International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tags20

Amaranth production and consumption in South

Africa: the challenges of sustainability for food and
nutrition security

Obianuju Chiamaka Emmanuel & Olubukola Oluranti Babalola

To cite this article: Obianuju Chiamaka Emmanuel & Olubukola Oluranti Babalola (2021):
Amaranth production and consumption in South Africa: the challenges of sustainability
for food and nutrition security, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, DOI:
10.1080/14735903.2021.1940729

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2021.1940729

Published online: 17 Jun 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tags20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2021.1940729

ARTICLE COMMENTARY

Amaranth production and consumption in South Africa: the challenges

of sustainability for food and nutrition security
a,b a
Obianuju Chiamaka Emmanuel and Olubukola Oluranti Babalola
a
Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University Mmabatho, South
Africa; bFarming System Programme, National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Amaranthus spp occupies a strategic position in combating food and nutrition African leafy vegetables;
insecurity, as it is widely consumed in sub-Saharan Africa. It is drought tolerant and amaranthus; malnutrition;
can grow on marginal soils, however, with adequate management; it can produce pigweed; underutilized
about 40 tons/ha of fresh leaves. The leaves are rich in nutrients that can combat vegetables
malnutrition and support healthy eating. Despite the huge benefits offered by
amaranth, it has been underutilized in South Africa. Its consumption is
concentrated in rural areas, where it is harvested from the wild during the rains.
There are no large-scale productions of amaranth, hence the lack of data on its
production. Inadequate knowledge of its uses, agronomic requirement, low
research efforts and the absence of an organized market are part of the reasons
why amaranth is still underutilized in South Africa. This paper argues that with
increased awareness of the benefits of amaranth and research geared towards
agronomic improvement, social and economic acceptance, amaranth will be
utilized nationwide with time. It recommends that conscious effort should be
aimed at introducing amaranth into mainstream agricultural value chains through
increased research attention and awareness of its nutritional benefits. This will
ensure sustainable production to match the anticipated increase in consumption.

1. Introduction
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and
the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition
(2016–2025) requires all countries and stakeholders
to work collectively to terminate hunger and
prevent all forms of malnutrition by 2030 (FAO,
2017). However, as of 2020 (10 years to the end of
the timeline), malnutrition is still pronounced world-
wide, especially in Africa. It has been estimated that
one in every four people in Sub-Saharan Africa is
undernourished (FAO, 2017). Sub-Saharan Africa has
the highest occurrence of Vitamin A deficiency in chil-
dren and iron deficiency in women, respectively; glob-
ally (Stevens et al., 2015). South Africa as a country has
been classified as food secure at the national level but
faces the challenges of food insecurity at household
levels due to nutrient deficiencies such as vitamin A,
iron, zinc, and vitamin C (Van der Merwe et al.,
2016). Shisana et al. (2014) reported that about 16
million people in South Africa are food insecure with
the majority living in the rural areas and this trend
has not decreased in recent years (Mabhaudhi et al.,
2019). Also, the National Department for Health,
South Africa in 2019 published that 43% of children
below 5 years are malnourished [stunting (27%),
wasting (3%) and overweight (13%)] while 68% of
women in South Africa are overweight (Gillespie &
van den Bold, 2017). Generally, one in four rural
poor households in South Africa is food insecure
especially during winter (Hendriks et al., 2016). The
majority of households in South Africa consume a
limited variety of foods, mainly consisting of starch
staples and sugar with a little relish of vegetables
(Bvenura & Afolayan, 2015; Nyathi et al., 2018). This

