Radiography Inspection

 Background for Non-destructive Examination;

 NDE method
 Three Classic NDE method and its property:
– PT
– MT
– UT
 Gamma Radiography
 Equipment;
 Mode of operation
 Normal gamma source;
 X-Ray Radiography
 Equipment;
 Mode of operation
 Advantages and disadvantages
 X-ray generator and its parameters’
 Sensitivity evaluation
 Films
 Auxiliary facilities
 Exposure technique
 Defects and its image in film
 How to view films
 General Information for NDE

 NDE-Nondestructive examination
 The development and application of technical methods to examine
materials and/or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness
and serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure, interpret and
evaluate flaws.

 NDE method
 RT- radiography (to be introduced in today’s training course)
 UT- Ultrasonics (not introduced in details but roughly);
 MT- Magnetic Particle (introduced roughly in today’s training course);
 PT- Liquid Penetrants (introduced roughly in today’s training course);
 VT – Visual inspection ( introduced roughly in today’s training course);
 LE – Leak Testing (not introduced)
 ET – Electromagnetic ( Eddy Current – not introduced);
 AE – Acoustic Emission (not introduced);
 PT Method
1. Definition
• The liquid penetrant examination methods is an effective means for detecting
discontinuities which are open to the surface of non-porous metals and other
materials. Typical discontinuities detectable by this method are cracks, seams,
laps, cold shuts, laminations, and porosity.
2. Operation process
• In principle, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface to be examined and
allowed too enter discontinuities. All excess penetrant is then removed,the part is
dried, and a developer is applied. The developer functions both as a blotter to
absorb penetrant that has been trapped in discontinuities, and as a contrasting
background to enhance the visibility of penetrant indications. The dyes in
Penetrants are either color contrast (visible under white light) or fluorescent
(visible under ultraviolet light).
3. Techniques
• Either a color contrast (visible) penetrant off a fluorescent penetrant shall be
used with one of the following three penetrant processes:
(a) water washable; (b) post-emulsifying; (c) solvent removable;
• The visible and fluorescent Penetrants used in combination with these three
penetrant processes result in six liquid penetrant techniques.
PT Method
 Solvent removable penetrant method is applied in our project.
 Characteristic of Solvent Removal penetrant method
– Excess solvent removable Penetrants shall be removed by wiping with a
cloth or absorbent paper, repeating the operation until most traces of
penetrant have been removed. The remaining traces shall be removed by
lightly wiping the surface with cloth or absorbent paper moistened with
solvent. To minimize removal of penetrant from discontinuities, care shall
be taken to avoid the use of excess solvent.
 Flushing the surface with solvent, following the application of the
penetrant and prior to developing, is prohibited.
 Key point for PT process
– Penetrant material ( Penetrant material include the solvent, penetrant, and
developer; material from different family cant be used together)
– Ambient temperature ( means temperature of items to be inspected and of
penetrant materials);
– Dwelling time ( dwelling time is qualified by comparator);
– Surface pre-requisites ( surface condition could stop penetrant material trapping
into concavities, like grease, oil; and flux, blur etc will make indications ’
interpretation difficult);
Linear indication detected out by PT

 The linear indication detected out

in Liquid penetrant comparator;

 Liquid penetrant comparator is

used to qualify the procedure at
different temperature range.

 To find out the right time for

dwelling process, developing
process, and operation skill of
inspectors;
 Magnetic Powder Examination
1. The method may be applied to detect cracks and other discontinuities on
or near the surfaces of ferromagnetic materials. the sensitivity is greatest
for surface discontinuities and diminishes rapidly with increasing depth
of subsurface discontinuities below the surface.

2. In principle, the method involves magnetizing an area to be examined,

and applying ferromagnetic particles (the examinations medium) to the
surface. The particles will form patterns on the surface where cracks and
other discontinuities cause distortions in the normal magnetic field. The
patterns are usually characteristic of the type of discontinuity that is
detected.

3. Maximum sensitivity will be to linear discontinuities oriented

perpendicular to the lines of flux no matter which technique is used to
produce the magnetic flux in the part.

