Chapter Outline

1. Components of the respiratory system 5. Lungs

2. Functions of the respiratory system 6. Respiratory Volumes
3. Processes in respiration 7. Breathing
4. The air passageways 8. Exchange of respiratory gases
Chapter Outline
4.1. nose 9. Transport of respiratory gases
4.2. pharynx 10. Regulation of respiration
4.3. larynx 11. Respiration and acid-base balance
4.4. trachea 12. Disorders related to the respiratory
4.5. bronchi and bronchial tree system
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you are expected to:

1.explain the functions of respiratory system 7. distinguish various lung volumes and capacities

2.list and identify the organs of the respiratory 8. describe how the blood transports oxygen and
system carbon dioxide

4. describe the structure and function of the lungs 10. describe the control of respiration

5. define pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, 11.relate respiration to acid- base balance
and internal respiration 12.describe some disorders of the respiratory system
6. describe the events inbreathing
• The respiratory system is composed of the nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
• Structurally, the respiratory system consists of:
a. upper respiratory system: nose, pharynx and
associated structures
b. lower respiratory system: larynx, trachea,
bronchi and lungs
• Functionally, the respiratory system
consist of:
a. conducting portion ( air
passageways): nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
b. respiratory portion (gas exchange):
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and alveoli
a. Provide for gas exchange - intake of
oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide
Functions of the respiratory system
b. Helps regulate blood pH
c. Contains receptors for the sense of smell
Respiration involves four processes: ventilation,
external respiration, transport of respiratory gases in
the blood, and internal respiration.
❑Pulmonary ventilation or breathing is the
movement of air into and out of the lungs.
❑External respiration is the gas exchange between
air in the alveoli and the blood in alveolar
capillaries.
❑Internal respiration is the gas exchange between
tissue cells and blood in capillaries.
Both the respiratory system and the cardiovascular
system are involved in respiration

Both the respiratory system and the cardiovascular

system are involved in respiration.
Nasal Cavity

▪ air enters nostrils, is filtered, warmed and

humidified
▪ Paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts drain
into the nasal cavities.
 Pharynx (throat)

▪ posterior to nasal and oral cavities

▪ divided into three parts:
a. Nasopharynx -above the level of the soft palate, which blocks it
during swallowing; a passageway for air only. The eustachian
tubes from the middle ears open into it. The adenoid is a lymph
nodule on the posterior wall.

b. Oropharynx -behind the mouth; a passageway for both air and

food. Palatine tonsils are on the lateral walls.

c. Laryngopharynx -a passageway for both air and food; opens

anteriorly into the larynx and posteriorly into the esophagus.
Larynx (voice box)

▪ the airway between the pharynx and trachea

▪ contains the vocal folds (cords)
▪ provides a patent airway and serves as a
switching mechanism to route food and air into
the proper channels.
▪ The epiglottis prevents food or liquids from
entering the respiratory channels during
swallowing
 Trachea (windpipe)

▪ extends from the larynx to the primary

bronchi
▪ Sixteen to 20 C-shaped cartilages in the
tracheal wall keep the trachea open.
▪ Mucosa is ciliated epithelium with
goblet cells; cilia sweep mucus,
trapped dust, and microorganisms
upward to the pharynx.
Bronchial Tree

▪ extends from the trachea to the alveoli

▪ The right and left primary bronchi are
branches of the trachea; one to each lung:
same structure as the trachea.
▪ Secondary bronchi: to the lobes of each lung
(three right, two left)
▪ Bronchioles-fine tubes that allow passage of
air; no cartilage in their walls: epithelium is
covered with cilia and mucus.
Pleural Membranes -serous membranes
of the thoracic cavity
a. Parietal pleura lines the chest wall.
b. Visceral pleura covers the lungs.
c. Serous fluid between the two layers
prevents friction and keeps the membranes
together during breathing.
Lungs

▪ on either side of the heart in the chest cavity;

extend from the diaphragm below up to the
level of the clavicles
▪ The rib cage protects the lungs from
mechanical injury.
▪ Hilus-indentation on the medial side: primary
bronchus and pulmonary artery and veins enter
(also bronchial vessels).
Alveoli -the sites of gas exchange in the lungs

▪ made of alveolar type I cells, simples

squamous epithelium; thin to permit
diffusion of gases.
▪ Alveolar type II cells produce pulmonary
surfactant that mixes with the tissue fluid
lining to decrease surface tension to permit
inflation of the alveoli.
▪ Alveolar macrophages phagocytize foreign
material.
 Pulmonary ventilation or breathing is the movement of air into and out of the
lungs: inhalation and exhalation.

Inhalation (inspiration)
Inhalation occurs when the diaphragm and external
intercostal muscles contract, increasing the
dimensions (and volume) of the thorax. As the
intrapulmonary pressure drops, air rushes into the
lungs until the intrapulmonary and atmospheric
pressures are equalized.
Exhalation (expiration)

Expiration is largely passive, occurring

as the inspiratory muscles relax and the
lungs recoil. When intrapulmonary
pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure,
gases flow from the lungs.
 Term Definition
Lung Volumes The four non-overlapping components of the total
lung capacity
Tidal volume The volume of gas inspired or expired in an
unforced respiratory cycle

Inspiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired
during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume

Expiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be expired
during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume

