CHEMISTRY REVISION NOTES
copper(II) sulphate crystals
Elements – made up only one type of
atom. E.g. Sodium, Iron
- cannot be broken down into any simpler
substances by chemical methods.
Compounds – made up of two or more
types of atom combined together by
chemical methods. E.g. water, carbon
dioxide, CO2
- can be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical methods.
Mixtures – made up of two or more
constituents which can be separated by
physical methods. E.g. air
Alloy – mixtures of a metal and one or
more other elements. E.g. brass, steel
- prevents layer form sliding over one
another and thus strengthens the metal.
Mild steel – will rust can be bend.
High carbon- brittle.
Stainless steel – resistant to corrosion.
Pure substance has a fixed melting point
and boiling point.
Presence of impurities lowers its melting
point and raises its boiling point.
Chromatography – separate colours.
If sample is pure, only one spot will be
seen on the chromatogram.
If sample is impure, more than one spot
will be seen.
Solute – substance that dissolves in a
liquid. (e.g. sugar)
Solvent – the liquid which dissolves the
solute. (e.g. water)
Solution – formed when solute dissolves
in a solvent. (e.g. sugar solution)
Solute + solvent  solution
Crystallization – process by which
crystals are obtained from a saturated
solution. E.g.
from copper(II) sulphate solution.
Distillation – process by which the solvent
is obtained from a solution.
E.g. pure water from sea water
Fractional distillation – obtain pure
liquids from a mixture of liquids with
different boiling points. E.g. petrol from
crude oil.
Particle Mass Charg
e
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1840 -1
For neutral atoms,
Proton no = electron no
For ions,
Proton no ≠ electron no
Nucleon no = proton no + neutron no
Isotopes – different atoms of the same
elements with the same no of protons but a
different no of neutrons.
Isotopes have the same chemical
properties because they have same no of
electrons.
Elements in the same group have the same
no of valency electrons(outer electrons).
Elements in the same period have the
same no of electron shells.
Ionic compunds – formed when metals
react with non-metals.
Metals formed ions when losing electrons
become +ve ions.
Non-metals formed ions when gaining
electrons become -ve ions.
Ions in ionic solids are held together by a
strong electrostatic force of attractions,
they are not free to move about.
Ionic compounds – high melting points
and boiling points, non-volatile, soluble in
water, insoluble in organic solvents and
conduct electricity when melted or
dissolved in water.
Covalent compounds – formed by
sharing of electrons between non-metals
and non-metals.
Covalent compounds do not contains
ions.
Covalent compounds – low melting points
and boiling points, volatile, insoluble in
water, soluble in organic solvents and do
not conduct electricity when melted.
The relative atomic mass – the average
mass of an atom of the element when
compared with the mass of an atom of the
carbon-12 isotope.
The relative molecular mass – the average
mass of one molecule of it when compared
with the mass of an atom of the carbon-12
isotope.
Relative molecular mass – sum of relative
atomic mass of all atoms in the substance.
Oxygen – 21%
Test – Glowing splint
Result – Relights glowing splint
Use- on welding and cutting metals.
Carbon dioxide – 0.03%
Test – limewater
Result – turns milky
Hydrogen
Test- burning splint
Result – ‘pop’ sound
Use – manufacture of ammonia,
manufacture of margarine, fuel for
rockets.
To make ammonia (NH3):
Temperature – 500OC
Pressure- 200-500 atm
Catalyst – Fe(iron)
Use of ammonia – fertilizers ( eg
ammonium sulphate & ammonium nitrate)
Pollutants – harmful substance in the air.
Carbon monoxide – incomplete
combustion of compounds containing
carbon, especially car exhausts. It is
poisonous
Sulphur dioxide – combustion of coal and
fuels which contain sulphur compounds,
volcanic eruptions.
It forms acid rain – erosion of buildings,
kill plants
Oxides of nitrogen – combustion of
nitrogen in motor vehicles. It cause acid
rain and damage to the lung.
Lead compounds – car exhaust. It cause
damage to the nervous system, kidneys and
heart.
Smoke and soot – car exhausts, burning
Basic oxides – oxides of metals.
Acidic oxides – oxides of non-metals.
Amphoteric oxides – oxides of aluminum,
lead and zinc.
Combustion – burning of substance in the
air(oxygen).
Conditions for rusting:
1. water 2. Oxygen
To prevent rusting:
- painting, oiling and greasing, tin plating,
chromium plating, galvanizing with zinc,
making stainless steel.
Oxidation- substance gains oxygen during
the reaction.
Reduction – substance loss oxygen during
the reaction.
Universal indicator – green colour
Acids: (contain hydrogen ions, H+)
- have sour taste, turns blue litmus paper
red, PH < 7, turns universal indicator red.
- metals + acid  metal salts + hydrogen
- acid + carbonates  metal salts +
carbon dioxide + water
- acid + hydroxides  metal salts + - density increases
water - reactivity increases
Alkalis: (contain hydroxide ions, OH-) Group 7 (halogen)
- soapy feeling, turn red litmus paper blue, - non-metals
PH > 7, turns universal indicator blue. - low mp and bp
- alkali + ammonium salts  ammonia - negatively charged ions
gas + salts + water
- acids + alkalis  salts + water Trend down the Group 7:
- bp and mp increase
Metals: - colour deepens.
- solid, shiny, sonorous, ductile, malleable, Fluorine-pale yellow
strong, good conductor of heat and Chlorine-greenish yellow
electricity, high density, high melting and Bromine-reddish brown
boiling point. Iodine-black.
- metals + water  metal hydroxide + - density increases
hydrogen - reactivity decreases.