4. For optimum effectiveness in detecting all types of discontinuities, each

interest area should be examined at least twice, with the lines of flux
during one examination approximately perpendicular to the lines of flux
during the other.
Left：Linear indication of crack close to
surface
Right: Linear indication by MT (prod
technique)
Sketch of Ultrasonic Inspection
 Ultrasonic Examination - UT
 Equipment
Main unit containing pulse generator, display oscilloscope, probe (chosen
too be suit work);
 Mode of operation
A pulse of electrical energy is fed to the probe in which a piezo-electric
crystal converts it to mechanical vibrations at an ultrasonic frequency.
The vibrations are transmitted (via a layer off grease to exclude the air)
through the work: if they encounter a defect some are reflected back to
the probe, where they regenerate an electrical signal. A cathode ray
tubes trace is started when the original signal is sent, displays the
reflected signal, and from it time, indicating distance from probe, and
amplitude, indicating defect size, can be calculated.
 Materials:
Most metal, except those with coarse or varying grain structure.
Sketch for UT
Sketch of Gamma Radiography
Gamma Radiography
 Equipment for Gamma
Radiography
– Radioactive isotope in storage
container
– Remote handling gear
– Lightproof cassette
– Photographic development
facilities
– Darkroom and illuminator for
assessment
 Gamma Radiography
 Model of operation
– Gamma-rays, similar to X-rays, but of shorter wavelength are emitted
continuously from the isotope:it cannot be “switched off”, so that when
not in use it is kept in a have storage container which absorbs radiation.
– Gamma Ray pass through the work to be inspected. Parts of the work
presenting less obstruction to gamma-rays such as cavities or
inclusions,, allow increased exposure of the film. The film is developed
to form a radiography with cavities or inclusions indicated by darker
images. Section thickness increases (such as weld) appear as less dense
images.
– Normal isotope: Co-60,Cs-137, Ir-192, Tm-170,Se-75;
– In China, Ir-192 is used often because of its sensibility the thickness
ranges from 12.5mm to 62.5mm;
 Normal Gamma Source

Gamma Co-60 Cs-137 Ir-192 Tm-170 Se-75

source cobalt cesium iridium thulium selenium

0.30/0.31/0.32
Energy/Mev 1.17/1.33 0.66
/0.47;
0.052/0.084 0.18~0.4

Half Life 5.3 year 33 year 74 days 128 days 120 days

Thickness
40~200mm 25~90mm 20~100 <=5mm 10~40
(mm)
 X-Ray Radiography
 Equipments for X-ray inspection
– x-ray tube;
– Stand control gear;
– Light-proof cassette;
– Photographic development facilities;
– Dark room and illumination for assessment.

 Mode of operation
– X-rays are emitted from the tube and pass through the work to be
inspected, parts of the work presenting less obstruction to X-rays, such
as cavities or inclusions, allow increased exposure of the film. The film
is developed to form a radiograph with cavities or inclusions indicated
by darker images. Section thickness increases (such as weld under
bead) appear as less dense images.
 Materials
– Most weld able metals may be inspected
 X-ray Radiography

 Overall advantages
– Accurate pictorial presentation of results;
– Radiographs may be kept as a permanent record
– Not confined to welds
 Overall Limitations
– Personnel must be clear of area during exposure;
– Cracks parallel to film may not show up;
– Film expensive;
– Personnel is required to have enough knowledge;
– Depth of flaw can not be confirmed;
– Sketch of X-Ray Inspection
 Details for RT Equipment

1. X-ray Generator
 X-ray Tube : One tube vacuumed
to 1.33 * 10-3 to 10 –5 Pa.
 Transformer : to offer high
voltage for tube to accelerate
particles emitted from cathode;
 Cooling system: to reduce the
heat caused by collision of
electronics;
 Control Panel: to adjust tube
voltage, exposure time, power
button, etc.

