘s a lot less
room to live.
But just like American-style sprawl, Indian urban dispersion has negative economic
consequences. The NCE report analyzes 479 Indian cities using information from satellite images, as
well as demographic, environmental, and economic data. They find that even after accounting for size
and level of development, Indian cities that were more compact in 2002 saw greater economic growth
in the following decade. A 10 percent increase in compact urban growth (defined as development in
existing urban area relative to newly urbanized area) was associated with a 0.5 percent point increase
in economic activity in the following decade. Whereas a 10 percent point increase in the ―dispersion
index,‖ a measure of sprawl, resulted in up to 0.9 percent decrease in economic output.
So why are these cities, which had dense cores to begin with, now spreading out?
Current land use and urban planning regulations are partly to blame. For one, Indian cities have
encouraged low-density development by restricting the total floor area that can be built on each unit
of land through something called the Floor Space Index (FSI). (In Mumbai, exceptions have recently
been proposed to the otherwise low FSI for retail structures and affordable housing.) Real estate costs
are high, in part because registering land for development is difficult and permits are expensive. Plus,
incentives to build outside the city core have led to ―leapfrog development‖—when disconnected
urban clusters sprout up outside city borders.
The second part of the story is that investment in urban infrastructure is abysmally
low on the national priority list—not unlike in the U.S. Most of the current money is aimed at creating
more, wider roads and subsidized parking, instead of multi-modal, interconnected public transit within
the city, the paper‘s authors argue. Apart from being a bad idea, economically speaking, prioritizing
car-centric infrastructure in a nation where only around 20 people out of every 1,000 owned cars in
2016 raises questions of equity. Via the paper:
The city‘s poorest, who are left to fend for themselves to access even the most
fundamental of services—but who lack economic resources—tend to end up bearing the highest
burden of service deficits in terms of social, health, time, and monetary costs.
The effects of this kind of unregulated urbanization are already clear. Delhi, India‘s
capital city, is experiencing the worst smog it‘s ever seen, which has disrupted flights, trains, and
interstate traffic. Inside the city, traffic congestion is appalling—a 20-minute drive can take several
two hours at certain times of the day. India‘s financial capital of Mumbai, on the other hand, is
hollowing out, with prohibitively expensive high-rises mushrooming in the city‘s core and shoddily
built residential housing for the poor at the periphery.
As these conditions worsen, they‘ll get more expensive. Sprawl will consume land
needed for agricultural activity and environmental preservation, and as communities live further and
further apart, the costs of providing them with infrastructure and services will likewise inch up. Car-
centric development also brings more traffic casualties, more congestion, and more public health
problems—all of which can cripple the workforce to an extent
The poor, as usual, will bear the brunt of this, but every Indian—rich or poor, rural or
urban—stands to lose if reshaping the urban future of the country isn‘t seen as a moral and economic
imperative.

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Slums and associated problems
A slum can be defined as a ―compact settlement with a collection of poorly

built tenements, mostly of temporary nature, crowded together usually with inadequate
sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions.‖ The growth of metropolitan
cities in India has been largely unplanned and haphazard and this can be seen from the fact
that one-fourth of total urban population lives in slum and squatter settlements.
The rapid urbanization in conjunction with industrialization and lack of

infrastructural and employment opportunities in rural areas has led to mass rural-urban
migration and this has resulted in the growth of slums. The proliferation of slums occurs due
to many factors such as the shortage of developed land for housing, the high prices of land
beyond the reach of urban poor.
The operational definition of a slum that has been recently recommended (by a United
Nations Expert Group Meeting (EGM) held in Nairobi from 28 to 30 October 2002) for
future international usage defines a slum as an area that combines, to a various extents, the
following characteristics (restricted to the physical and legal characteristics of the settlement,
and excluding the more difficult social dimensions):
 Inadequate access to safe water.

 Inadequate access to sanitation and other infrastructure.
 Poor structural quality of housing.
 Overcrowding.
 Insecure residential status.
Characteristics of Slums
Lack of Basic Services
Lack of basic services is one of the most frequently mentioned characteristics

of slum definition worldwide. Lack of access to sanitation facilities and safe water sources is
the most important feature, sometimes supplemented by absence of waste collection system,
electricity supply, surfaced roads and footpaths, street lighting and rainwater drainage.
Sub-standard housing or illegal and inadequate building structures
Many cities have building standards that set minimum requirements for
residential buildings. Slum areas are associated with a high number of sub-standard housing
structures often built with non-permanent materials unsuitable for housing given local
conditions of climate and location. Various space and dwelling placement laws may also be
extensively violated.
Overcrowding and high density
Overcrowding is associated with a low space person, high occupancy rates,

cohabitation by different families and a high number of single-room units. Many slum