CONTACT Olubukola Oluranti Babalola olubukola.babalola@nwu.ac.za Food Security and Safety Niche Area, Faculty of Natural and
Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, 2735 Mmabatho, South Africa
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA
highlights the gap in the nutrition security of the
population, especially in rural areas.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2017)
sent an early warning signal that meeting the 2030
target of ending hunger and especially malnutrition
will be challenging. To meet the target, renewed strat-
egies and conscious efforts are required, especially
with the global outbreak of COVID-19. To reduce mal-
nutrition in South Africa and diversify the diet, there
has been recent awareness on the inclusion of indi-
genous African Leafy Vegetables (ALV) into the house-
hold diet. These ALVs are sources of micronutrients
and antioxidants that promote good health and
reduce ‘hidden hunger’. ALVs are ‘plant species
which are either genuinely native to a particular
region, or which were introduced to that region for
long enough to have evolved through natural pro-
cesses or farmer selection’ (Van Rensburg et al.,
2007). Some of the identified ALVs in South Africa
are Corchorus olitorius and C. tridens (jute mallow),
Amaranthus spp (pigweed), Citrullus lanatus and
Cucumis melo (melon), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea),
Cleome gynandra (spider plant), Cucurbita pepo,
C. maxima and C. moschata (pumpkin), Solanum
nigrum and S. retroflexum (nightshade), Brassica rapa
supsp. chinensis (Chinese cabbage) and Chenopodium
album (Maseko et al., 2018; Van Rensburg et al., 2007).
Amaranthus species or amaranth also popularly
known as pigweed stands out among the ALVs of
South Africa due to its versatile nature and ability to
grow in harsh conditions. In addition to these, the
leaves and tender stems are consumed while the
old hard stems are discarded (Alegbejo, 2013;
Vorster et al., 2002). It has been classified as a poten-
tial vegetable that has a promising economic value
among the other ALVs (Jimoh et al., 2018) which is a
pointer to its unexploited prospects in South Africa.
Apart from their use as food, Amaranth and other
underutilized crops essential part of energy and nutri-
ent flows in the farming systems (Andersen, 2012).
Amaranth belongs to the family Amaranthaceae
and originated from South America (Ogwu, 2020).
Ebert et al. (2011) reported that amaranth has about
70 species with roughly 17 of them cultivated as
leafy vegetables and 3 for grain (pseudocereal) pur-
poses. The latter is referred to as a pseudocereal
because they are non-grass species, which produces
grains that are used in the same way as cereals.
However, there are often no clear distinction
between grain and vegetable amaranth since the
leaves of young grain amaranths are also consumed
as vegetables (Mbwambo et al., 2015). While some
species grow as weeds in cultivated fields, others
are cultivated for consumption with the ability to
yield 40 tons/ha of fresh leaves with proper manage-
ment. One of its outstanding characteristics is that it
has great nutritional value as it contains antioxidants
and minerals and offers great benefit to solve food
insecurity and malnourishment plaguing rural poor
communities in South Africa. Furthermore, it is a C4
plant that has a short cycle, easy to cultivate and is
known to adapt in various agro-ecologies even in
harsh conditions (Orona-Tamayo & Paredes-López,
2017). Being a C4 plant, it yields more dry matter
per unit of water utilized. This ability makes it to be
more water-efficient than some exotic vegetables. It,
therefore, offers huge benefits of being a promising
vegetable for cultivation in marginal, arid and semi-
arid regions (Alemayehu et al., 2015).
Despite the ability of amaranth to adapt in poor
conditions typical of rural farmers and also satisfy
household nutrition needs, its consumption and
usage have been on the decline over the years in
South Africa (Maseko et al., 2018; Oelofse & van Aver-
beke, 2012). This is in contrast to West and East Africa
where amaranth is one the most produced and con-
sumed vegetables (Achigan-Dako et al., 2010). The
cultivation of Amaranth in these regions has a positive
impact on food and nutrition security and generates
income for smallholder farmers. It is also an important
vegetable grown by urban and peri-urban farmers in
these regions of Africa (Achigan-Dako et al., 2014).
Similarly, in Nepal and India, ricebean (Vigna umbel-
lata) is being promoted as a means of improving
food security among resource-poor farmers through
breeding and other research and development-
related activities (Andersen, 2012). Amaranth in
South Africa is rarely cultivated by large-scale
farmers, but exists in the wild and is harvested after
the first rains (DAFF, 2014). Little cultivation and har-
vesting of amaranth from the wild are common in
Limpopo, Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal provinces
by rural smallholder farmers who do not have ade-
quate access to agricultural support services inputs
(Van Rensburg et al., 2007).
Although Amaranth is also cultivated at the
research level in South Africa, wide gaps still exist
with regard to many aspects of amaranth production.
Gerrano et al. (2015) reported that 32 amaranth gen-
otypes had been selected across South Africa and
evaluated in the field. In a similar vein, Germishuizen
et al. (2006) also reported that there are about 16
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
indigenous and localized Amaranthus species in South
Africa. This suggests that constraints to amaranth con-
sumption in South Africa are more related to pro-
duction and acceptance than to the availability of a
suitable variety or genotype. The consumption of
the vegetable is determined by some factors like
poverty, urbanization, market availability, access and
seasonal variations (Van Rensburg et al., 2007). The
gaps in amaranth production are agronomic (plant
population, fertilizer, crop mixtures) studies, post-
harvest losses, storage, and marketing. Closing this
gap will help increase the acceptance of amaranth
by farmers and gain the confidence of consumers.
Dietary monotony has also been identified as a
critical issue in South Africa (Mabhaudhi et al., 2016)
hence the need for increased use of underutilized
vegetables like amaranth to expand the food basket,
thereby diversifying diet. Intensification of amaranth
production and consumption through research and
development could be an easy entry point of redu-
cing malnutrition and promoting the general well-
being of people along with realizing food security
(Onyango, 2010). This review, therefore, seeks to
outline the status of Amaranth production in South
Africa with the aim of highlighting the challenges
and opportunities for its marketing, utilization and
consumption and proffer possible ways of overcom-
ing the challenges. We also present some Amaranthus
species found in South Africa focusing on their nutri-
tional importance to promote their consumption and
utilization. We equally listed some of their phyto-
chemical and mineral contents that can help mitigate
micronutrient deficiency in the country. In addition to
these, increased sustainable production, and inte-
gration of amaranth into the mainstream cropping
system in South Africa and linking rural farmers to
an organized market can provide economic opportu-
nity especially for the rural poor and diversification of
diet.
2. Amaranthus species in South Africa and
their characteristics
Amaranthus species are considered as one of the
common underutilized ALVs found in South Africa.
Even though it is hardly cultivated, some species
have been found in the country. These include Amar-
anthus thunbergii, A. spinosus, A. hybridus, A. deflexus,
A. hypochondriacus, A. greazicans, A. viridus,
A. cruentus (Steyn et al., 2001; Van Rensburg et al.,
2007) and A. tricolor (Gerrano et al., 2015; Modi,
3
2007). Brief characteristics of these species are dis-
cussed below:
Amaranthus thunbergii is an erect variety that can
grow up to 50 cm. It is usually found in the wild and
consumed for its leaves, which are used either as
flavour or vegetable. The inflorescence is greenish in
axillary clusters with brown or shiny black seeds
(Achigan-Dako et al., 2014).
Amaranthus spinosus also known as spiny amaranth
or spiny pigweed (Jimoh et al., 2018) has leaves that are
consumed. It exists mainly in the wild and can grow up
to 100 cm; the leaves have sharp spines of variable
sizes (Ogwu, 2020). It has a shiny black seed with a
narrow margin and usually found in the wild. The
stem is obtusely angular while the leaves are alternate
and the inflorescence is made up of dense clusters
(Achigan-Dako et al., 2010). It is mainly found in the
Limpopo province (Mavengahama et al., 2013).
Amaranthus hybridus is commonly known as
smooth pigweed (Jimoh et al., 2018). It has green
leaves with characteristic red blotches. It grows up
to 180 cm and can be harvested after 120 days of cul-
tivation. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable and also
found around KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo province
(Mavengahama et al., 2013).
Amaranthus deflexus is also known commonly as
large-fruit amaranth. It grows up to 50 cm with alter-
nate leaves that are not separated into leaflets. The
inflorescence is typically dense and leafy at the base.
The seeds of A. deflexus are bigger than other Amar-
anthus species (Ogwu, 2020).
Amaranthus hypochondriacus (Figure 1) is one of the
cultivated grain amaranth varieties with edible leaves.
The tender leaves have a mild flavour and are consumed
as a vegetable. It is vigorous, erect, and the height
ranges from 40–200 cm. The stem is typically branched,
mostly in the inflorescence. The leaves are arranged spi-
rally, the flowers are unisexual while the seed can be
white, yellow or black (Ogwu, 2020).
Amaranthus graecizans is commonly known as
spreading pigweed and mainly cooked as a leafy veg-
etable. The height ranges from 50 to 150 cm and
strongly branched from the lower part (Ogwu, 2020).
The leaves are arranged spirally while the inflorescence
is an axillary cluster. The flowers are yellow and unisex-
ual containing round black seeds. Amaranthus graeci-
zans (Figure 2) appears to be resistant to pests and
diseases; however, it is an alternative host of Verticillium
fungi, which caused damage to tomato.
Amaranthus viridus commonly known as slender
amaranth and widely consumed as a leafy vegetable
4 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA

Figure 1. Amaranthus hypochondriacus.