2. Sketch of X-ray tube

 Parameters for Expouring technique
 Tube voltage:
– The change the tube voltage would affect the x-ray articles’
articles’ energy, so
the thickness to exposured is limited;
 Tube current (A):
– Tube current describes the quantity of electronics emitted by cathode,
which will affect the expouring time;
– For some X-ray equipments, tube current is set and as feature of
equipment itself, operator cant make any change on it.
 Time:
– Expouring time is combined with tube current and described as A *Min,
but could be set in Control panel.
 Focus size
– -X-ray Source with smaller focus size would make image in the films
clear and can improve the image quality.
 Other instruments in RT -IQI
 Image quality indicator (IQI):
 IQI is a tool to evaluate the effectiveness of exposure technique system,
and has same function like sample block in PT and MT.
 IQI image indicates the minimum defect whichever RT technique can
detect out; “defect” herein means image of some a defect instead of real
defect.
 IQI is used to evaluate sensitivity
 Sw=(d/T)*100%
– Sw : Sensitivity;
– d: the minimal diameter of wire indicated in film;
– T: thickness X-ray pass through (including thickness of
reinforcement);
 IQI type
 Normally two types of IQI are used in pipe weld inspection- wire type and
hole type;
 As per GB 4730-2005, only wire type IQI is used;
 The relationship between Hole type and Wire type IQI:
EPS- Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity
 How to Valuate the Sensitivity with IQI
Step 1: To know which side the IQI is placed : source side or film side;
 IQI is placed on the film side only when Source side is inaccessible;
 Step 2: to know the exposure technique ( single wall or double wall)
 Step 3: To know the requirement on image quality
 In China, normally three levels: A, AB, B; For piping system, AB is
mandatory.
 Grade B means higher image quality;
 Step 4: To know of the nominal thickness or exposured thickness;
 Step 5: To find out which wire shall be indicated in the film as per
the table in Code;
 Step 6: To check the visible wire in film and compare with the
required: the visible wire in Film shall be thinner than the required
or equal;
Attention: IQI is necessary factor to evaluate the image
quality instead of the one only.
 Industrial Films
ASTM E1815-
KODAK AGFA FUJI EN584-1 ISO 11699-1
96
DR50 D2 IX25 C1 Special T1

M100 D3 IX50 C2 Type I T1

MX125 D4 IX50 or IX80 C3 Type I T2

T200 D5 无 C4 Type I T2

AA400 D7 IX100 C5 Type II T3

CX D8 IX150 C6 Type III T4

SR45 D3SC - - Special -

- F8 IX29 - WA-A -

- D6 - - WA-B -
 Other Facilities for RT
 Intensifying Screen:
– Screen could be used or not to reduce expouring time by absorbing articles.
– And also another function of screen can screen out the articles with limit
energy and make image sharp;
– The scratch in the screen could have its image in the film which have side
effect on interpretation and evaluation of processed films;
 Density Meter
– A device to measure hard density of exposured films; the device shall be
calibrated with standard density film.
 Viewing facilities
– Viewing facilities shall provide subdued background lighting of an intensity
that will not cause troublesome reflections, shadows, or glare on the
radiography. And a variable light source for the essential IQI wire to be visible
shall be provided;
 Cassette
– Cassette is used to hold films before being exposured, it shall be closed tighten
enough so that no exposure by sunlight. And also one B sign is attached on to
be an indicator for back Scattering, which could reduce the contrast and make
boundary of image obscure.
Layout of Radioactive Examination - General
 Radiography Technique
 Single wall technique has the priority and double wall technique could be
used in case single wall method is impossible ；
 The radiation shall be vertical to the interest area and centered, in special
case the direction could be adjusted to detect more defects.
 The calculation of quantity for circufential butt welds
– To know of the requirement on image quality (A, AB or B, so the “k” value
could be decided, K<=1.1 for pipe with AB grade);
– To Know the exposure technique (layout of source, film, piece);
– To get the information bout specimen such as diameter, thickness, distance
between source and top of sample, and focus size);
– To make calculation;
– To check the diagram in Code as per the calculated data (see next page pls).
 Factor affecting exposure
– The right exposure data could be checked with the processed film with
high contrast, sharpness, density; ；
– Tube voltage, time, geography conditions;
Exposure Technique