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dwelling units are overcrowded, with five and more persons sharing a one-room unit used for
cooking, sleeping and living.
Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations
Unhealthy living conditions are the result of a lack of basic services, with
visible, open sewers, lack of pathways, uncontrolled dumping of waste, polluted
environments etc. Houses may be built on hazardous locations. The layout of the settlement
may be hazardous because of lack of access ways and high densities of dilapidated structures.
Insecure tenure, irregular or informal settlement
A number of definitions consider lack of security of tenure as a central

characteristic of slums, and regard lack of any formal document entitling the occupant to
occupy the land or structure as prima facie evidence of illegality and slum occupation.
Informal or unplanned settlements are often regarded as synonymous with slums.
Poverty and Social Exclusion
Income or capability poverty is considered, with some exceptions, as a central characteristic

of slum areas. It is not seen as an inherent characteristic of slums, but as a cause (and often
consequence) of slum conditions.
Minimum Settlement Size
Many slum definitions also require some minimum settlement size for an area to be
considered a slum so that the slum constitutes a distinct precinct and is not a single dwelling.
Examples are the municipal slum definition of Kolkata that requires a minimum of 700
square meters to be occupied by huts, or the Indian Census definition, which requires at least
300 people or 60 households living in a settlement cluster.
‗Living in a slum‘ consists of a combination of these multiple dimensions, not only one.
Slums in India
Census 2011, defined slum as:
A Slum, has been defined as residential areas where dwellings are unfit for
human habitation by reasons of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangements and design
of such buildings, narrowness or faulty arrangement of street, lack of ventilation, light, or
sanitation facilities or any combination of these factors which are detrimental to the safety
and health.
For the purpose of Census, slums have been categorized and defined as of the following three
types:
 Notified Slums
 Recognized Slums
 Identified Slums

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Notified Slum: All notified areas in a town or city notified as ‗Slum‘ by State, UT
Administration or Local Government under any Act including a ‗Slum Act‘
Recognized Slum: All areas recognised as ‗Slum‘ by State, UT Administration or Local

Government, Housing and Slum Boards, which may have not been formally notified as slum
under any act
Identified Slum: A compact area of at least 300 population or about 60-70 households of
poorly built congested tenements, in unhygienic environment usually with inadequate
infrastructure and lacking in proper sanitary and drinking water facilities (Identified).
According to Census of India, 2011, there were 1, 08,227 Slum Blocks in

India. About 37.20 percent were identified slum blocks, 34.30 percent were notified slum
blocks and 28.50 percent were recognized slum blocks. In 2011, there were 137.49 Lakhs
slum households in India. Maharashtra reported the highest number of Slum blocks in the
country. Top five states in terms of slum households to urban households were – Andhra
Pradesh (35.7%), Chhattisgarh (31.9%), Madhya Pradesh (28.3%), Odisha (23.1%) and West
Bengal (21.9%). Bottom five states n terms of slum households to urban households were-
Chandigarh (9.7%), Gujarat (6.7%), Jharkhand (5.3%), Assam (4.8%) and Kerala (1.5 %).
Metropolitanization of Slum Households
In 2011 Census, another striking feature of slums in India was an increased

concentration of slums in the metropolitan cities of the country. Out of total 137 lakh slum
households in the country, about 52 lakhs were in the million plus cities. About 38 percent of
the slum households are in the 46 million plus cities.

46
While the government has been busy building affordable housing and promoting the concept,
one cannot afford to overlook the ginormous problem that lies ahead in form of slums. What
can be done to clean up cities while new and better homes are being built?
 It is important to change the thought process of the people first. The urban
population avoids staying in the same compound with the under-privileged, it has
been seen. Also, slum-rehabilitation projects which have reservations for the
economic weaker section has minimal amenities and facilities for them as
compared to those offered to regular buyers. One of the recent examples of such
mind-set is when the Delhi Development Authority announced to offer vacant
homes at Rohini to slum dwellers under a rehabilitation scheme, other residents
threatened to move to the court.
 The government should consider providing a legitimate solution to the poor. Most
of the times, it is seen that the rehabilitation takes place at a location which is far
away from the core areas and employability is zero.
 Instead of forced evictions, authorities should plan an in-situ upgrading approach.
 Not everyone wants to live in homes which are insufficient for family needs and
just have a concrete roof over their head.
 To rehabilitate the downtrodden, the government should offer them areas where
they can stay within the community and not in isolated projects and societies.
 Offering safe and secure land title should also be on the consideration list of the
government to ensure that the settlement isn't disturbed in the future.
 If the existing homes are being upgraded, municipal authorities should upgrade
the provisions from time to time.
 Easy financing and loaning options at affordable interest rates for upgrading,
building and extension of the existing shelter should be made available.
 New methods of creating land supply should be tried. Freeing up the unused land
lying with government institutions can be used to create affordable homes.
Squatter Settlements:
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between slums and squatter settlements
in practice except that slums are relatively more stable and are located in older, inner parts of
cities compared to squatter settlements which are relatively temporary and are often scattered
in all parts of the city, especially outer zones where urban areas merge with their rural
hinterland.
Normally, squatter settlements contain makeshift dwellings constructed

