Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

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Discrete Mathematics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/disc

A class of skew cyclic codes and application in quantum codes

construction
∗
Hai Q. Dinh a,b , Tushar Bag c , , Ashish K. Upadhyay c , Ramakrishna Bandi d ,
Roengchai Tansuchat e
a
Division of Computational Mathematics and Engineering, Institute for Computational Science, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi
Minh City, Viet Nam
b
Faculty of Mathematics and Statistics, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
c
Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Patna 801103, India
d
Department of Mathematics, International Institute of Information Technology Naya Raipur, Atal Nagar 493661, India
e
Centre of Excellence in Econometrics, Faculty of Economics, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 52000, Thailand

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Let p be an odd prime, and k an integer such that k | (p − 1). This paper studies quantum
Received 15 April 2020 F [u]
codes from skew cyclic codes over the ring R = ⟨uk+q1 −u⟩ , where q is a power of the prime
Received in revised form 25 August 2020
Accepted 5 October 2020 p. We construct a set of orthogonal idempotents of the ring R and using the set, skew
Available online 20 October 2020 cyclic codes over the ring R are decomposed as direct sum of skew cyclic codes over
Fq . We obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for a skew cyclic code to contain its
Keywords: dual. As an application, we construct quantum codes from skew cyclic codes over Fq . It
Skew cyclic code
is observed that some quantum codes we constructed are MDS quantum codes.
Quantum codes
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Gray map
Dual Code

1. Introduction

Classical computers work by manipulating bits that exist in one of two states, namely, 0 or 1. Quantum computers are
not just limited to these two states, they are encoded with quantum data in the two conditions of 0 and 1 as quantum
bits, or qubits, which can exist in superposition. That means, the qubits are both 0 and 1 and all points in between,
which are processed at the same time, giving quantum computers the ability of performing many calculations at once.
Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or electrons and their respective control devices that are working together to act
as computer memory and a processor. Since quantum computers can contain these multiple states simultaneously, they
have the potential to be millions of times more powerful than the most powerful classical supercomputers. Quantum
computers will make use of qubits to encode quantum data and figure complex scientific issues utilizing the resources
unique to quantum computers, such as direct access to superposition and entanglement. Using quantum computing, one
can harness the magnificent powers superposition and entanglement to tackle complicated issues that classical computer
systems cannot practically do. The two properties of superposition and entanglement together will empower qubits
to process huge amounts of information at the same time and take care of complex issues. While traditional classical
computer systems would need to arrange and figure out each conceivable arrangement, which may take a huge amount
of time on a massive scale problem, quantum computers can locate every single imaginable variation simultaneously
utilizing superposition and entanglement and move through a lot of information in an altogether limited quantity of

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dinhquanghai@tdtu.edu.vn (H.Q. Dinh), tushar.pma16@iitp.ac.in (T. Bag), upadhyay@iitp.ac.in (A.K. Upadhyay),
ramakrishna@iiitnr.edu.in (R. Bandi), roengchaitan@gmail.com (R. Tansuchat).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.disc.2020.112189
0012-365X/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

time. As a quantum computer has the potential to simulate things that a classical computer could not, quantum computers
outrun the classical computers in their ability to solve complex problems, and the application of error-correcting codes in
quantum computers can be labeled as one of the pivotal reasons for this efficiency. Consequently, it has become evident
that quantum error-correcting codes can protect quantum information investigations, and researches concerning quantum
error-correcting codes have seen a tremendous headway. During the last few years, research on error-correcting codes
has increased in both the public and private sectors. For instance, in October 2019, Google AI, in partnership with the
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), claimed to be able to perform a quantum computation that
is infeasible on any classical computer.
Quantum error-correction is used in quantum computing to protect quantum information from errors which may
occur due to decoherence and other quantum noise. Decoherence can revert a quantum system back to the classical
system through interactions with the environment such as heat, light, sound, vibration, etc., which decay and eliminate
the quantum behavior of particles. In 1995, Shor [66] introduced quantum error-correcting codes for the first time. In the
next year, Steane [68] studied the properties of simple quantum error-correcting codes. However, it was after Calderbank
et al. [19] that the construction of quantum error correcting codes from classical error-correcting codes started evolving
rapidly. Several quantum error-correcting codes were constructed using cyclic codes over finite fields Fq (where q is
a power of prime number) with distinctive orthogonal properties, and as a result, numerous commendably good error
correcting codes have been constructed [3,42,45–47,49,53,56–58] over finite fields. Recently, the study of quantum error
correcting codes over finite rings has got the attention of researchers, and many good quantum error correcting codes
have been found [4–7,9–12,27–29,44,52,64,65]. From the last two decades, the study of quantum codes from algebraic
curves [13,26,50,54,55] has also been developing rapidly.
The class of cyclic codes is a very important class of linear codes from both theoretical and practical point of view,
which are easy to implement due to their rich algebraic structure. Cyclic codes have been extensively studied for the
past six decades. Since the publication of a landmark paper by Hammons et al. in 1994 [48], which discovered that
many well known good non-linear codes over F2 can be viewed as binary images under a Gray map of linear cyclic
codes over Z4 , there have been a lot of research on cyclic codes and their generalizations over finite rings (see, for
example, [20–25,30,32–40,59]). However, all these works are restricted to codes whose alphabets are commutative rings.
In 1933, Ore [62] introduced a polynomial ring with usual polynomial addition and a specific multiplication to obtain a
non-commutative structure over the polynomial ring, called skew polynomial ring. The non-commutative nature and rich
algebraic structure of this class of rings allowed to construct many codes than the commutative set up, and so the study
of codes over non-commutative polynomial rings has seen a rapid growth in recent time. In 2007, Boucher et al. [17,18]
studied skew cyclic codes over a skew polynomial ring. Later, skew quasi cyclic codes were introduced by Abualrab [2]
and Bhaintwal [14]. In a few years after that, many authors studied some important structural properties of skew cyclic
codes; see [1,8,43,51,67].
Motivated by that, in this paper, we study skew cyclic codes over the ring R = Fq + uFq + · · · + uk Fq , where uk+1 = u
and q = pm for odd prime p such that k | (p − 1), and then we obtain new quantum codes from the skew cyclic codes we
constructed. The paper is organized as follows. Section 3 consists of the construction of linear codes and basic properties
of Gray map over the ring R. In Section 4, we study the properties of skew cyclic codes and exhibit the generators of skew
cyclic and dual skew cyclic codes over R. In Section 5, we give necessary and sufficient conditions for a skew cyclic code
over R to contain its dual code. Finally, as an application, we construct quantum codes from skew cyclic codes over R via
the Gray map defined over R. Section 6 concludes the paper.