 Central method :single wall and

single view; All welds could be
shot one time

 Duble wall and single view: at

least 3 exposures 120 deg to each
other for complete coverage;
Exposure Technique

 single wall and single image –

applicable longitudinal welds and
circufential welds in pipe (source
outside)

 single wall and single image –

applicable longitudinal welds and
circufential welds in pipe (source
inside);
Exposure Technique

 Double wall and single view

– at least 3 shots at 120
degree to each other for
complete coverage;

 Double wall and single view

method for longitudinal
welds in pipe
Exposure Technique

 Ellipse method- double wall and

double view;applicable to tube
with 3.5 inch and less, and at least
2 shots at 90 degree to each other
for complete coverage;

 Double wall and single view: At

least 3 exposures 120 degree to
each other for complete coverage;
 Normal welding defects
1) Crack – Longitudinal crack, transverse crack , crater crack, toe cracks,
and under bead cracks;
2) Lack of fusion - The defect could be distributed at the root, bevel surface
and beads to each other;
3) Lack of penetration – occurred at the root, but not all welds is required to
be complete penetration, it could be not regarded as defect in some case;
4) Inclusion
5) Tungsten Inclusive
6) Porosity
7) Undercut
8) Insufficient reinforcement;
9) overlap;
10) Internal concavity;
11) Excessive penetrant;
12) Excessive reinforcement;
13) Arc Strike;
14) Spatter;
15) Lamination;
 Cracks

 Longitudinal crack, transverse crack , crater crack, toe cracks, and under
bead cracks; also cold crack and hot crack;

 Probable Cause:
– Incorrect electrode
– High restrain of joint
– Rapid cooling of weld
– Improper joint preparation
– Fillet weld longitudinal crack
– Unfilled crater
– Carter crack in sub-merged arc welding;
Crack
Crack
Crack’s indication in film
Lack of Fusion
 Lack of fusion is a very common type f weld defects,
with lack of fusion means an area without sufficient
mechanical binding between weld metal and base
metal;
 Probable cause: Insufficient welding current,
insufficient bevel processing, too long weld
arc, improper fit-up, fast welding speed,
electrode too large for joint detail, etc.
 Lack of fusion are usually not acceptable weld defects, as
they are characterized as planar defects and treated in the
same way as cracks. Use of fracture mechanics may, if
relevant fracture toughness parameters are available, be used
to evaluate the severity of lack of fusion.
 Lack of fusion is normally not detectable by radiographic
examination, and may often be difficult to detect by
ultrasonic, as the two surfaces are pressed closely together
and reflects only limited amount of ultrasonic waves.
 NDT-delectability:
– Lack of fusion is normally not detectable by radiographic
examination, and may often be difficult to detect by ultrasonic,
as the two surfaces are pressed closely together and reflects only
limited amount of ultrasonic waves.
Lack of fusion
Image of LF
Lack of Penetration

 Incomplete root fusion is when the

weld fails to fuse one side of the joint
in the root. Incomplete root
penetration occurs when both sides of
the joint are unfused.
 Probable cause :
Excessively thick root face
Too small a root gap
Misplaced welds;
Power input too low;
Arc input too low;
Small electrode size
 Lack of penetration could be regarded
as one defect when design shows full
complete penetration weld.
 LP’s Indication in Film

 The linear indication caused by lack of penetration is more straight

than the indication of LF, and normally it occurred at the root
opening area.
 Slag Inclusion
 During the welding process, powdered or granular flux is melted to provide
shielding gasses for the welding arc. As the residue cools, the solids form a glasslike
substance called slag which may be trapped in the weld creating a slag inclusion.
An overall irregular shape is a clue that a slag inclusion is the indication being seen.

 Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between
weld metal and base metal. Slag inclusions are regions within the weld cross section
or at the weld surface where the once-molten flux used to protect the molten metal is
mechanically trapped within the solidified metal. This solidified slag represents a
portion of the weld’s cross-section where the metal is not fused to itself.