without official permission (i.e., on unauthorised land). Such settlements are constructed by

47
using any available material such as cardboards, tin, straw mats or sacks. Squatter settlements
are constructed in an uncontrolled manner and badly lack essential public services such as
water, light, sewage.
Such an environment leads to several health problems. Determining size of squatter

settlement is a difficult job. Some may occur singly or in small groups of 10-20 dwellings
while others occur in huge agglomerations of thousands of houses. They can occur through
organised rapid (almost overnight) invasions of an area by large number of people or by
gradual accretion, family by family.
Squatter settlements have following three characteristics in common.
Physical Characteristics: Due to inherent ‗non-legal‘ status, a squatter settlement has services
and infrastructure below the adequate minimum levels. As such water supply, sanitation,
electricity, roads, drainage, schools, health centres, and market places are either absent or
arranged informally.
Social Characteristics: Most of the squatter households belong to lower income group. They
are predominantly migrants, but many are also second or third generation squatters.
Legal Characteristics: Such settlements lack land ownership.
From the above discussion it is clear that squatter refers to legal position of the settlement and
slum refers to the condition of a settlement.
Urban Planning and Development in India

Urban planning is not a new requirement for urban growth. The history of
urban planning is a complex and on-going history of achievement, failure, resilience and
challenge. In the modern age urban planning developed as a response to the social and
economic problems emerged from the industrial revolution. Since then, urban planning has
continuously struggled for its own identity as it has interfaces with different dimensions if
society. Recently the environment has become a new focus for land use and urban planning.
Although the role of planning in society is always remain positive but it has been
also criticized as being of limited relevance to a modern democratic free market society.
India is on the threshold of facing complex urban planning and development

challenges in managing massive urbanization. With more than 1.2 billion population, India is
expected to surpass China‘s population by 2025. A major portion of this increase would be in
existing mega cities, posing greatest challenges to India‘s urban future. In India, at national
level, urban planning and development subject is dealt by the ministry of urban development,
the ministry housing and urban poverty alleviation, and the planning commission of India.
These are the main agencies which lay down policies, legislations, and development
programs etc. At state level Town planning departments are responsible for preparation of
master plans and development plans. Development plan drives planning of cities in India and
it outlines land-use zones in which uses like residential, commercial, institutional, industrial
etc., are planned. The urban planning process is more or less same throughout the country

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following the guidelines stipulated in Urban Development Plan Formulation and

Implementation, (UDPFI 1996).
Aims and Objectives of Urban Planning
 To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people
 To make right use of the land for right purpose
 To ensure orderly development
 To provide social, economic and recreational amenities to all
 To preserve the individuality of the town
 To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all elements of a city plan
Urban Planning is important for urban development, urban regeneration,

renewal as well as building climate change resilience and enhancing climate sustainability.
As the urbanization is increasing planning regain the support and endorsement recently
through the New Urban Agenda and Sustainable Development Goal in UN Habitat 2016
The need of the hour is the public participation and the development of co
creation and co-planning capacity with stakeholders impacted by planned development. Inter-
disciplinary skills can help in the planning of future cities because looking at the present
trend we can assume that shape and scale of the future cities will be radically different from
the cities built a century ago. Planning curriculum and education need to be revised and
updated to ensure that planners have the competency and skill required for the planning
challenges that society face. Planning practice now demand from planning education is to
prepare future practitioners to be able to help shape alternative future this may include closer
concern with technology for planning the smart cities but at the same time we need to
consider the environment and the science of ecology so that sustainability can be maintained.
Planning paradigms are changing but need of the urban planning as an instrument to making
places better has remained constant.
Problems of Urbanisation and remedies

Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban area,
enabling cities and towns to grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase of the
number of people living in towns and cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that cities
and towns have achieved better economic, political, and social mileages compared to the
rural areas.
Accordingly, urbanization is very common in developing and developed

worlds as more and more people have the tendency of moving closer to towns and cities to
acquire ―privileged‖ social and economic services as well as benefits. These include social
and economic advantages such as better education, health care, sanitation, housing, business
opportunities, and transportation.
Majority of people move to cities and towns because they view rural areas as
places with hardship and backward/primitive lifestyle. Therefore, as populations move to

49
more developed areas (towns and cities) the immediate outcome is urbanization. This
normally contributes to the development of land for use in commercial properties, social and
economic support institutions, transportation, and residential buildings. Eventually, these
activities raise several urbanization issues.
Problems of urbanization:
Housing problems
Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high population
increase. With the increase in the number of people living in urban centers, there is continued
scarcity of houses. This is due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public utilities,
poverty, unemployment, and costly building materials which can only be afforded by few
individuals.
Overcrowding
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small

space. This form of congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is
an aspect that increases day by day as more people and immigrants move into cities and
towns in search of better life. Most people from rural or undeveloped areas always have the
urge of migrating into the city that normally leads to congestion of people within a small
area.
Unemployment
The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher

among the educated people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around
the globe live in metropolitan cities. And, as much as income in urban areas is high, the costs
of living make the incomes to seem horribly low. The increasing relocation of people from
rural or developing areas to urban areas is the leading cause of urban unemployment.
Development of slums
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with
random and unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful
resident settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in
urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed land
for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life, and the
elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.
Water and sanitation problems
Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban

centers, it is common to find there are inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local
governments are faced with serious resource crisis in the management of sewage facilities. As
a result, sanitation becomes poor and sewages flow chaotically, and they are drained into
neighboring streams, rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually, communicable diseases such as

50
typhoid, dysentery, plague, and diarrhoea spread very fast leading to suffering and even
deaths. Overcrowding also highly contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of
demand.
Poor health and spread of diseases
The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects
access and utilization of public health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor
sanitation and insufficient water supply which generally make slum populations susceptible
to communicable diseases. The environmental problems such as urban pollution also cause
many health problems namely allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning, cancer and even
premature deaths.
Traffic congestion
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges
posed is in the transport system. More people means increased number of vehicles which
leads to traffic congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work
and this creates a severe traffic problem, especially during the rush hours. Also as the cities
grow in dimension, people will move to shop and access other social needs/wants which
often cause traffic congestion and blockage.
Urban crime
Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of

social services and education habitually leads to many social problems including violence,
drug abuse, and crime. Most of the crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault,
theft, robbery, and hijacking are reported to be more prominent in the urban vicinities.
Besides, poverty related crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban regions. These acts of
urban crime normally upset the peace and tranquillity of cities/towns.
Solutions
Building sustainable and environmentally friendly cities
Governments should pass laws that plan and provide environmentally sound
cities and smart growth techniques, considering that people should not reside in unsafe and
polluted areas. The objective here is to build sustainable cities that embrace improved
environmental conditions and safe habitats for all urban populations. Governments should
also encourage sustainable use of urban resources and support an economy based on
sustainable environment such as investment in green infrastructure, sustainable industries,
recycling and environmental campaigns, pollution management, renewable energy, green
public transportation, and water recycling and reclamation.
Provision of essential services
Urban stakeholders must ensure all populations within the urban areas have
access to adequate essential social services namely education, health, sanitation and clean

51
water, technology, electricity, and food. The objective here is to provide and implement
employment opportunities and wealth creation activities so that people can earn a living to
pay for the maintenance of the services. Subsidies can also be availed by the government to
lower the costs of basic healthcare, basic education, energy, education, public transportation,
communication systems and technology.
Creation of more jobs
To lessen the negative effects of rapid urbanization while at the same time
conserving natural ecosystems, private investments should be encouraged so as to utilize
natural resources and create more job opportunities. Tourism promotion and the sustainable
exploitation of natural resources can create more jobs for the urban populations. Subsidies
and grants may as well be provided to foreign and private investment in environmentally
friendly development projects that encourage job creation.
Population control
Key stakeholders in urban areas must provide campaigns and counseling for
effective medical health clinics and family planning to help reduce the high rates of
population growth. Medical health clinics oriented towards family planning options must be
made accessible across the entire urban area with the objective of controlling diseases and
population growth.