2. Preliminaries

Let R be a finite commutative ring. A non-empty subset C of Rn is called a code of length n over R. If the non-empty
subset C of Rn is an R-submodule of Rn , then C is called a linear code. Throughout this paper, we refer to codes as linear
codes. The elements of a code are called codewords. We identify each codeword (c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−1 ) ∈ C by its polynomial
representation c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn−1 xn−1 in R[x]. A code C is called a cyclic code of length n over R if it is closed under the
cyclic shift operator ρ : Rn −→ Rn defined by

ρ (c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−1 ) = (cn−1 , c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−2 ).

Therefore, in the polynomial representation, a cyclic code C of length n over R is an ideal of the ring ⟨xRn[−x]1⟩ . The Hamming
weight wH (c) of c is defined as the number of non-zero components in c. The (minimum) Hamming weight of a code
C , denoted by wH (C ), is defined as the smallest value among the Hamming weights of each of its non-zero codewords,
i.e., wH (C ) = min{w tH (c) | c ∈ C , c ̸ = 0}. Let c = (c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−1 ), d = (d0 , d1 , . . . , dn−1 ) ∈ Rn , then the Hamming
distance between c and d is defined as dH (c , d) = |{i | ci ̸ = di }|. Then dH (c , d) = wH (c − d). The (minimum) Hamming
distance of a code C is defined as dH (C ) = min{dH (c , d)| c ̸ = d}, or shortly dH . The Euclidean inner product of c and d in Rn
is defined as c · d = c0 d0 + c1 d1 + · · · + cn−1 dn−1 . The dual code C ⊥ of C is defined as C ⊥ = {c ∈ Rn | c · d = 0, for all d ∈ C }.
A code C is called self-orthogonal if C ⊆ C ⊥ , self-dual if C = C ⊥ , and dual-containing if C ⊥ ⊆ C .

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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

Definition 2.1. Let Aut(R) be the set of all automorphisms on R and Θ ∈ Aut(R). The set R[x, Θ ] = {c0 +c1 x+· · ·+cn−1 xn−1 |
ci ∈ R} forms a ring under the usual addition of polynomial and the multiplication defined as (cxi )(dxj ) = c Θ i (d)xi+j . This
ring is called a skew polynomial ring over R, which is non-commutative unless Θ is the identity automorphism. The ring
has no non-zero divisors and the units are exactly the units of R. If Θ is the identity automorphism on R, then we will
have the usual commutative polynomial ring R[x]. We refer to [61] for more details about skew polynomial rings.

Definition 2.2. A linear code C of Rn is called a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R if c = (c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−1 ) ∈ C , then
σ (c) := (Θ (cn−1 ), Θ (c0 ), . . . , Θ (cn−2 )) ∈ C .
Unlike the case of cyclic codes over R which are in fact the two-sided ideals of ⟨xRn[−x]1⟩ , the skew cyclic codes over R are
not two-sided ideals as R[x, Θ ] is a non-commutative ring. So we have to have the conditions on Θ for which an ideal
,Θ ]
will be a left, right and two-sided. Denote, Rn = ⟨Rx[nx− 1⟩
.
When the order of the automorphism Θ divides n, the ideal ⟨xn − 1⟩ is a two-sided ideal. Therefore, the skew cyclic
codes are ideals of Rn . With this condition, we have the following results.