is an annual plant with upright, light green stems. It

grows to about 60–80 cm with branches that are
angular and emerge from the base, while the leaves
are ovate (Ogwu, 2020). The flowers are unisexual,
small and green, containing seeds that are smooth
and glossy (Achigan-Dako et al., 2010). It is found in
the wild and sometimes cultivated (Achigan-Dako
et al., 2014).
Amaranthus cruentus also known as purple or red
amaranth is one of the three amaranth species culti-
vated for its grain. The green cultivars also exist and
are common in South Africa (Figure 3). The tender
leaves are eaten as a leafy vegetable while the seeds
can be germinated and eaten as a nutritious sprout.
The stems are branched, the leaves are arranged spi-
rally and it can grow up to 200 cm tall (Achigan-Dako Figure 2. Amaranthus graecizans.
et al., 2010). It has unisexual flowers with smooth and
thin seeds (Wolosik & Markowska, 2019).
Amaranthus tricolor is multi-coloured amaranth marginal land with limited access to irrigation and
specie usually cooked and consumed as leafy veg- inputs. There has not been commercial production,
etables. It typically grows in the wild in South Africa hence the lack of data on its production levels. Data
and can grow up to 125 cm. The leaves are arranged on amaranth is also scarce partly due to the fact the
spirally with unisexual and smooth black or brown all the ALVs are lumped together (Van Rensburg
seed (Rahman & Gulshana, 2014). et al., 2007) and amaranth cannot be easily separated.
The climate of South Africa is favourable to amar-
anth and it can be cultivated in all the agro-ecologies
3. Amaranth production and potential in during summer. The timing of its cultivation is a criti-
South Africa cal issue that should be addressed. Amaranth, unlike
Amaranth production in South Africa is mostly at the Swiss chard and cabbage, cannot withstand low
research level while the rest are in the wild and temperature. All amaranth varieties prefer warm
among smallholder farmers that have small plots of temperatures and can thrive above 250C day
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
Figure 3. Amaranthus cruentus (green type).
temperature, but not lower than 150C night tempera-
ture (Achigan-Dako et al., 2014). Lower temperatures
lead to chilling injury, thereby making the plant to
be fibrous and bent. Amaranth is also photoperiod
sensitive and begins to flower if the day length is
less than 12 h (Ebert et al., 2011). Twelve hours of
day length also helps to increase the quantity of phy-
tochemicals and other antioxidants present in the
leaves (Ali et al., 2009). Water scarcity is a major
concern for crop production in South Africa, but amar-
anth is drought tolerant thereby placing it at a
vantage position for local production. Notwithstand-
ing, prolonged dry spells induce early flowering and
decrease leaf yield and market quality (Steyn et al.,
2001; Van Rensburg et al., 2007). Supplementary irri-
gation is essential especially after transplanting or
direct sowing to facilitate growth and yield.
As part of the effort to promote commercial culti-
vation of amaranth, Maseko et al. (2015) rec-
ommended planting density of 66,666 plants/ha for
Amaranthus cruentus and low plant density of
50,000 plants/ha in areas experiencing water scarcity
or for rain-fed cultivation. Optimum plant density
reduces competition for nutrients and water among
plants and encourages vegetative growth for high
yield. There is a need for multi-location trials for all
the amaranth species in South Africa to accommodate
5
variations in species and location effect. These efforts
to promote the utilization of ALVs also require out-
scaling and sensitization of the people generally.
The increased awareness for its consumption will be
more effective if it is matched with cultivation to
make it available and more acceptable for consump-
tion. It will also reduce over-reliance on the limited
number of exotic dark leaf vegetables thereby diversi-
fying their diet. Cultivation of amaranth in the green-
house during winter is also another possibility that
can ensure availability during the offseason.
4. Nutritional and phytochemical
composition of amaranth
Almost all the nutrients required for balanced nutri-
tion and growth in human beings are present in
plants. Vegetables are cheap sources of these essen-
tial nutrients due to their vitamins and mineral
content but have not been utilized maximally. Potass-
ium contained in vegetables helps in maintaining
healthy blood pressure while their dietary fibre
content helps to lower the blood cholesterol levels
and subsequently lower the risk of heart diseases.
Vegetables also contain folic acid that helps to
reduce the possibilities of birth defects while the vita-
mins contribute to healthy eyes, skin, and gum. Staple
crops (cereals and root crops) contain carbohydrates
that give energy but are deficient in micronutrients
(Afari-Sefa et al., 2012). Therefore, a diet composed
mostly of these staple crops often leads to hidden
hunger/malnutrition(von Grebmer et al., 2014).
Some decades past, amaranth was rediscovered as
a promising plant that could be a good source of
protein, unsaturated oil and other beneficial nutrients
(Jimoh et al., 2018). Analysis of amaranth nutrient
content has shown that it can address micronutrient
deficiencies if incorporated into the diet consumed
by a household (Jimoh et al., 2018). The proximate
analysis and concentration of some minerals in amar-
anth are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Amaranth is a
source of vitamins like thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin;
it also contains minerals like calcium, iron, potassium,
zinc, copper, and manganese (Mathe, 2014). The nutri-
ent content of 100 g fresh leaves of amaranth, com-
pared to cabbage, has greater protein (4.0 vs. 1.4%),
calcium (480 vs. 44 mg), iron (10 vs.0.8 mg), β-caro-
tene (10.7 vs.1.2 mg) and vitamin C (135 vs.33 mg)
content (Ramdwar et al., 2017). Amaranthus leaves
are an ideal source of antioxidant pigments, such as
betalain, β-xanthin, and β-cyanin, anthocyanins,
6 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA

Table 1. Proximate composition of some amaranth varieties (per 100 g fresh weight).
Moisture Protein Fat Fiber Ash Carbohydrates
Specie Energy (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) Reference
Amaranthus 278 KJ 80 1.72 6.07 1.35 2.46 3.47 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017;
thunbergii Ullah et al., 2017)
A. spinosus 27 (Kcal) 91 4 0.6 2.48 2.76 4.30 (Odhav et al., 2007)
A. hybridus 53 (Kcal) 83 6 0.5 2.81 4.91 6.09 (Odhav et al., 2007)
A. deflexus – 82 0.83 – 0.64 0.70 1.08 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017;
Ogwu, 2020; Oyedeji et al., 2014)
A. hypochondriacus – 82 3.34 2.63 2.49 1.21 7.89 (Muriuki et al., 2014)
A. greazicans 268.92 82 2.85 – 8.50 2.20 – (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017;
(Kcal) Ogwu, 2020)
A. viridus 43.4 88 2.1 0.5 1.9 1.9 7.7 (Ogwu, 2020)
(Kcal)
A. cruentus 272 (KJ) 82 4.2 0.3 6.7 2.38 11.2 (Van Jaarsveld et al., 2014)
A. tricolor 140 (KJ) 89 3.49 0.15 0.9 2.12 5.2 (Ogwu, 2020; Schönfeldt &
Pretorius, 2011)

carotenoids, and chlorophylls (Sarker et al., 2018b, 5. Challenges of amaranth production in