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Sustainable Development of Cities

Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11) – making cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable highlights the important role cities play in the global
political agenda.
The SDG 11 targets identify key factors that must be addressed to make cities more
sustainable, inclusive, resilient and safe:
 11.1 safe and affordable housing and basic services

 11.2 safe, sustainable transport systems
 11.3 inclusive urbanisation and participatory, integrated planning
 11.4 cultural and natural heritage
 11.5 resilience to disasters
 11.6 reduced environmental impact of cities
 11.7 green and public spaces
 11.a rural-urban linkages
 11.b integrated policies and plans
 11.c financial and technical support for sustainable and resilient buildings
Cities account for 65 per cent of SDG targets and 86 per cent of SDG indicators. That means
that making cities more sustainable, safe, resilient and inclusive will help us to achieve many
of the SDGs. As economic powerhouses with over 80 per cent of global GDP, cities have
important environmental impacts:
 2 per cent of land area usage

 71–76 per cent of energy-related global greenhouse gas emissions
 Over 70 per cent of resource use
Cities present huge sustainable investment opportunities:
 As of 2015, 75 per cent of global urban infrastructure that will exist in 2050 has yet to
be built
 Sustainable development in cities can save $3 trillion in infrastructure spending by
2030
Social equity in cities:
 Global urban population is expected to grow from over 50 to 70 per cent by 2050,
with a majority of that growth occurring in Africa and Asia
 Urban poverty rates are falling more slowly than global poverty
 Approximately 25 per cent of the global urban population (1 billion out of 3.9 billion)
live in slums
 The fastest growing urban populations also have the least access to services per
capita: Ÿ
 279 million lack electricity

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 780 million lack safe drinking water

 2.5 billion lack basic sanitation
Cities are the heartbeat of most societies. They are complex systems that bring
together diverse communities to work, live and play. Just as the battle against climate change
will be won or lost in cities, so too will the battle for sustainable, resilient, equitable and just
societies. By 2050, it is expected that 75 per cent of the world‘s population will live in cities,
up from more than 50 per cent presently. As cities grow, especially in the global South, it will
be vital to create infrastructure and policies that ensure universal access to all urban services.
As we see increasing impacts from climate change, the most sustainable, resilient societies
will be those that have resource-efficient systems in place to provide essential services to
their residents and that are prepared to withstand and adapt to climate-induced disasters.
Achieving these two mandates will help to provide and maintain quality of life for the
world‘s growing urban population in the face of extreme weather activity, resource shortages
and population migration.
Some key factors for countries to consider in tackling these challenges include:
Resilience: By strategically densifying, investing in renewable energy and sustainable

building techniques, valuing existing ecosystem services and increasing usage of sustainable
transportation, cites can both significantly contribute to the mitigation of harmful climate
impacts and improve their own resilience to the inevitable resource shortages to come.
Inclusive urban spaces: Economic inequality has been increasing in recent decades.
Nowhere is this more evident than in cities, where resource shortages and access to services
disproportionately impact the most marginalized groups and communities, often also
exposing them to greater environmental risk. Policies and programmes that better support
underserved populations improve systems for participatory and democratic planning and
decision-making and provide affordable access to resources and urban services for all will be
critical. By investing in equity now, countries can start to close the inequality gap.
Cleaner, greener cities: 75 per cent of the infrastructure that will exist in 2050 does not exist
today. This provides a unique opportunity to ensure that the infrastructure we build today for
tomorrow is low-emission, resource efficient and resilient. ―Future-proofing‖ our
infrastructure has many benefits:
 Creating incentives for investment in public transport and non-motorized transport

infrastructure will improve air quality in cities and help to mitigate climate change. Ÿ
 Creating frameworks towards a zero emission, efficient and resilient buildings and
construction sector will help to reduce energy demand. Ÿ
 Investing in parks and green spaces in urban areas will help to ameliorate the urban
heat island effect and improve air quality in urban spaces. Ÿ
 Investing in natural or efficient water treatment and management systems to improve
water quality and sanitation in cities will reduce water-borne diseases and improve
sanitation for poorer populations.