Proposition 2.3. Let Z (R[x, Θ ]) denote the center of R[x, Θ ]. Then xn − 1 ∈ Z (R[x, Θ ]) if and only if the order of the
automorphism Θ divides n.

Proof. Arguing as in [67, Lemma 1.1] over R, the result readily follows. □

Theorem 2.4. [31] Let C be a code of length n over R such that the order of the automorphism Θ divides n. Then C is a skew
Θ -cyclic code if and only if C is a left ideal ⟨g(x)⟩ ⊆ Rn , where g(x) is a right divisor of xn − 1 in R[x, Θ ].
When the order of the automorphism Θ does not divide n, the ideal ⟨xn − 1⟩ ̸ ∈ Z (R[x, Θ ]), so ⟨xn − 1⟩ is not a two sided
ideal. In such a case Rn is not a ring and so the ideal concept is not meaningful. However, Rn forms a left R[x, Θ ]-module
with respect to the multiplication defined as
f (x)(g(x) + ⟨xn − 1⟩) = f (x)g(x) + ⟨xn − 1⟩, where g(x) + ⟨xn − 1⟩ ∈ Rn , f (x) ∈ R[x, Θ ].
So our definition for skew Θ -cyclic codes holds regardless of the order of the automorphism Θ divides n or not. The
properties of skew Θ -cyclic codes over finite fields have been well studied in [67]. Extending these characterizations to
skew Θ -cyclic codes over finite ring we have the following results.

Theorem 2.5. A code C is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R if and only if C = ⟨g(x)⟩ is a left R[x, Θ ]-submodule of the
left R[x, Θ ] module Rn , where g(x) is a monic polynomial of minimum degree in C and divides xn − 1 on the right. Moreover,
C is a free code of dimension m = n − deg(g(x)) with a basis {g(x), xg(x), x2 g(x), . . . , xm−1 g(x)}.
For the rest of this paper, we denote R = Fq + uFq + · · · + uk Fq with uk+1 = u, q = pm for odd prime p and k | p − 1.
Here Fq denotes the finite field with q elements. The ring R is a commutative ring with qk+1 elements. The ring R can also
F [u ]
be seen as the quotient ring ⟨uk+q1 −u⟩ .
Let θ be in Aut(Fq ), and Θ : R −→ R an extension of θ given by:

Θ (r0 + r1 u + · · · + rk uk ) = θ (r0 ) + uθ (r1 ) + · · · + uk θ (rk ),

where ri ∈ Fq , for i = 0, 1, . . . , k. It is easy to see that Θ ∈ Aut(R). In this paper, all skew cyclic codes of length n over
,Θ ]
R are based on the automorphism Θ , i.e., they are left ideals of ⟨Rx[nx− 1⟩
when the order of Θ and n are not coprime (by
R [x , Θ ]
Theorem 2.4), and they are left submodule of ⟨xn −1⟩
when the order of Θ and n are coprime (by Theorem 2.5).

3. Construction of linear codes over R

In this section, using a set of orthogonal idempotents, we decompose the ring R and define linear codes over R. Let Bi
be sets over R, for i = 0, 1, . . . , k. We define
B0 ⊕ B1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Bk = {b0 + b1 + · · · + bk | bi ∈ Bi ; i = 0, 1, . . . , k}
B0 ⊗ B1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ Bk = {b0 , b1 , . . . , bk | bi ∈ Bi ; i = 0, 1, . . . , k}.

As k | (p − 1), uk − 1 | up−1 − 1, that implies uk+1 − u | up − u. Therefore, uk+1 − u splits over Fp as follows

uk+1 − u = (u − v0 )(u − v1 )(u − v2 ) · · · (u − vk ),

where v0 , v1 , . . . , vk are distinct elements of Fp .
k+1
For 0 ≤ i ≤ k, define ei = u u−v−u . As gcd(ei , u − vi ) = 1 and Fp [u] is a principal ideal domain, there exist Ai , Bi ∈ Fp [u]
i
such that Ai ei + Bi (u − vi ) = 1. Take γi = Ai ei . Note that
γi2 = Ai ei (1 − Bi (u − vi )) = Ai ei = γi mod (uk+1 − u),
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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

and for i ̸ = j,
uk+1 − u uk+1 − u
γi γj = Ai Aj = 0 mod (uk+1 − u).
u − vi u − vj
∏k ∑k ∏k ∏k
Moreover, i=0 (1 − γi ) = 1 − i=0 γi and i=0 (1 − γi ) = i=0 Bi (u − vi ) = 0 mod(uk+1 − u). Thus, combining these two,
we get
k
∑
γi = 1 mod (uk+1 − u).
i=0
∑k
Therefore, {γ0 , γ1 , . . . , γk } forms a nonzero pairwise orthogonal idempotent set of R such that i=0 γi = 1 (mod uk+1 −
⨁k
u). Thus, R = i=0 γi R. We refer to [24] for more details about this decomposition.
It is worth noting that γi = Ai ei , 0 ≤ i ≤ k, are unique modulo (uk+1 − u). To see this, suppose to the contrary that
there is γi′ = A′i ei such that γi′ ̸ = γi . Since, Ai ei + Bi (u − vi ) = 1 and A′i ei + B′i (u − vi ) = 1, it follows that

(Ai − A′i )ei + (Bi − B′i )(u − vi ) = 0,

or, equivalently,

(Ai − A′i )ei = (B′i − Bi )(u − vi ).