2018c) and natural antioxidant phytochemicals, like South Africa
vitamin C, phenolic acids, and flavonoids (Sarker
Amaranth like other underutilized ALVs is faced with a
et al., 2018a). The antioxidants in amaranth form a
lot of challenges in South Africa. Van der Merwe et al.
natural defence against several diseases, for instance,
(2016) stated that the amaranth value chain is not
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, cataracts, athero-
organized, with most of the vegetables harvested in
sclerosis, retinopathy, arthritis, emphysema, and neu-
the wild. The main challenges facing underutilized
rodegenerative diseases (Sarker & Oba, 2019).
crops generally is that they in competition with
The levels of phytochemicals and proximate com-
other conventional crops and most innovations are
position varies among species and environmental
tilted towards grain crops. Renewed interests in the
condition (Ogwu, 2020), however, on a general
nutritional value of wild vegetables like amaranth
basis, each variety has sufficient amount to nutrients
have helped to emphasize its nutritional value.
to promote healthy living and growth. Processing
However, beyond knowing the nutritional value of
and cooking of vegetables alter the nutrients in
amaranth, there is a need to determine the specific
them, which affects their bio-accessibility and health
agronomic conditions required for their production,
benefits (Odhav et al., 2007). To reduce losses of nutri-
educate farmers, enlighten the people and in turn
ent from amaranth, Traoré et al. (2017) suggested
increase its public acceptance. Little availability of
cooking it for a short time (<30 min) with little water
extension services and limited research in all agro-
(the water should be consumed as part of the diet
ecologies are part of the reasons why the potential
to retain the nutrients). The authors also reported
of amaranth is still underutilized in the country.
that vegetables should be dried under shade at mod-
Other challenges affecting amaranth production are
erate temperature (30 ± 2°C) to avoid loss of a sub-
briefly discussed below:
stantial amount of nutrients.

Table 2. Concentrations of selected minerals (mg/100 g edible portion) in Amaranth.