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At the World Urban Forum, the World Bank will offer three big ideas that are essential for
successfully implementing the New Urban Agenda:
1. Financing the New Urban Agenda
2. Promoting territorial development
3. Enhancing urban resilience to climate change and disaster risks
The Bank will also be showcasing some of the innovative knowledge and transformative
actions that have proven to help end extreme poverty and boost shared prosperity in cities
around the world.
Financing the New Urban Agenda
Globally, $4.5 – $5.4 trillion is needed to fill the urban infrastructure finance
gap. Only 3% of this amount is available through official development assistance (ODA).
This means that cities must strengthen municipal finance, while finding new ways to scale up
urban infrastructure finance.
The World Bank provides funding and helps cities and national governments put in place the
financial framework to enable them to attract investment to grow in a sustainable manner.
Examples include:
 In East Africa, the World Bank has an operational portfolio of almost $1 billion in
urban projects focused on improving financial and institutional performance in
Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.
 In Casablanca, Morocco, a EUR 172 million World Bank loan aims to improve the
city‘s investment capacity by improving the municipality‘s revenue management
systems and attracting private investment in municipal infrastructure and services
through public-private partnerships.
 Johannesburg and Medellin are among the cities that have sought World Bank support
to expand their sources of revenue to encompass a wider array of ―value capture‖ and
land-based financing tools, thereby leveraging private capital in greater amount and
increasing the social, economic, and fiscal return on cities‘ public investment.
 The World Bank‘s City Creditworthiness Initiative (CCI) aims to strengthen the
financial performance of local governments, and prepare them to tap domestic /
regional capital markets without a sovereign guarantee. The CCI has trained over 600
municipal officials from 240 cities in 25 countries.
Promoting territorial development
Only 1.5% of the world‘s land is home to half of its production. Thick and
persistent divisions between places doing well and those that are not are exacerbating
inequalities and human suffering, fueling discontent and disrupting development. There is
urgent need to stimulate sustainable, inclusive economic growth in these lagging lands and
urban spaces.

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This is where territorial development comes in. It helps us understand cities not only as
individual entities, but also the connectivity between them that allows faster economic
growth and links people to better jobs.
 The World Bank‘s East Asia and Pacific Cities: Expanding Opportunities for the
Urban Poor report encourages cities in the region to ensure inclusive, equitable urban
growth through a multi-dimensional approach to planning, incorporating aspects of
economic, spatial, and social inclusion to foster economic growth and reduce poverty.
 The Africa‘s Cities: Opening Doors to the World report notes that improving
conditions for people and businesses in African cities by aggressively investing in
infrastructure and reforming land markets is key to accelerating economic growth,
adding jobs, and improving city competitiveness.
 In Kenya, areas of the north of the country have mostly been excluded from the
benefits of rising living standards. The World Bank is launching the North &
Northeastern Development Initiative (NEDI), a multi-sectoral program consisting of
projects in transport, water, energy, agriculture, livelihoods, and social protection to
connect the region to national and global markets.
 In Colombia, the national government has put forward a series of institutional and
policy changes to promote the peace building process. With the support of the World
Bank, these efforts focus on strengthening institutions for land management and
territorial planning, as well as improving subnational financial management and
investment prioritization.
Building resilience to natural disasters and climate change
As cities grow, so does their exposure and vulnerability to natural disasters. With over 90%
of all urban centers located in coastal areas, cities are facing increasing risks from devastating
hurricanes, floods, and other natural hazards that are becoming more frequent, intense, and
severe due to climate change.
In recent years, the World Bank has worked in more than 7,000 cities and towns across 130
countries, investing over $4 billion during fiscal year 2017 in disaster risk management, and
committing over $50 billion through more than 900 projects with climate-related activities.
The World Bank has also facilitated global partnerships to support countries in their urban
resilience work:
 Through the City Resilience Program (CRP), supported by the Global Facility for
Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), the Swiss Economic Secretariat (SECO),
and other partners, the World Bank is helping cities around the world raise the finance
they need to build resilience to climate change and disaster risks, connecting investors
with bankable projects, and keeping millions of people safer and stronger. From
Panama City, Panama and Porto Alegre, Brazil to Accra, Ghana and Can Tho,