As gcd(ei , u − vi ) = 1 and ei | (B′i − Bi )(u − vi ), it follows that ei | (B′i − Bi ), implying (B′i − Bi ) = ei f , for some f ∈ Fp [u].
Hence,

(Ai − A′i )ei = fei (u − vi )

(Ai − A′i )ei = 0 mod (uk+1 − u)
′
Ai ei = Ai ei mod (uk+1 − u)
γi = γi′ mod (uk+1 − u)
Therefore, all γi are unique up to modulo (uk+1 − u).

F9 [u]
Example 3.1. Let R = ⟨u3 −u⟩
. In this case k = 2 and p = 3. As k | p − 1, u3 − u splits over F3 as

u3 − u = u(u − 1)(u − 2), here v0 = 0, v1 = 1, v2 = 2.

u3 −u u3 −u u3 − u
Then e0 = u−0
= (u2 − 1), e1 = u−1
= (u2 − 2u) and e2 = u−2
= (u2 − u). For A0 = 2 ∈ F3 [u] and B0 = u ∈ F3 [u], we
get

2e0 + u(u − 0) = 2(u2 − 1) + u2 = 3u2 − 2 = 1 (mod 3).

For A1 = 2 ∈ F3 [u] and B1 = u ∈ F3 [u], we get

2e1 + (u − 1)(u − 1) = (2u2 − 4u) + u2 − 2u + 1 = 3u2 − 6u + 1 = 1 (mod 3).

For A2 = 2 ∈ F3 [u] and B2 = u ∈ F3 [u], we get

2e2 + (u − 2)(u − 2) = (2u2 − 2u) + u2 − 4u + 4 = 3u2 − 6u + 4 = 1 (mod 3).

Here Ai ei + Bi (u − vi ) = 1 holds for i = 0, 1, 2. The idempotent set for this ring is {γ0 , γ1 , γ2 }, where γ0 = 2u2 − 2,
γ1 = 2u2 − u and γ2 = 2u2 − 2u.
F49 [u]
Example 3.2. Let R = ⟨u4 −u⟩
. Here k = 3 and p = 7. As k | p − 1, u4 − u splits over F7 .

u4 − u = u(u − 1)(u − 2)(u − 4), here v0 = 0, v1 = 1, v2 = 2, v3 = 4.

4 4 u4 −u u4 −u
Then e0 = uu−−0u = (u3 − 1), e1 = uu−−1u = (u3 + u2 + u), e2 = u−2
= (u3 + 2u2 + 4u) and e3 = u−4
= (u3 + 4u2 + 2u).
For A0 = 6 ∈ F7 [u] and B0 = u2 ∈ F7 [u], we get

6e0 + u2 (u − 0) = 6(u3 − 1) + u3 = 6u3 − 6 + u3 = 1 (mod 7).

For A1 = 5 ∈ F7 [u] and B1 = 2(u2 + 2u + 3) ∈ F7 [u], we get

5e1 + 2(u2 + 2u + 3)(u − 1) = 15 = 1 (mod 7).

2
For A2 = 5 ∈ F7 [u] and B2 = 2(u + 4u + 5) ∈ F7 [u], we get

5e2 + 2(u2 + 4u + 5)(u − 2) = 15 = 1 (mod 7).

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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

For A3 = 5 ∈ F7 [u] and B3 = 2(u2 + u + 6) ∈ F7 [u], we get

2e3 + 2(u2 + u + 6)(u − 4) = 15 = 1 (mod 7).

Here Ai ei + Bi (u − vi ) = 1 holds for i = 0, 1, 2, 3. The idempotent set for this ring is {γ0 , γ1 , γ2 , γ3 }, where γ0 = 6u3 + 1,
γ1 = 5u3 + 5u2 + 5u, γ2 = 5u3 + 3u2 + 6u and γ3 = 5u3 + 6u2 + 3u.
⨁k ⨁k ∑k
i=0 γi R = i=0 γi Fq . So any element r ∈ R can be expressed as r = i=0 γi ri , where ri ∈ Fq
By [24, Lemma 2.3], R = ∼
for i = 0, 1, . . . , k.
Let M ∈ GLk+1 (Fq ) such that MM t = λIk+1 , where M t denotes the transpose of the matrix M, Ik+1 denotes the identity
matrix of order k + 1 and λ be the non-zero element of Fq . We define a Gray map φ over R as