Amaranth specie Fe Zn Mg Ca P K Vit. C Reference
Amaranthus thunbergii, 1.2 0.13 450 350 73 650 1.3 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017)
A. spinosus 1.5 1.1 280 260 61 620 0.63 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017)
A. hybridus 1.25 1.32 215 153 63.2 370 0.94 (Oyelola et al., 2014)
A. deflexus 2.2 1.2 290 1.9 80 680 1 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017)
A. hypochondriacus 9.55 1.36 44 131.06 68 543 * (Biel et al., 2017; Muriuki et al., 2014)
A. greazicans 1.5 1.1 280 260 73 550 1.1 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017)
A. viridus 2.2 1.3 330 240 93 620 1.3 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017)
A. cruentus 5.1 0.70 242 443 81 459 2 (Van Jaarsveld et al., 2014)
A. tricolor 16.2 0.8 141 232 70.6 700 1.4 (Jiménez-Aguilar & Grusak, 2017; Schönfeldt & Pretorius, 2011)
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
5.1. Lack of commercial production
Amaranth can fit into large-scale commercial pro-
duction, but this is not yet a reality in South Africa.
South Africa has a lot of large-scale farms that are pro-
ducing exotic vegetables; however, these commercial
farmers have not embraced the production of amar-
anth and other ALVs. This could be attributed to the
low demand and lack of well-defined agronomic prac-
tices and market value chain (Nyathi et al., 2016). ALVs
generally have a lower level of demand as compared
to exotic vegetables leading to lower sales, prices and
reduced returns on investment (Lenné & Ward, 2010;
Vivian et al., 2016).
5.2. Urban influence and influx of exotic
vegetables
Urbanization and the impact of urban lifestyle on the
rural African area due to rural-urban migrations are
altering their consumption pattern in favour of
exotic vegetable species, particularly Swiss chard.
Indigenous vegetables have been displaced from
some rural household diets and replaced with diets
that consist mostly of refined cereals, sugar and fat
(Mchiza et al., 2015).
5.3. Lack of integrated seed systems
Currently, there are no formal seed productions for
amaranth. This is important especially for the com-
mercial production of any crop. Mavengahama
(2013) pointed out that the seeds of amaranth and
other ALVs are not readily available in stores like
other exotic vegetables. The situation has not
changed much in recent years. The seed support
system is mostly informal where seeds are collected
from the wild and broadcasted or from the farmer’s
field where it is cultivated.
5.4. Marketing
The economic value of leafy amaranth in South Africa
is not yet determined as it is mostly sold at the infor-
mal market (Gerrano et al., 2015). Production is carried
out by mostly smallholder farmers who do not have
access to formal markets hence they resort to informal
markets that are not regulated (Mabhaudhi et al.,
2016). As described by (Gruère et al., 2006), underuti-
lized crops generally lack an output market. A situ-
ation where the farmers do not have access to an
7
organized market. Where some retailers show interest
in the marketing of ALVs, the smallholder farmers are
unable to meet the steady supply required due to the
limited size of their farms (Senyolo et al., 2018). Street
vendors have also been reported to sell amaranth col-
lected from the wild at strategic places and are some-
times sold from house to house (Senyolo et al., 2018).
A lack of suitable shade for street vendors to display
vegetables in the informal market leads to increased
spoilage from environmental factors like temperature
and humidity (Mampholo et al., 2016). Informal
markets where amaranth is sold are associated with
cheaper food while the more organized formal
markets are considered to be expensive (Mabhaudhi
et al., 2017). Market opportunities drive farmer’s
choice of crops and are inversely proportional to pro-
duction. Therefore, linking rural farmers to organized
markets is crucial for making amaranth production
profitable for both smallholders and large-scale
farmers. Another major factor to consider is the high
cost of transportation due to the bulkiness of
amaranth.
5.5. Storage and post-harvest losses
Post-harvest losses are one of the major challenges
limiting the availability of amaranth in South Africa.
The majority of the farmers that produce amaranth
in the rural areas are resource-poor and cannot
afford conventional cold storage. Lack of adequate
storage facilities is one of the constraints that militate
against the marketing of ALVs (Vivian et al., 2016) and
contribute to a huge waste of amaranth. The usual
practice is to sprinkle cold water on the vegetable
to eliminate field heat and maintain the freshness
for as long as possible (Gogo et al., 2018). The main
sign of quality loss from amaranth is wilting and yel-
lowing of the leaves which make it unappealing to
consumers. The process of washing, cooling and
proper management is important in the amaranth
value chain (Senyolo et al., 2018). Immediate cold
storage after harvest, until it gets to the retail
outlets, reduces the effect of macergens (soft rot
causing bacteria) on vegetables (Aremu & Babalola,
2015). This, however, is lacking in the way it is pro-
cessed by the local farmers. The common postharvest
processing method of amaranth includes air drying
and sun drying which cannot compare to the fresh
vegetables in taste and flavour. Amaranth leaves mar-
keted as dried products are not appealing to consu-
mers (Vorster et al., 2002) and big stores are
8 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA
unwilling to market the dried leaves (Senyolo et al.,
2018).
5.6. Research
Research on amaranth in South Africa has increased
recently but a lot is still unknown about the amaranth
value chain. Successful promotion and commercializa-
tion of amaranth depend on the availability of infor-
mation on optimum agronomic practices for
cultivation like water and nutrient requirements and
also value chain actors. This information is lacking
across agro-ecologies because agronomic practices
are location-specific. Table 3 presents at a glance
the challenges facing amaranth production in South
Africa and suggested ways to remedy them.
6. Social and economic implications of
intensification of amaranth production
Agricultural intensification is a key strategy for devel-
opment and food security in many African countries.
Using strategies that are relevant to a locality will
support agricultural intensification. As has been
earlier stated, underutilized crops contribute to the
attainment of food security in any nation. The pro-
vision of incentives to smallholder farmers can con-
tribute to the intensification of amaranth production
and consumption in South Africa. For instance, if the
anticipated economic returns are not sufficient for
farmers, they may pay less attention to amaranth
Table 3. Key challenges of amaranth production in South Africa and Possible interventions.
Stakeholders
Consumers Limited supply
Low awareness
Retailers No steady supply
Low demand
Infrastructure deficit
No value addition
Poor packaging
Farmers (commercial and Storage and Post-harvest losses
Smallholders)
Commercial and Smallholders Lack of information agronomic practices, fertilizer and
water requirement
commercial and Smallholders No market linkage
commercial and Smallholders Lack of integrated seed systems
Smallholders Fragmented production
Smallholders Not integrated into the mixed cropping system
Agro-input dealers Low-quality seed
Little demand
Research Skewed specialization and low research output
production and concentrate on other lucrative
crops. Taste preference and wide acceptance may
relegate amaranth to home consumption while
other crops are produced for marketing.
Gruère et al. (2006) identified factors that led to
market imperfection for underutilized crops. Low
demand due to consumer behaviour. Sometimes,
consumers may have the willingness to buy the
crop but discouraged by the quality, packaging and
presentation or they may lack information on the
use and potentials of these crops. As seen in South
Africa, demand is more in the rural poor communities
especially among the elderly. Promoting amaranth
production and consumption will contribute to the
stability and risk management of farming systems
(Jaenicke & Lengkeek, 2006), and also contribute to
reducing the vulnerability of younger ones to social
vices. For example, agriculture is a major source of
employment in Limpopo province (Senyolo et al.,
2018) as well as in other rural areas globally. The