56
Vietnam, CRP has engaged over 30 cities across the world on developing investment
programs that could be financed with a range of financial instruments.
 At the Paris One Planet Summit, CRP announced a new partnership with the Global
Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy to provide technical and financial
assistance to 150 cities over the next three years.
 Urban resilience goes hand in hand with environmental sustainability. The World
Bank‘s Global Platform for Sustainable Cities (GPSC) works with mayors in
developing countries to transform cities into inclusive and resilient hubs of growth, as
part of the Global Environment Facility (GEF)‘s Sustainable Cities program that is
active in 27 cities and 11 countries, and will leverage $1.5 billion over five years.
 The World Bank Group provides support as a knowledge partner to the Urban 20
(U20) initiative, in which cities share their experiences and develop collective
messages to enrich the G20 debates on the global issues of climate action, sustainable
development, and their socio-economic ramifications.
Smart Cities
The term Smart City is very much in vogue now-a-days but lacks any
universal definition. As per the UK Department of Business, Innovation and Skills "The
concept is not static, there is no absolute definition of a smart city, no end point, but rather a
process, or series of steps, by which cities become more 'liveable' and resilient and, hence,
able to respond quicker to new challenges‖. There are a number of definitions given by
various institutions and organizations but none has been taken as universal. The definition
varies over space as the smart city in African countries will definitely vary from the smart
cities of Europe because of different developmental benchmarks and aspirations of its people.
However, the term does indicate something which ought to be common to all
the places i.e. some basic facilities which should be common to all the cities that make them
smart. They are as follows
 Employment opportunities: This is the basic attraction to a city. A smart city should
have sufficient economic opportunities to support a large population in gainful
employment
 Sustainability: City should have social and environmental sustainability
 Quality of Life: A smart city should ensure safety and security of everyone; promote
feeling of inclusiveness and a sense of belonging along with quality education,
healthcare and participation in governance.
Besides these basic prerequisites of a smart city there are many other
benchmarks that can be set and revised from time to time depending upon the level of
development of the city and the aspirations and visions of its inhabitants.
The Government of India anticipating the exponential rise in the urban

population came up with the idea of developing 100 smart cities to cater to the needs of
burgeoning population along with the aim of providing a good quality of life and improved
urban governance. The mission has proposed several models of smart city development

57
which can be chosen depending upon the needs of the people, resource availability and the
aspirations of all the stakeholders.
The Government had launched the Smart city Mission on 25th June 2015 with
the aim of developing 100 smart cities in five years duration. It has laid down certain
guidelines and proposals to make this mission a success. It has identified certain features that
characterise smart cities. Some of the key features have been given below:
i. Promotion of mixed land use — focus on planning for ‗unplanned areas‘

containing a range of activities to make land use more efficient. Some
flexibility by the state will also be provided in landuse and building bye-laws.
ii. Expansion of housing opportunities for all.
iii. To strive towards creation of walkable localities. Focus will be on
decongestion, reduction of air pollution and resource depletion, stimulating
local economy, encouraging interactions and ensuring security. The road
network development planning will also keep in mind the pedestrians and
cyclists.
iv. Promoting development of open spaces like parks, playgrounds and
recreational spaces as they have strong role in enhancing the quality of life of
citizens as well as restoring the eco balance.
v. Promote and introduce a variety of transport options along with strengthening
of Public transport.
vi. Providing efficient citizen-friendly governance by increasing reliance on
online services for accountability and transparency, reducing cost of services
and providing services without the need to go to municipal offices.
vii. Creating and giving an identity to the city on the basis of its main economic
activity, such as its arts and craft, culture, sports goods, furniture, textile,
dairy, education etc.
viii. Providing Smart Solutions to infrastructure and services in area-based
development.
Strategy of the Mission
The aim of transformation of city into smart city requires a well-thought-out

strategy taking into account all the nuances of development. There are three major strategic
components of Area-based development in the Mission- Retrofitting, Redevelopment and
Greenfield development. A Pan-city development initiative in which Smart Solutions are
applied also forms part of the strategy.
1. Retrofitting will focus on planning in an existing built-up area thus endeavouring to

make it more efficient and liveable. An area consisting of more than 500 acres will
first be identified by the city in consultation with citizens. Based on the existing level
of infrastructure services in the marked area the cities will identify priorities and
prepare a strategy. The existing structures will remain intact in this model but there
will be infusion of more intensive infrastructure services and a large number of smart

58
applications into the identified Smart City. This strategy requires less time and can be
replicated in other parts of the city to make it smarter.
2. Redevelopment will bring replacement of the existing built-up environment, would
enable creation of a new layout with improved infrastructure and mixed land use.
Redevelopment strategy envisages an area of over 50 acres, identified by Urban Local
Bodies in consultation with citizens. This would then have a new layout plan prepared
for the area promoting mixed land-use and high ground coverage. For example the
redevelopment model of the Saifee Burhani Upliftment Project in Mumbai and East
Kidwai Nagar in New Delhi.
3. Greenfield development focuses on introducing Smart Solutions in a vacant area (of
more than 250 acres) using new and innovative planning, financing and
implementation tools. There are provisions for affordable housing for the poor.
Greenfield developments are helpful to address the needs of the expanding
population. The GIFT City in Gujarat is a good example of such a smart city.
4. Pan-city development strategy is based on applying selected Smart Solutions to the
existing city-wide infrastructure. This will involve usage of information, data and new
technology to make infrastructure and services better and efficient. For example,
application of Smart Solutions in the transportation sector ( proper and intelligent
management of traffic) will reduce time and cost of travel in the city thus making its
citizens more productive. It will also improve their quality of life. Recycling of water
and proper metering of water supply is another good example of application of smart
solutions.
Each shortlisted Smart City is expected to follow any of the three proposed development
models (Retrofitting, Redevelopment and Greenfield) or a mix of all the three plus a Pan-city
feature with Smart Solutions. Pan-city is an additional feature to be provided by the selected
cities to brace it with smart solutions.
Challenges
The objective of developing 100 smart cities is by no means an easy task.