φ : R −→ Fkq+1
given by

φ (γ0 r0 + γ1 r1 + · · · + γk rk ) = (r0 , r1 , . . . , rk )M .
For any element r = γ0 r0 + γ1 r1 + · · · + γk rk ∈ R, we define the Lee weight of r as wL (r) = wH (φ (r)). The Lee distance
between r , r ′ is defined as dL (r , r ′ ) = wL (r − r ′ ) = wH (φ1 (r − r ′ )). This is a linear map and can be extended component-wise
(k+1)n
from Rn to Fq .
For a linear code C of length n over R, we define

C0 = {a0 ∈ Fnq | γ0 a0 + γ1 a1 + · · · + γk ak ∈ C ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , ak ∈ Fnq }.

C1 = {a1 ∈ Fnq | γ0 a0 + γ1 a1 + · · · + γk ak ∈ C ; a0 , a2 , a3 , . . . , ak ∈ Fnq }.
.........
Ck = {ak ∈ Fnq | γ0 a0 + γ1 a1 + · · · + γk ak ∈ C ; a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak−1 ∈ Fnq }.

Then Ci are linear codes of length n over Fq for i = 0, 1, . . . , k. So a linear code C of length n over R can be uniquely
expressed as C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck . If Gi are generator matrices of q-ary linear codes Ci for i = 0, 1, . . . , k, then
the generator matrices of C and φ (C ) are
γ0 G0 φ (γ0 G1 )
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ γ G ⎟ ⎜ φ (γ1 G1 ) ⎟
G=⎝ 1 1 ⎠ and φ (G) = ⎝ ⎠.
··· ···
γk Gk φ (γk Gk )

Proposition 3.3. Let φ be the Gray map defined above. Then,

(k+1)n
1. φ is a Fq -linear distance preserving map from Rn (Lee distance) to Fq (Hamming distance).
2. If C is a [n, k′ , dL ] linear code over R then φ (C ) is a [(k + 1)n, k′ , dH ] linear code over Fq .

Proof. (1.) Let x1 = γ0 a0 + γ1 a1 + · · · + γk ak and x2 = γ0 b0 + γ1 b1 + · · · + γk bk ∈ Rn . Then

φ (x1 + x2 ) = ((a0 + b0 )M , (a1 + b1 )M , . . . , (ak + bk )M)

= (a0 M , a1 M , . . . , ak M) + (b0 M , b1 M , . . . , bk M)
= φ (x1 ) + φ (x2 )
and for α ∈ Fq

φ (α x1 ) = (α a0 M , α a1 M , . . . , α ak M)
= αφ (x1 ).
So φ is a Fq -linear map. Then dL (x1 , x2 ) = wL (x1 − x2 ) = wH (φ (x1 − x2 )) = wH (φ (x1 ) − φ (x2 )) = dH (φ (x1 ), φ (x2 )).
Therefore, φ is a Fq -linear distance preserving map.
′
(2.) As φ is a bijective and Fq -linear map, we get |C | = |φ (C )| = qk . Also φ is a distance preserving map, therefore,
dL (C ) = dH (φ (C )). □

Proposition 3.4. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a linear code of length n over R. Then the dual C ⊥ = γ0 C0⊥ ⊕ γ1 C1⊥ ⊕
· · · ⊕ γk Ck⊥ is also a linear code of length n over R.

4. Structure of skew cyclic codes over R

We now present the direct sum decomposition of any skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R.

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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

Theorem 4.1. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a linear code of length n over R. Then C is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length
n over R if and only if Cj are skew θ -cyclic codes of length n over Fq , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.

Proof. Let x = (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) ∈ C , where xi = γ0 ai,0 + γ1 ai,1 + · · · + γk ai,k and ai,j ∈ Fq for i = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 and
j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then aj = (a0,j , a1,j , . . . , an−1,j ) ∈ Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Suppose C is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over
R. Then σ (x) ∈ C , where
σ (x) = (Θ (xn−1 ), Θ (x0 ), . . . , Θ (xn−2 ))
= (Θ (γ0 an−1,0 + γ1 an−1,1 + · · · + γk an−1,k ), Θ (γ0 a0,0 + γ1 a0,1 + · · · + γk a0,k ),
· · · , Θ (γ0 an−2,0 + γ1 an−2,1 + · · · + γk an−2,k )).
Note that Θ (ai,j ) = θ (ai,j ) and Θ (u) = u. Then for γj = Aj ej ∈ Fp [u], we get Θ (γj ) = γj , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. So
σ (x) = (γ0 θ (an−1,0 ) + γ1 θ (an−1,1 ) + · · · + γk θ (an−1,k ), γ0 θ (a0,0 ) + γ1 θ (a0,1 ) + · · · + γk θ (a0,k ),
· · · , γ0 θ (an−2,0 ) + γ1 θ (an−2,1 ) + · · · + γk θ (an−2,k ))
= γ0 (θ (an−1,0 ), θ (a0,0 ), . . . , θ (an−2,0 )) + γ1 (θ (an−1,1 ), θ (a0,1 ), . . . , θ (an−2,1 ))
+ · · · + γk (θ (an−1,k ), θ (a0,k ), . . . , θ (an−2,k ))
= γ0 σ (a0 ) + γ1 σ (a1 ) + · · · + γk σ (ak ) ∈ C .
Thus, σ (aj ) ∈ Cj , implying Cj are skew θ -cyclic codes of length n over Fq , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.
Conversely, suppose that Cj are skew θ -cyclic codes of length n over Fq , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Considering the same
notations as above we get, σ (aj ) ∈ Cj . As σ (x) = γ0 σ (a0 ) + γ1 σ (a1 ) + · · · + γk σ (ak ) ∈ C , we get σ (x) ∈ C . Hence, C is a
skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R. □
We present the dual of any skew cyclic code over R, when n is a multiple of ord(Θ ).

