ANALOGUE

ELECTRONICS
Lecture 1 – Operational Amplifiers
Topics Covered
• Introduction to op amps
• The 741 op amp
• The inverting amplifier
• The noninverting amplifier
Op amp
• Non-inverting and inverting input
• Single-ended output
• A perfect amplifier – a voltage-controlled
voltage source
• An ideal op amp has:
Infinite open-loop voltage gain
Infinite input resistance
Zero output impedance
 The typical op amp has a differential
input and a single-ended output.

Class B
Diff More
push-pull
Vin amp stages
emitter
of gain
follower Vout

More on these later

Op amp symbol and equivalent circuit
Symbol
Non-inverting +VCC
input
Output
Inverting
-VEE
input
Equivalent circuit
Rout
v1 vout
Rin
AVOL(v1-v2)
v2
 The 741C op amp is an industry standard.

Rout
v1 vout
Rin
AVOL(v1-v2)
v2

Rin = 2 MW Rout = 75 W AVOL = 100,000

Iin(bias) = 80 nA Iin(off) = 20 nA Vin(off) = 2 mV

funity = 1 MHz CMRR = 90 dB

AVOL Bode plot of the 741C op amp
100 dB

80 dB
20 dB/decade
60 dB rolloff

40 dB

20 dB

0 dB
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

funity
741C pinout and offset nulling
+VCC

RB 3 7
6 Adjust
5 for null
RB 2 1 (i.e. 0V at
4 Pin 6)

10 kW

-VEE
The internal frequency compensation capacitor found in most
op amps also limits the rate at which the output can change.
SR = 0.5 V/ms (for the 741)

Slew rate
distortion Slope > SR

When a signal exceeds the slew-rate of an op amp, the

output becomes distorted and amplitude limited.
 dv dv The rate of voltage
>
v dt dt change (slope) is directly
related to both amplitude
t and frequency:

SR = 2pfVp

dv dv The power bandwidth

v > of an op amp is given by:
dt dt
t SR
fmax =
2pVp
Inverting op amp
• The most basic op amp circuit
• Uses negative feedback to stabilize the
closed-loop voltage gain
• Closed-loop voltage gain equals
feedback resistance divided by input
resistance
 The inverting amplifier

Rf
R1

The negative feedback produces a

virtual ground at the inverting terminal.

A virtual ground is a short for voltage but an open for current.

 Analyzing the inverting amplifier
Rf
R1
iin
iin
vin
vout

𝒗𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏 and 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝒊𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝒇

𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒇
𝑨𝑽(𝑪𝑳) = =−
𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏

𝒛𝒊𝒏(𝑪𝑳) = 𝑹𝟏
 Negative feedback increases
AVOL the closed-loop bandwidth.
100 dB
𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒇𝟐(𝑪𝑳) ≅
80 dB 𝑨𝑽(𝑪𝑳)

60 dB

40 dB

20 dB

0 dB
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
Negative feedback reduces error
• V1err = (RB1 - RB2)Iin(bias)
• V2err = (RB1 + RB2)Iin(off)/2
• V3err = Vin(off)
• Verror = ± AV(CL)(± V1err ± V2err ± V3err)
• V1err eliminated with resistor
compensation
• Use offset nulling in demanding
applications
 Resistor compensation for V1err
Rf
R1

vin
vout

RB2 = R1 || Rf

RB2 has no effect on the virtual-ground approximation

since no signal current flows through it.
Non-inverting op amp
• A basic op amp circuit
• Uses negative feedback to stabilize the
closed-loop gain
• Closed-loop voltage gain equals the
feedback resistance divided by the input
resistance plus 1
 The noninverting amplifier

Rf

The negative feedback R1

produces a virtual short.

A virtual short is a short for voltage but an open for current.

 Analyzing the noninverting amplifier
vout
vin
i1 Rf

𝒗𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊𝟏 𝑹𝟏 and 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒊𝟏 (𝑹𝒇 + 𝑹𝟏 )

i1 R1
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒇 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒇
𝑨𝑽(𝑪𝑳) = = = +𝟏
𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏

𝒛𝒊𝒏(𝑪𝑳) → ∞
Op amp application: summing amp
• A summing amp has two or more inputs and
one output
• Each input is amplified by its channel gain
• If all channel gains equal unity, the output
equals the sum of the inputs
 The summing amplifier

R1 Rf
v1

R2
v2 vout

𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒇
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