 Slag can result in a weakened condition which could impair the serviceability of the
component. Inclusions may also appear at the weld surface. Like incomplete fusion,
slag inclusions can occur between the weld and base metal or between individual
weld passes. In fact, slag inclusions are often associated with incomplete fusion.

 The indication of slag normally is interpreted as linear indication and evaluated by

its dimension in film like porosities.
Indication of slag inclusion
 Porosity
 Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified weld bead.
 Gas could be trapped into the melt metal during welding and cant escape when
solidification.
 These pores may vary in size and are generally distributed in a random manner.
However, it is possible that porosity can only be found at the weld center. Pores can
occur either under or on the weld surface.
 Image of porosity occurred in films show the rounded indication, and the darkness
could be thicker than base material, compared to Slag inclusion, its shape is more
round without tail.
 The most common causes of porosity are atmosphere contamination, excessively
oxidized work piece surfaces, inadequate deoxidizing alloys in the wire and the
presence of foreign matter. Atmospheric contamination can be caused by:
– 1) Inadequate shielding gas flow.
– 2) Excessive shielding gas flow. This can cause aspiration of air into the gas stream.
– 3) Severely clogged gas nozzle or damaged gas supply system (leaking hoses, fittings,
etc.)
– 4) An excessive wind in the welding area. This can blow away the gas shield.
 Pinhole
Image of porosity
Undercut
 Undercut is usually considered as the
worst defect. Undercut is the term given
to a sharp narrow groove along the toe
of the weld due to the scouring action of
the arc removing the metal and not
replacing it with weld metal. It reduces
cross sectional area (and strength) but
more importantly it provides a notch
into the heat affected area of the joint
which will act as a stress raiser and
possible point of crack initiation. This
defect is particularly detrimental in
shafts and beams in rotating or flexing
service, giving rise to fatigue failure.
The causes are usually associated with
incorrect electrode angles, incorrect
weaving technique, excessive current
and too fast travel speed .
Image of undercut in film
 Underfill

 Underfill could be visible if

accessible；
 RT is focused on the defects
inside, like suck back.
Image of underfill
 Excessive Reinforcement (excessive overfill)

 The excess weld metal which stands proud of the surface of

the plate. Excessive reinforcement induces stresses where the
weld meets the parent plate and can lead to cracks forming.
 And also the internal excessive reinforcement reduce the cross
section and will lower the flux.
 Normally the excessive reinforcement is detected out by
visualizing and will not be found out by RT, but for some
welds inaccessible, RT could offer information of back side.
 Image of excessive reinforcement : the image is limited to the
root surface, the defect occurs at the root surface and has a
light image in the film adjacent to root gap.
Indication of excessive reinforcement
 Arc Strike

 Arc strike could be visualized before RT inspection, and the arc strike shall be
ground to remove defects completely;
 Arc Strike occurred when welder ignite arc on the base material, which is
prohibited.
 Arc Strike could produce crack and porosity;
 Films
Cluster porosity
Crack
Excessive reinforcement
External undercut
inadequate reinforcement - underfill
internal undercut
Mismatch（Mismatch or offset
oxide inclusion –embedded;
porosity –embedded
Slag inclusive
Up： interpass cold lap
Down： lack of fusion –embedded or interpass
Suck Back
Tungsten Inclusion
 How to view films interpretation and evaluation

1. To check the image quality

 There should be not any indication interfering with viewing films;
 Film shall has unique identification and location marker.
 The image of IQI shall be visualized and the sensitivity shall be
acceptable.
 The density ( 2.0 ~ 4.0 ) shall be acceptable.
 Film itself shall be rejected and no further work, and then re-shot is
required.
2. To identify the image in the film ( shape, density, location);
3. To sort out the artificial flaw caused by film (the damage in the film
could lead to image like indication of defects.
4. To interpret any indications;
5. To evaluate the indications as per the acceptance criteria (instruction).

End of the training course

Exercise (cancelled)