authors also suggested value chain analysis not just
for amaranth but for all ALVs for better organization
and to determine the best intervention methods.
Such targeted interventions will not only increase pro-
duction but also fight poverty in the long run.
7. The way forward
One important entry point required to inculcate amar-
anth into the farming system is through smallholder
farmers’ participation. The introduction of amaranth
Challenges Possible solutions
Increased marketing and production
Increased awareness of uses and benefits
Intensification of production by farmers
Increased awareness of uses and benefits to
consumers
Public-private partnership to create an organized
market
Research intervention
Training on best practices
Access to soft loan and incentives
Increased research intervention and organized
extension services
Agribusiness training and farmers’ cooperative
Creating an organized seed sector
Expansion of farm size
Research intervention
Research intervention and breeding
Intensification of production by farmers
Mentorship
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
to the farmers should be followed by the introduction
of the basic production and preparation methods
which will increase its acceptance. Increase access to
the market for smallholder farmers using a demand-
driven approach instead of a supply-driven approach.
The farmers should be trained on how to meet the
quality standards for large retail stores. Also, these
smallholder farmers can form groups or cooperatives
that would manage their collective efforts and give
them a voice in the formal market. Farmers’ coopera-
tive will reduce the exploitation from middlemen and
also facilitate intervention from other stakeholders
like input suppliers, Government and NGOs. Farmers
in these cooperative groups can also pull resources
together to procure input and obtain credit facilities
which may be challenging for individual farmers. As
has been stated earlier, the main constraint to
increased production, marketing and consumption
of amaranth is its high perishability and low storage
capacity in fresh form. This is due to its high metabolic
activity after harvest. This challenge can be sur-
mounted by linking the producers to steady markets
which could scale out the consumption nationwide.
If there is an organized market structure, the har-
vested amaranth will reach the retailers the same
day to ensure wholesomeness. A clue can be taken
from the marking of Swiss chard, which is also a
highly perishable vegetable.
At the household level, backyard farming should
be encouraged for households to grow amaranth
and other ALVs for consumption. Keatinge et al.
(2011) rightly pointed out that home gardens offer
an opportunity for poor households to improve their
access to vegetables and reduce malnutrition. This
strongly comes into play as only about 5% of house-
holds in South Africa produce their food (Schönfeldt
& Pretorius, 2011). Particular interest should be
focused on resource-poor rural women as amaranth
will help them fulfil their traditional role of providing
nutritious meals for the family. Commercialization of
amaranth and other ALVs may act as incentives in
attracting women and other vulnerable groups to
the value chain due to the anticipated returns on
investment. For instance, woman dominates amar-
anth production in Nigeria where it substantially con-
tributes to the household finance and nutrition
(Ogwu, 2020). Household, where women are the
major decision-maker on family spending and
upkeep, tend to better off nutritionally, health-wise
and in general well-being (Gotor et al., 2013). Inter-
ventions geared towards upscaling amaranth
9
production in South Africa should be gender-respon-
sive to prevent the selection of the best-off household
in the locality. This is true of households that are vul-
nerable like female-headed households or families
with AIDS and orphans. Their peculiar challenges
may hinder them from partaking in some
facilities available in their locality (Jaenicke & Leng-
keek, 2006).
Maunder and Meaker (2007) suggested the need
for combined efforts among nutritionists and veg-
etable producers in promoting the utilization of amar-
anth and some other underutilized vegetables.
Awareness should also be created among pregnant
and nursing mothers who attend clinics, school chil-
dren and the entire population.
Future research on amaranth in South Africa
should address the issue of intensive cropping,
nutrient, and water requirements to increase pro-
ductivity both in research and farmers plot in all
agro-ecologies. Research should also be geared
towards processing and value addition of amaranth
vegetable to meet the demand of the elites and
urban dwellers. Finding innovative ways of including
amaranth into mainstream agriculture will assist it in
measuring up with other conventional vegetables
and at the same time meet the envisaged increase
in demand of this vegetable by both rural and
urban dwellers.
8. Conclusion
Food and nutritional insecurity in South Africa can be
reduced by motivating communities to increase their
consumption of ALVs like amaranth. Consumption
and utilization are key issues that will determine the
production of amaranth in South Africa. With
increased awareness, there will be increased con-
sumption which will lead to increased demand. This
increased demand will drive large-scale commercial
production. It could also be an incentive for women
and rural farmers to increase their income streams.
However, if amaranth production is encouraged
along with its consumption, it could become an
attractive alternative to some exotic vegetables
which could improve the nutrition of the impover-
ished persons in the country.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
10 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA
Funding
This work was supported by National Research Foundation,
South Africa [UID 132595, UID 123634].
Notes on contributors
Obianuju Chiamaka is a Research officer at the National Horti-
cultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria. She is currently a
post-doctoral fellow at Food Safety and Security Niche Area at
the North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa.
She holds a master degree from the University of Ibadan and
a PhD from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Tech-
nology, Kumasi, Ghana. Obianuju has worked as an Intern with
the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan. Her research
interest is in the development of soil fertility improvement strat-
egies for the production of African Leafy green vegetables
through on station and participatory on farm experimentation.
It involves the optimization of the benefits from all possible
sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an
integrated manner.
Olubukola Oluranti Babalola is a Professor of Microbiology and
the principal Investigator: Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory,
North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa. She is
a National Research Foundation (South Africa) rated established
scientist. She had postdoctoral experiences from Weizmann
Institute of Science, Israel and the University of the Western
Cape, South Africa. Babalola is a trainer of trainees and many
postgraduate students have graduated under her mentorship.
She is the Vice President for OWSD, the Director of the Food
Security and Safety Niche Area, and previous HOD at the
North-West University, South Africa. Her research interest is in
Plant-Microbe interactions. Babalola leads a research team of
over a dozen scholars from different tribes and tongues. She is
into a prolific career with research outputs. She enjoys inter-
national collaborations, research grants and many awards.
ORCID
Obianuju Chiamaka Emmanuel http://orcid.org/0000-0001-
7557-1981
Olubukola Oluranti Babalola http://orcid.org/0000-0003-
4344-1909
References
Achigan-Dako, E. G., Pasquini, M. W., Assogba Komlan, F.,
N’danikou, S., Yédomonhan, H., Dansi, A., & Ambrose-Oji, B.
(2010). Traditional vegetables in Benin Institut National des
Recherches Agricoles du Bénin, Imprimeries du CENAP,
Cotonou.
Achigan-Dako, E. G., Sogbohossou, O. E., & Maundu, P. (2014).
Current knowledge on Amaranthus spp.: Research avenues
for improved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths
in sub-Saharan Africa. Euphytica, 197(3), 303–317. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10681-014-1081-9
Afari-Sefa, V., Tenkouano, A., Ojiewo, C. O., Keatinge, J., &