Most reactive Displacement reaction : a more reactive

least halogen will displace a less reactive
reactive halogen.
Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, Eg. Fluorine + potassium iodide 
aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper, silver, potassium fluoride + iodine
gold
Group 8/0 (noble gases / inert gases)
Aluminium- unreactive because it forms a - all gases
layer of oxide which prevent reaction take - unreactive (stable and complete outer
place. shell electrons)

Trend down Group 8/0:

- mp and bp increase
Raw materials of extraction of iron: - density increases
- haematite (iron ore), limestone,
coke(pure carbon) Neon – advertising strips light
Reducing agent – carbon monoxide Argon – fill light bulb
Helium - balloon
Limestone – remove impurities(sand)
Hydrocarbon – substances that contain carbon
Group I (alkali metals) and hydrogen atom only.
- shiny silvery metals, soft, low mp and bp,
Alkanes:
low densities
- carbon-carbon are single bonds.
- react vigorously with water  hydrogen - bp and mp increases as chain length increases
+ metal hydroxide - unreactive
- react with chlorine  metal chlorides - burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
- form positively charged ions water vapour (combustion)

To separate petroleum into fractions by fractional

Trend down the Group I:
distillation.
- mp and bp decrease Uses of fractions:
Fuel gas – cookers and ovens
Petrol – fuel for cars
Paraffin(kerosene) – fuel for jet engines
Diesel oil – fuel for diesel engines
Lubricating oil – lubricants for machineries
Bitumen – roads and roofs

Lowest boiling point

Fuel gas
Petrol
Paraffin
Diesel oil
Lubrication oil
Bitumen
Highest boiling point

Alkenes:
- two carbon-carbon atoms are double bond
(unsaturated)
- test with bromine(brown) –decolourise (from
brown to colourless)
- burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
(combustion)
- limited oxygen – form carbon monoxide
(incomplete combustion)
- react with hydrogen to form alkanes. (heat,
nickel-catalyst) (addition reaction)
- react with steam to form alcohols. (300OC,
catalyst- phosphoric acid) (addition reaction)
- react with bromine to form dibromoalkanes
(addition reaction)
- alkenes add to each other to form polymers
- poly(ethane) for making plastics. (addition
reaction)

Polymerization – small molecules(monomer)

join together to form a giant molecules(polymer).

Alcohols:
-OH group
- can be prepared by: addition of steam to ethane,
fermentation of glucose
- burns easily in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water vapour
- it may be oxidized to ethanoic acid by potassium
dichromate
- ethanol- use in wine or beer, fuel, as a solvent