Proposition 4.2. Let ord(Θ ) | n and C be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R. Then C ⊥ is also a skew Θ -cyclic code of
length n over R.

Proof. Let C be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R. Suppose x = (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) ∈ C and y = (y0 , y1 , . . . , yn−1 ) ∈
C ⊥ . To show that, C ⊥ is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R, it is suffices to show, σ (y) = (Θ (yn−1 ), Θ (y0 ), Θ (y1 ), . . . ,
Θ (yn−2 )) ∈ C ⊥ . Consider the inner product of x and σ (y)
x · σ (y) = x0 Θ (yn−1 ) + x1 Θ (y0 ) + · · · + xn−1 Θ (yn−2 ).
As C is a skew Θ -cyclic code, we get σ n−1 (x) ∈ C , where σ n−1 (x) = (Θ n−1 (x1 ), Θ n−1 (x2 ), . . . , Θ n−1 (xn−1 ), Θ n−1 (x0 )) ∈ C .
Then σ n−1 (x) · y = 0, where
σ n−1 (x) · y = Θ n−1 (x1 )y0 + Θ n−1 (x2 )y1 + · · · + Θ n−1 (xn−1 )yn−2 + Θ n−1 (x0 )yn−1 = 0.
As ord(Θ ) | n, Θ n = Identity, then
Θ {(Θ n−1 (x1 )y0 + Θ n−1 (x2 )y1 + · · · + Θ n−1 (xn−1 )yn−2 + Θ n−1 (x0 )yn−1 )} = Θ (0) = 0,
which implies,
x1 Θ (y0 ) + x2 Θ (y1 ) + · · · + xn−1 Θ (yn−2 ) + x0 Θ (yn−1 ) = 0.
Thus, x · σ (y) = x1 Θ (y0 ) + x2 Θ (y1 ) + · · · + xn−1 Θ (yn−2 ) + x0 Θ (yn−1 ) = 0. Therefore, σ (y) ∈ C ⊥ , implies C ⊥ is a skew
Θ -cyclic code of length n over R. □
We presented the structure of the dual of a linear code over R in Proposition 3.4. Now we present the direct sum
decomposition of a dual skew cyclic code over R using a similar argument as in Theorem 4.1.

Corollary 4.3. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R, such that n is a multiple of
ord(Θ ). Then the dual code C ⊥ = γ0 C0⊥ ⊕ γ1 C1⊥ ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck⊥ is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R, and Cj⊥ are skew
θ -cyclic codes of length n over Fq , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.
In Theorem 4.1, we obtained the direct sum decomposition of a skew Θ -cyclic code over R. Now we find the generators
of a skew Θ -cyclic code over R using its decomposition.

Theorem 4.4. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R and gj (x) be a monic generator
polynomial of the skew θ -cyclic code Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then

(i.) C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . , γk gk (x)⟩.