Hughes, J. D. A. (2012). Vegetable breeding in Africa:
Constraints, complexity and contributions toward achieving
food and nutritional security. Food Security, 4(1), 115–127.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0158-8
Alegbejo, J. O. (2013). Nutritional value and utilization of
Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.) – a review. Bayero Journal of
Pure and Applied Sciences, 6(1), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.
4314/bajopas.v6i1.27
Alemayehu, F. R., Bendevis, M. A., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2015). The
potential for utilizing the seed crop amaranth (Amaranthus
spp.) in East Africa as an alternative crop to support food
security and climate change mitigation. Journal of
Agronomy and Crop Science, 201(5), 321–329. https://doi.
org/10.1111/jac.12108
Ali, M. B., Khandaker, L., & Oba, S. (2009). Comparative study on
functional components, antioxidant activity and color par-
ameters of selected colored leafy vegetables as affected by
photoperiods. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment,
7(3–4), 392–398.
Andersen, P. (2012). Challenges for under-utilized crops illus-
trated by ricebean (Vigna umbellata) in India and Nepal.
International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 10(2),
164–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2012.674401
Aremu, B. R., & Babalola, O. O. (2015). Classification and taxon-
omy of vegetable macergens. Frontiers in Microbiology, 6,
1361. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01361
Biel, W., Jendrzejczak, E., Jaroszewska, A., Witkowicz, R.,
Piątkowska, E., & Telesiński, A. (2017). Nutritional content
and antioxidant properties of selected species of
Amaranthus L. Italian Journal of Food Science, 29(4). https://
doi.org/10.14674/IJFS-712
Bvenura, C., & Afolayan, A. J. (2015). The role of wild vegetables
in household food security in South Africa: A review. Food
Research International, 76, 1001–1011. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodres.2015.06.013
DAFF. (2014). Amaranthus: Production guideline. Department of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of South Africa.
Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.daff.gov.za/Daffweb3/
Portals/0/Brochures%20and%20Production%20guidelines/
AMARANTH%20PRODUTION%20GUIDELINES%202014.pdf
Ebert, A. W., Wu, T.-H., & Wang, S.-T. (2011). Vegetable amaranth
(Amaranthus L.) AVRDC Publ:9.
FAO I, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. (2017). The State of Food Security
and Nutrition in the World. FAO, Rome.
Germishuizen, G., Meyer, N., Steenkamp, Y., & Keith, M. (2006). A
checklist of South African plants. Southern African Botanical
Diversity Network Report No. 41. Pretoria: SABONET.
Gerrano, A. S., van Rensburg, W. S. J., & Adebola, P. O. (2015).
Genetic diversity of Amaranthus species in South Africa.
South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 32(1), 39–46. https://
doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2014.973069
Gillespie, S., & van den Bold, M. (2017). Agriculture, food
systems, and nutrition: Meeting the challenge. Global
Challenges, 1(3), 1600002. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.
201600002
Gogo, E. O., Opiyo, A., Ulrichs, C., & Huyskens-Keil, S. (2018). Loss
of African indigenous leafy vegetables along the supply chain
international. Journal of Vegetable Science, 24(4), 361–382.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19315260.2017.1421595
Gotor, E., Caracciolo, F., Canto, G. M. B., & Al Nusairi, M. (2013).
Improving rural livelihoods through the conservation and
use of underutilized species: Evidence from a community
research project in Yemen. International Journal of
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
Agricultural Sustainability, 11(4), 347–362. https://doi.org/10.
1080/14735903.2013.796173
Gruère, G., Giuliani, A., & Smale, M. (2006). Marketing
underutilized plant species for the benefit of the poor: A concep-
tual framework. International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI).
Hendriks, S. L., Viljoen, A., Marais, D., Wenhold, F., McIntyre, A.,
Ngidi, M., Van der Merwe, C., Annandale, J., Kalaba, M., &
Stewart, D. (2016). The current rain-fed and irrigated pro-
duction of food crops and its potential to meet the all-year-
round nutritional requirements of rural poor people in North
West, Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape, A
report to the Water Research Commission Institute for
Food, Nutrition and Well-being, University of Pretoria,
Pretoria.
Jaenicke, H., & Lengkeek, A. (2006). Marketing the products of
underutilized crops-challenges and opportunities for pro-
poor economic development. XXVII International
Horticultural Congress-IHC2006: International Symposium on
Cultivation and Utilization of Asian, 770(9), 87–94. https://
doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2008.770.9
Jiménez-Aguilar, D. M., & Grusak, M. A. (2017). Minerals, vitamin
C, phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of
Amaranthus leafy vegetables. Journal of Food Composition
and Analysis, 58, 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.
01.005
Jimoh, M. O., Afolayan, A. J., & Lewu, F. B. (2018). Suitability of
Amaranthus species for alleviating human dietary
deficiencies. South African Journal of Botany, 115, 65–73.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2018.01.004
Keatinge, J., Yang, R.-Y., Hughes, J., Easdown, W., & Holmer, R.
(2011). The importance of vegetables in ensuring both food
and nutritional security in attainment of the millennium
development goals. Food Security, 3(4), 491–501. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s12571-011-0150-3
Lenné, J., & Ward, A. (2010). Improving the efficiency of domestic
vegetable marketing systems in East Africa: Constraints and
opportunities. Outlook on Agriculture, 39(1), 31–40. https://
doi.org/10.5367/000000010791169952
Mabhaudhi, T., Chimonyo, V. G., & Modi, A. T. (2017). Status of
underutilised crops in South Africa: Opportunities for devel-
oping research capacity. Sustainability, 9(9), 1569. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su9091569
Mabhaudhi, T., O’Reilly, P., Walker, S., & Mwale, S. (2016).
Opportunities for underutilised crops in Southern Africa’s
post–2015 development agenda. Sustainability, 8(4), 302.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su8040302
Mabhaudhi, T., Chibarabada, T. P., Chimonyo, V. G. P., Murugani,
V. G., Pereira, L. M., Sobratee, N., & Modi, A. T. (2019).
Mainstreaming underutilized indigenous and traditional
crops into food systems: A South African perspective.
Sustainability, 11(1), 172. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010172
Mampholo, B. M., Sivakumar, D., & Thompson, A. K. (2016).
Maintaining overall quality of fresh traditional leafy veg-
etables of Southern Africa during the postharvest chain.
Food Reviews International, 32(4), 400–416. https://doi.org/
10.1080/87559129.2015.1094817
Maseko, I., Beletse, Y. G., Nogemane, N., Du Plooy, C., &
Mabhaudhi, T. (2015). Growth, physiology and yield
responses of Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius and
Vigna unguiculata to plant density under drip-irrigated
11
commercial production. South African Journal of Plant and
Soil, 32(2), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2014.
994142
Maseko, I., Mabhaudhi, T., Tesfay, S., Araya, H. T., Fezzehazion,
M., & Plooy, C. P. D. (2018). African leafy vegetables: A
review of status, production and utilization in South
Africa. Sustainability, 10(2), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su10010016
Mathe, S. (2014). A comparative study of antioxidant potentials
of some leafy vegetables: Emphasis on African leafy veg-
etable and exotic vegetables.
Maunder, E., & Meaker, J. (2007). The current and potential con-
tribution of home-grown vegetables to diets in South Africa.
Water SA, 33(3), 401–406. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v33i3.
180610
Mavengahama, S., McLachlan, M., & De Clercq, W. (2013). The
role of wild vegetable species in household food security
in maize based subsistence cropping systems. Food
Security, 5(2), 227–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-
013-0243-2
Mavengahama, S. (2013). The contribution of indigenous veg-
etables to food security and nutrition within selected sites
in South Africa. A dissertation presented for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch
University.