Residual volume The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a

maximum expiration
 Term
Lung capacities
Total lung capacity
Vital capacity
Inspiratory capacity
Functional residual capacity
Definition
Measurements that are the sum of two
or more lung volumes
The total amount of gas in the lungs
after maximum inspiration
The maximum amount of gas that can
be expired after a maximum inspiration
The maximum amount of gas that can
be inspired after a normal tidal
expiration
The amount of gas remaining in the
lungs after a normal tidal expiration
▪ Inhaled air (atmosphere) is 21% 02 and 0.04%
CO2. Exhaled air is 16% 02 and 4.5% Diffusion of
02 and CO2 in the body occurs because of pressure
gradients. A gas will CO2 diffuse from an area of
higher partial pressure to an area of lower partial
pressure.
▪ External respiration is the exchange of gases
between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries.
External respiration: PO2 in the alveoli is high, and PO2
in the pulmonary capillaries is low, so 02 diffuses from
the air to the blood. PCO2 in the alveoli is low, and PCO2
in the Pulmonary capillaries is high, so CO2 diffuses from
the blood to the air and is exhaled.

▪ Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between

blood in the systemic capillaries and tissue fluid (cells).
Internal respiration: PO2 in the systemic capillaries is
high, and PO2 in the tissue fluid is low, so 02 diffuses
from the blood to the tissue fluid and cells. PC02 in the
systemic capillaries is low, and PCO2 in the tissue fluid is
high, so CO2 diffuses from the tissue fluid to the blood.
Transport of Oxygen:
o Oxygen is carried by the iron of hemoglobin (Hb) in the RBCs.
The 02-Hb bond is formed in the lungs where the PO2 is high.

Transport of carbon dioxide

o CO2 is transported in the blood dissolved in plasma, chemically
bound to hemoglobin, and (primarily) as bicarbonate ion in
plasma.
o Accumulation of CO2 leads to decreased pH; depletion of CO2
from blood leads to increased blood pH.
 The respiratory center consist of a medullary rhythmicity
Nervous regulation
area in the medulla oblongata and a pneumotaxic area and
apneustic area in the pons.

Respiratory centers in the medulla

o The inspiratory area sets the basic rhythm of respiration.
o Baroreceptors in lung tissue detect stretching and send
impulses to the medulla to depress the inspiration center.
This is the Hering-Breuer inflation reflex, which also
prevents over inflation of the lungs.
o The expiration center is stimulated by the inspiration
center when forceful exhalations are needed.
Respiratory areas in the pons
The pneumotaxic and apneustic areas coordinate the
transition between inhalation and exhalation.
o The apneustic center prolongs inhalation.
o The pneumotaxic center helps bring about exhalation.
o These centers work with the inspiration center in the
medulla to produce a normal breathing rhythm.
o The hypothalamus influences changes in breathing in
emotional situations.
o The cerebral cortex permits voluntary changes in
breathing.
Chemical Regulation of Respiration

❖ Decreased blood 02 is detected by chemoreceptors in the carotid body and aortic body. Response: increased
respiration to take more air into the lungs.
❖ Increased blood CO2 level is detected by chemoreceptors in the medulla. Response: increased respiration to exhale
more CO2.
❖ C02 is the major regulator of respiration because excess CO2 decreases the pH of body fluids (CO2 +H20
→H2C03→ H++HCO3 -). Excess H+ ions lower pH.
❖ Oxygen becomes a major regulator of respiration when blood level is very low, as may occur with severe, chronic
pulmonary disease.
▪ Respiratory acidosis: a decrease in the rate or efficiency of respiration permits
excess CO2 to accumulate in body fluids, resulting in the formation of excess H+
ions, which lower pH, occurs in severe pulmonary disease.
▪ Respiratory alkalosis: an increase in the rate of respiration increases the CO2
exhaled, which decreases the formation of H+ ions and raises pH. It occurs during
hyper ventilation or when first at high altitude.
▪ Respiratory compensation
a. Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis: increased
respiration to exhale CO2 to decrease H+ ion formation to
raise pH to normal.
b. Respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis:
decreased respiration to retain CO2 to increase H+ ion
formation to lower pH to normal.

Effects of pH Changes
a. Acidosis-depresses synaptic transmission in the CNS; result
is confusion, coma, and death.
b. Alkalosis-increases synaptic transmission in the CNS and
PNS; result is irritability, muscle spasms, and convulsions.
 Two major respiratory disorders are COPD (emphysema and chronic
bronchitis) and lung cancer; a significant cause is cigarette smoking. A third
major disorder is asthma.
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis may become a major health problem.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

COPD is characterized by an irreversible decrease in the
ability to force air out of the lungs. Patients may become
cyanotic as a result of chronic hypoxia.
Emphysema is characterized by permanent
enlargement and destruction of alveoli. The lungs lose
their elasticity, and expiration becomes an active
process.

Chronic bronchitis is characterized by excessive

mucus production in the lower respiratory passageways,
which severely impairs ventilation and gas exchange.
Tuberculosis (TB), an infectious disease caused by
an airborne bacterium, mainly affects the lungs.
Although most infected individuals remain
asymptomatic by walling off the bacteria in tubercles,
disease symptoms ensue when immunity is
depressed. Some patients' failure to complete drug
therapy have produced multidrug-resistant TB strains.
Asthma is a reversible obstructive condition caused by
an immune response that causes its victims to wheeze
and gasp for air as their inflamed respiratory passages
constrict. It is marked by exacerbations and periods of
relief from symptoms.

Lung cancer, promoted by free radicals and other

carcinogens, is extremely aggressive and metastasizes
rapidly.