(ii.) There exists a polynomial g(x) ∈ R[x, Θ ] such that C = ⟨g(x)⟩, where g(x) = γ0 g0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x), and g(x)
divides xn − 1 on the right.
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Proof. (i.) Let C be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R. Then by Theorem 4.1, Cj are skew θ -cyclic codes of length n
F [x,θ ]
over Fq for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Thus, Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ ⊆ ⟨xqn −1⟩ for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Also, as C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck , we get
R[x,Θ ]
C ⊆ ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . , γk gk (x)⟩ ⊆ ⟨xn −1⟩
.
R[x,Θ ]
On the other hand, let γ0 g0 (x)f0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x)f1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x)fk (x) ∈ ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . , γk gk (x)⟩ ⊆ ⟨xn −1⟩
,
R[x,Θ ] Fq [x,θ]
where fj (x) ∈ ⟨xn −1⟩
for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then there exists rj (x) ∈ ⟨xn −1⟩
such that γj fj (x) = γj rj (x). Therefore,
⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . , γk gk (x)⟩ ⊆ C . Hence, C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . , γk gk (x)⟩.
(ii.) Let gj (x) be a generator polynomial of Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then by part (i), we have C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), . . . ,
γk gk (x)⟩. Suppose g(x) = γ0 g0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x) and take C ′ = ⟨g(x)⟩. As g(x) ∈ C , C ′ ⊆ C . By construction
γj2 = γj , γi γj = 0 for i, j = 0, 1, . . . , k and i ̸= j, thus, γj (γ0 g0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x)) = γj gj (x) for j = 0, 1, . . . , k,
which implies C ⊆ C ′ . Therefore, C = C ′ , and C = ⟨g(x)⟩, where g(x) = γ0 g0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x).
For the other part, suppose gj (x) is the monic generator polynomial of Cj , then gj (x) divides xn − 1 on the right such
that xn − 1 = hj (x)gj (x), for hj (x) ∈ Cj and j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Thus,
xn − 1 = (γ0 + γ1 + · · · + γk )(xn − 1)
= γ0 (xn − 1) + γ1 (xn − 1) + · · · + γk (xn − 1)
= γ0 h0 (x)g0 (x) + γ1 h1 (x)g1 (x) + · · · + γk hk (x)gk (x)
= (γ0 h0 (x) + γ1 h1 (x) + · · · + γk hk (x))(γ0 g0 (x) + γ1 g1 (x) + · · · + γk gk (x)).
Therefore, xn − 1 = (γ0 h0 (x) + γ1 h1 (x) + · · · + γk hk (x))g(x). Hence, g(x) divides xn − 1 on the right. □
In Corollary 4.3, we studied the direct sum decomposition of a dual skew Θ -cyclic code over R. We derive the
generators of dual skew Θ -cyclic code of a Θ -cyclic code over R as it is done in Theorem 4.4 .

Corollary 4.5. Let C be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R, such that n is a multiple of ord(Θ ). Suppose gj (x) are monic
generator polynomials of the skew θ -cyclic codes Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then

(i.) C ⊥ = ⟨γ0 h∗0 (x), γ1 h∗1 (x), . . . , γk h∗k (x)⟩.

(ii.) C ⊥ = ⟨h′ (x)⟩, where h′ (x) = γ0 h∗0 (x) + γ1 h∗1 (x) + · · · + γk h∗k (x).
where h∗j (x) are defined as follows, xn − 1 = hj (x)gj (x); hj (x), gj (x) ∈ Fq [x, θ]. If gj (x) = α0 + α1 x + · · · + αs xs and
hj (x) = β0 + β1 x + · · · + βn−s xn−s , then the dual of the skew θ -cyclic code Cj is generated by h∗j (x) such that, h∗j (x) =
βn−s + θ (βn−s−1 )x + · · · + θ n−s (β0 )xn−s .

5. Dual-containing skew cyclic codes over R and their application in quantum codes construction

In [19], Calderbank et al. showed that the dual containing property of a classical error-correcting code ensures the
existence of quantum codes from error-correcting codes. As a result, good quantum codes have been computed over
several error-correcting codes over finite fields and finite rings. There is hardly any paper on the construction of quantum
codes from classical error-correcting codes over non-commutative rings. Recently, the authors of [63] computed quantum
codes from skew codes over Fq + v Fq , where v 2 = v , using the dual containing property. However, there are some flaws
in their arguments [63, Corollary 5.7 and Theorem 5.8] and the examples they provided. In this section, we first provide
a counter-example of [63, Corollary 5.7 and Theorem 5.8] and then present the correct version of [63, Theorem 5.8].

Corollary 5.1 ([63, Corollary 5.7]). Let Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ be a skew θ -cyclic code of length n over Fq such that n is the multiple of
ord(θ ). Then Cj contains its dual if and only if xn − 1 is divisible by h∗j (x)hj (x) on the right, for j = 1, 2.
Using the above corollary [63, Corollary 5.7], the authors of [63] presented the example [63, Example 6.2], which is
actually conflicting their own result [63, Corollary 5.7]. We elaborate the same below.

Example 5.2 ([63, Example 6.2]). Let R = F9 + v F9 and θ (a) = a3 for a ∈ F9 . Then
x6 − 1 = (w 2 + x)2 (w 6 + x)2 (1 + x)(2 + x) ∈ F9 [x, θ].
Let C1 = ⟨g1 (x)⟩ = ⟨x + 1⟩ and C2 = ⟨g2 (x)⟩ = ⟨x + w 6 ⟩. Note that,
h1 (x) = x5 + 2x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 2,
h2 (x) = x5 + w 6 x4 + x3 + w 6 x2 + x + w 6 ,
h∗1 (x) = 2x5 + x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 1,
h∗2 (x) = w 2 x5 + x4 + w 2 x3 + x2 + w 2 x + 1,
h∗1 (x)h1 (x) = 2 + 2x + x3 + x4 + x6 + x7 + 2x9 + 2x10 ,
h∗2 (x)h2 (x) = w 6 + w 6 x2 + w 6 x4 + w 2 x6 + w 2 x8 + w 2 x10 .
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Then we get

(1 + x + 2x3 + 2x4 )(x6 − 1) = h∗1 (x)h1 (x),

(w 2 + w 2 x2 + w 2 x4 )(x6 − 1) = h∗2 (x)h2 (x).