In a mixer, a summing amp can amplify and combine audio signals

Op amp application:
voltage follower
• Has a closed-loop gain of unity
• Has a bandwidth of funity
• Useful as an interface between a high-
impedance source and a low-impedance
load
 The voltage follower
Rhigh

vout
vin

The virtual short tells us vout = vin

Rlow
AV(CL) = 1
zin(CL)  
zout(CL)  0

f2(CL) = funity
Other than the 741
• BIFET op amps offer extremely low input currents.
• High-power op amps supply amperes of output
current.
• High-speed op amps slew at tens or hundreds of
volts/ms and some have hundreds of MHz of
bandwidth.
• Precision op amps boast small offset errors and
low temperature drift.
Amplifier possibilities
• The input can be a voltage.
• The input can be a current.
• The output can be a voltage.
• The output can be a current.
• The total number of combinations is four.
Four types of negative feedback
• Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) (ideal
voltage amplifier)
• Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS)
(transresistance amplifier)
• Voltage-controlled current source (VCIS)
(transconductance amplifier)
• Current-controlled current source (ICIS) (ideal
current amplifier)
Converters
• VCIS and ICVS amplifiers can be viewed as
converters.
• The VCIS is often called a voltage-to-current
converter.
• The ICVS is often called a current-to-voltage
converter.
 VCVS equivalent circuit

Low zout

vin High zin vout

AVvin

The input impedance is very high and

the output impedance is very low. It
approaches the ideal voltage amplifier.
 ICVS equivalent circuit

Low zout
iin
Low zin vout
rmiin

The input impedance is very low and

the output impedance is very low.
It is well suited for converting a current
into a voltage (rm is the transresistance).
 VCIS equivalent circuit

iout
High zout
vin High zin
gmvin

The input impedance is very high and

the output impedance is very high. It
is well suited for converting a voltage
into a current (gm is the transconductance).
 ICIS equivalent circuit

iin iout
High zout
Low zin
Aiiin

The input impedance is very low and

the output impedance is very high. It
approaches the ideal current amplifier.
VCVS voltage gain
• Loop gain is the voltage gain of the forward
and feedback paths
• Loop gain is very large
• Closed-loop voltage gain is ultrastable
• Gain depends on characteristics of external
resistors
 The noninverting circuit is a VCVS amplifier.

1 Rf vout
= +1 vin
B R1
Rf

v2
The feedback fraction B = v
out v2 R1
AVOL
AV(CL) = @ 1
1 +AVOLB B

The term AVOLB is called the loop gain

and is normally much greater than 1.
The loop gain is usually very large
which provides:

• Gain stability
• Low distortion
• Low offsets
• Near ideal input impedance
• Near ideal output impedance
 Input impedance of the noninverting amplifier

vout
vin
Rf

zin(CL) = (1+AVOLB)Rin || RCM

R1
(RCM > 100 MW for a 741)

Rin = the open-loop input resistance of the op amp

RCM = the common-mode input resistance of the op amp
VCVS negative feedback
• Has a curative effect on the flaws of an
amplifier
• Stabilizes voltage gain
• Increases input impedance
• Decreases output impedance
• Decreases harmonic distortion
Output impedance of the noninverting amplifier

vout
vin
Rf

Rout
zout(CL) =
1 + AVOLB R1
(Rout = 75 W for a 741)

Rout = the open-loop output resistance of the op amp

 Distortion
• A sine wave has only one frequency called the
fundamental.
• An amplifier with distortion adds energy at new
frequencies called harmonics.
• Total harmonic distortion (THD) is the
percentage of harmonic voltage in the output
signal.
• THD = (Total harmonic voltage/fundamental voltage)x100
ICVS amp characteristics
• An ICVS is a transresistance amplifier
• Equivalent to a current-to-voltage converter
• Input impedance approaches zero
• Input current produces a precise value of
output voltage
 The ICVS amplifier
R is the R
transresistance

vout
iin

AVOL
vout = iin R @ iin R
1 +AVOL

R Rout
zin(CL) = zout(CL) =
1 + AVOL 1 + AVOL
VCIS amp characteristics
• The VCIS is a transconductance amplifier
• Equivalent to a voltage-to-current converter
• Ideally has infinite input impedance
• Input voltage produces a precise value of output
current
 The VCIS amplifier
1
transconductance: gm =
R1
vin
R2 iout R2 is the load
vin vin
iout = @
R1 + R2 R1
R1 R1 +
AVOL
iout = gm vin

zin(CL) = (1+AVOLB)Rin zout(CL) = (1+AVOL)R1

ICIS amp characteristics
• Approaches the perfect current amplifier
• Input impedance is close to zero
• Output impedance is (approaches) infinite
 The ICIS amplifier

iin
RL iout

AVOL(R1+R2) R2
Ai = @ +1 R2
RL+AVOLR1 R1
R1
R2 R1
zin(CL) = B=
1+AVOLB R1+R2

zout(CL) = (1+AVOL)R1
 VCVS bandwidth
• Negative feedback increases the bandwidth of an
amplifier.
• Less voltage is fed back at the higher frequencies
due to rolloff which effectively increases the input
signal.
• An equation for closed-loop bandwidth:
f2(CL) = (1+AVOLB)f2(OL)
• The gain-bandwidth product is constant:
AV(CL)f2(CL) = funity
 Slew-rate distortion
• Negative feedback has no effect.

• The op amp is not acting in the linear mode so the

feedback does not help.

• Even though the small-signal bandwidth might be

adequate, the power bandwidth might not.

• Independent calculations of both bandwidths are

required to ensure adequate performance.