Mbwambo, O., Abukutsa-Onyango, M., Dinssa, F., & Ojiewo, C.
(2015). Performances of elite amaranth genotypes in grain
and leaf yields in Northern Tanzania. Journal of Horticulture
and Forestry, 7(2), 16–23. https://doi.org/10.5897/JHF2014.
0377
Mchiza, Z. J., Steyn, N. P., Hill, J., Kruger, A., Schönfeldt, H., Nel, J.,
& Wentzel-Viljoen, E. (2015). A review of dietary surveys in the
adult South African population from 2000 to 2015. Nutrients,
7(9), 8227–8250. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7095389
Modi, A. T. (2007). Growth temperature and plant age influence
on nutritional quality of Amaranthus leaves and seed germi-
nation capacity. Water SA, 33(3), 369–376. https://doi.org/10.
4314/wsa.v33i3.180598
Muriuki, E. N., Sila, D. N., & Onyango, A. (2014). Nutritional diver-
sity of leafy amaranth species grown in Kenya. Journal of
Applied Biosciences, 79(1), 6818–6825. https://doi.org/10.
4314/jab.v79i1.9
Nyathi, M., Annandale, J., Beletse, Y., Beukes, D., Du Plooy, C.,
Pretorius, B., & Van Halsema, G. (2016). Nutritional water pro-
ductivity of traditional vegetable crops. Water Research
Commission. Pretoria.
Nyathi, M., Van Halsema, G., Beletse, Y., Annandale, J., & Struik, P.
(2018). Nutritional water productivity of selected leafy veg-
etables. Agricultural Water Management, 209, 111–122.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.07.025
Odhav, B., Beekrum, S., Akula, U., & Baijnath, H. (2007).
Preliminary assessment of nutritional value of traditional
leafy vegetables in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of
Food Composition and Analysis, 20(5), 430–435. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jfca.2006.04.015
Oelofse, A., & van Averbeke, W. (2012). Nutritional Value and
Water Use of African Leafy Vegetables for Improved
Livelihoods; WRC Project No K5/1579.
Ogwu, M. C. (2020). Value of Amaranthus [L.] species in Nigeria.
In Nutritional value of amaranth (Vol. 86990, p. 22).
IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86990
12 O. C. EMMANUEL AND O. O. BABALOLA
Onyango, C. (2010). Preharvest and postharvest factors affecting
yield and nutrient contents of vegetable amaranth (Var.
Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Wageningen University.
Orona-Tamayo, D., & Paredes-López, O. (2017). Amaranth Part 1
– Sustainable crop for the 21st century: Food properties and
nutraceuticals for improving human health. In Nadathur S. R.
& Wanasundara J. P. D. (Eds.), Sustainable protein sources (pp.
239–256). San Diego: Academic Press.
Oyedeji, S., Animasaun, D. A., Bello, A. A., & Agboola, O. O. (2014).
Effect of NPK and poultry manure on growth, yield, and prox-
imate composition of three amaranths. Journal of Botany,
2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/828750
Oyelola, O., Banjoko, I., & Ajioshin, I. (2014). Nutritional content
of common Amaranthus hybridus vegetable (Efo Tete) in
Nigeria (828.4). The FASEB Journal, 28(1), 828. doi:10.5707/
cjapplsci.2015.10.2.11.16
Rahman, A., & Gulshana, M. I. A. (2014). Taxonomy and medicinal
uses on amaranthaceae family of Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 2(2), 54–59.
https://doi.org/10.12691/aees-2-2-3
Ramdwar, M. N., Chadee, S. T., & Stoute, V. A. (2017). Estimating
the potential consumption level of amaranth for food secur-
ity initiatives in Trinidad, West indies. Cogent Food &
Agriculture, 3(1), 1321475. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.
2017.1321475
Sarker, U., Islam, M. T., Rabbani, M. G., & Oba, S. (2018a).
Phenotypic divergence in vegetable amaranth for total anti-
oxidant capacity, antioxidant profile, dietary fiber, nutritional
and agronomic traits Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica. Section
B—Soil & Plant Science, 68, 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09064710.2017.1367029
Sarker, U., Islam, M. T., Rabbani, M. G., & Oba, S. (2018b).
Variability in total antioxidant capacity, antioxidant leaf pig-
ments and foliage yield of vegetable amaranth. Journal of
Integrative Agriculture, 17(5), 1145–1153. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S2095-3119(17)61778-7
Sarker, U., Islam, T., Rabbani, G., & Oba, S. (2018c). Antioxidant
leaf pigments and variability in vegetable amaranth.
Genetika, 50(1), 209–220. https://doi.org/10.2298/
GENSR1801209S
Sarker, U., & Oba, S. (2019). Antioxidant constituents of three
selected red and green color Amaranthus leafy vegetable.
Scientific Reports, 9 (18233), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41598-019-52033-8
Schönfeldt, H., & Pretorius, B. (2011). The nutrient content of
five traditional South African dark green leafy vegetables –
A preliminary study. Journal of Food Composition and
Analysis, 24(8), 1141–1146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.
2011.04.004
Senyolo, G. M., Wale, E., & Ortmann, G. F. (2018). Analysing the
value chain for African leafy vegetables in Limpopo
Province. South Africa Cogent Social Sciences, 4(1), 1509417.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2018.1509417
Shisana, O., Labadarios, D., Rehle, T., Simbayi, L., Zuma, K.,
Dhansay, A., Reddy, P., Parker, W., Hoosain, E., Naidoo, P., &
Hongoro, C. (2014). The South African National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey, 2012: SANHANES-1: The
health and nutritional status of the nation.
Stevens, G. A., Bennett, J. E., Hennocq, Q., Lu, Y., De-Regil, L. M.,
Rogers, L., Danaei, G., Li, G., White, R. A., Flaxman, S. R., &
Oehrle, S. P. (2015). Trends and mortality effects of vitamin
A deficiency in children in 138 low-income and middle-
income countries between 1991 and 2013: A pooled analysis
of population-based surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 3(9),
e528–e536. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00039-X
Steyn, N., Olivier, J., Winter, P., Burger, S., & Nesamvuni, C. (2001). A
survey of wild, Green, leafy vegetables and their potential in
combating micronutrient deficiencies in rural populations:
Research in action. South African Journal of Science, 97 (7),
276–278. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC97355
Traoré, K., Parkouda, C., Savadogo, A., Ba/Hama, F., Kamga, R., &
Traoré, Y. (2017). Effect of processing methods on the nutritional
content of three traditional vegetables leaves: Amaranth, black
nightshade and jute mallow. Food Science and Nutrition, 5(6),
1139–1144. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.504
Ullah, I., Gul, S., Rehman, H. U., Ahmad, N., Ullah, I., Aziz-ud-Din, S.
M. J., Ali, J., Ahmad, A., & Akbar, M. U. (2017). Analysis of nutri-
ents and minerals of some wild edible plants international.
Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies, 4(6), 35–39.
Van der Merwe, J. D., Cloete, P. C., & Van der Hoeven, M. (2016).
Promoting food security through indigenous and
traditional food crops. Agroecology and Sustainable Food
Systems, 40(8), 830–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.
2016.1159642
Van Jaarsveld, P., Faber, M., Van Heerden, I., Wenhold, F., van
Rensburg, W. J., & Van Averbeke, W. (2014). Nutrient
content of eight African leafy vegetables and their potential
contribution to dietary reference intakes. Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis, 33(1), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jfca.2013.11.003
Van Rensburg, W. J., Van Averbeke, W., Slabbert, R., Faber, M.,
Van Jaarsveld, P., Van Heerden, I., Wenhold, F., & Oelofse, A.
(2007). African leafy vegetables in South Africa. Water SA,
33(3), 317–326. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v33i3.180589
Vivian, F. B., Amfo, B. A.-H. A., & Yeboah, O. B. (2016). Do market-
ing margins determine local leafy vegetables marketing in
the Tamale Metropolis? African Journal of Business
Management, 10(5), 98. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM2015.
7978
von Grebmer, K., Saltzman, A., Birol, E., Wiesman, D., Prasai, N.,
Yin, S., Yohannes, Y., Menon, P., Thompson, J., & Sonntag,
A. (2014). 2014 Global Hunger Index: The challenge of
hidden hunger IFPRI books.
Vorster, H., Jansen van Rensburg, W., Van Zijl, J., & Van Den
Heever, E. (2002). Germplasm management of African leafy
vegetables for the nutritional and food security needs of vul-
nerable groups in South Africa Progress Report ARC-VOPI,
Pretoria, South Africa 130.
Wolosik, K., & Markowska, A. (2019). Amaranthus cruentus taxon-
omy, Botanical description, and review of its seed chemical
composition. Natural Product Communications, 14(5)),
1934578X19844141