There are some challenges discussed below that are likely to come up in the course of
implementation of the mission.( Smart Cities: Mission Statement and Guidelines,2015,
M0UD,Govt. of India.)
1. This is the first time; a MoUD programme is using the competition method to select
cities for funding and using a strategy of area-based development. This captures the
spirit of ‗competitive and cooperative federalism‘.
2. States and ULBs will play a key supportive role in the development of Smart Cities.
Smart leadership and vision at this level and ability to act decisively will be important
factors determining the success of the Mission.
3. Understanding the concepts of retrofitting, redevelopment and greenfield
development by the policy makers, implementers and other stakeholders at different
levels will require capacity assistance.

59
4. Major investments in time and resources will have to be made during the planning
phase prior to participation in the Challenge. This is different from the conventional
DPR-driven approach.
5. The Smart Cities Mission requires smart people who actively participate in
governance and reforms. Citizen involvement is much more than a ceremonial
participation in governance. (Smart Cities, 2015, M0UD, Govt. of India.)
The Mission of developing 100 smart cities no doubt is an ambitious one yet
the citizens and the authorities through cooperation and serious effort can bring about drastic
changes towards the goal of a city with all the basic facilities of good living, employment
opportunities, healthy environment and good governance. The success of this mission
depends on participation from all quarters; it should not be looked upon as the sole
responsibility of the government.
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Urban Settlements

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Urban Settlements

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Geography with Sandeep Sir

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Hierarchy of Urban Settlements: Concept of Primate City and Rank-Size

Urban system is defined as any network of interdependent urban places. The

Types of Urban Settlements

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Concept of Primate City

A primate city is the largest city in its country or region, disproportionately

 London – 7 times that of Liverpool

Jefferson made a study of 51 countries where he found that in 28 instances, the

Factors affecting primacy

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1. Small territorial extent

It is the measure of relative importance of the largest town in a nation or a region.

Index of Primacy = P1/P2

1. Concerns with its universal applicability

It is not universally pertinent as a rule, but only under definite conditions

 Prevalent in dual economy or where low level of development is there.

No city in India exercises supremacy over the whole nation. There is no

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Primacy at the state level

1. West Bengal – Calcutta/Asansol = 25.08

Regional Primacy in India

Kolkata is exhibiting the situation of urban primacy in eastern region. Till

Kolkata was established by the colonizers as a strategic location for the

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The concept of rank-size settlement system was suggested by G K ZIPF in

P= population of the largest city (Primate City).

The rank-size rule addresses itself to two vital questions:

1. Why larger settlements are fewer in number?

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The explanation to both these questions is based on the appreciation of forces of

The location of small settlements is generally determined by nearness to the

In contrast to the forces of diversification, the forces of unification result in the

Higher degree of primacy suggests the presence of strong centripetal forces

Rank-Size rule and application

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Rank-Size Relationship in India

The rank-size relationship is absent in India at the national level as the

Assessment of the Rank-Size &Primates-city systems

Having a look at the problem of application of rank-size rule, it can be better

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There are three basic models in urban morphology

1. Burgess Concentric Model (1929),

The Concentric Zone theory

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This model was based on Burgess‘ experience in the American mid-west

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The concentric scheme for the ‗pre-industrial city‘ neglected by Sjoberg

Merits of the Concentric Theory:

The symmetry of concentric may be violated by Local irregularities; the most

The Sector Theory

According to the sector theory, pattern of urban

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Walter Firey‘s Criticism of Hoyt‘s Theory:

Multiple Nuclei Theory

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Therefore, multiple nuclei theory should be looked upon as an approach which

An interesting attempt to combine elements of both the concentric and sector

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Classification of Towns or Cities

Griffith Taylor (1949) attempted to identify stages in the development of the