Therefore, the claim from [63, Corollary 5.7] that x6 − 1 is divisible by h∗1 (x)h1 (x) and h∗2 (x)h2 (x) on the right, is wrong.

In the following theorem, we present the correct version of [63, Corollary 5.7].

Theorem 5.3. Let Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ be a skew θ -cyclic code of length n over Fq such that n is a multiple of ord(θ ). Then Cj contains
its dual if and only if h∗j (x)hj (x) is divisible by xn − 1 on the right, for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.

Proof. Let Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ contains its dual. As h∗j (x) ∈ Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ for j = 0, 1, . . . , k, there exists a polynomial kj (x)
such that h∗j (x) = kj (x)gj (x) for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Therefore,

h∗j (x)hj (x) = kj (x)gj (x)hj (x) = kj (x)hj (x)gj (x) = kj (x)(xn − 1).

Since the order of the automorphism θ divides n, xn − 1 = hj (x)gj (x) = gj (x)hj (x) ∈ Z (Fq [x, θ]). Hence, h∗j (x)hj (x) is divisible
by xn − 1 on the right.
On the other hand, let h∗j (x)hj (x) be divisible by xn − 1 on the right. Then there exists k(x) such that, h∗j (x)hj (x) =
k(x)(xn − 1). Now suppose a(x) ∈ Cj⊥ = ⟨h∗j (x)⟩ therefore, a(x) = c(x)h∗j (x). Multiplying both sides by hj (x), we get

a(x)hj (x) = c(x)h∗j (x)hj (x) = c(x)k(x)(xn − 1) = c(x)k(x)hj (x)gj (x) = c(x)k(x)gj (x)hj (x)
(a(x) − c(x)k(x)gj (x))hj (x) = 0.

As hj (x) is a non-zero polynomial, we get

a(x) − c(x)k(x)gj (x) = 0,

which implies a(x) = c(x)k(x)gj (x), therefore, a(x) ∈ Cj = ⟨gj (x)⟩ for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Hence, Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj . □

Remark 5.4. In case of considering hj (x) such that xn − 1 = hj (x)gj (x), we simply cannot take the factors of xn − 1 other
than gj (x) in any order, to determine the explicit value of hj (x) such that xn − 1 = hj (x)gj (x). For instance, factorizing x8 − 1
over F25 , we get

x8 − 1 = (w + x)(w 3 + x)2 (w 4 + x)(w 8 + x)(w 10 + x)(w 14 + x)(w 17 + x) ∈ F25 [x, θ].

Let gj (x) = (x + w 3 ). Then Cj = ⟨(x + w 3 )⟩ are skew cyclic codes over F9 for j = 0, 1, 2. Consider

h1 (x) = (w + x)(w 3 + x)(w 4 + x)(w 8 + x)(w 10 + x)(w 14 + x)(w 17 + x),

h2 (x) = (w 4 + x)(w 8 + x)(w 10 + x)(w 14 + x)(w 17 + x)(w + x)(w 3 + x).

Then

(w 3 + x)h1 (x) = 4 + w 7 x + w 11 x2 + w 3 x3 + w 19 x5 + w 23 x6 + w 15 x7 + x8 ̸ = x8 − 1,
(w 3 + x)h2 (x) = x8 − 1.

So while considering hj (x) we have to be more cautious.

We can now extend the result of Theorem 5.5 over any skew cyclic code over R, which is the correct version of
[63, Theorem 5.8].

Theorem 5.5. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R such that n is a multiple of
ord(Θ ). Then C ⊥ ⊆ C if and only if h∗j (x)hj (x) is divisible by xn − 1 on the right, for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.

Proof. Let h∗j (x)hj (x) be divisible by xn − 1 on the right, for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Then by Theorem 5.3, we have Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj , j =
0, 1, . . . , k. This implies γ0 C0⊥ ⊕ γ1 C1⊥ ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck⊥ ⊆ γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck . Therefore, C ⊥ ⊆ C .
Conversely, let C ⊥ ⊆ C , then γ0 C0⊥ ⊕ γ1 C1⊥ ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck⊥ ⊆ γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck . Considering modulo γj we get
Cj ⊆ Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Therefore, h∗j (x)hj (x) is divisible by xn − 1 on the right, for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. □
⊥

The following corollary is the direct consequence of the above theorem.

Corollary 5.6. Let C = ⟨g(x)⟩ be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R, such that n is a multiple of ord(Θ ). Then C ⊥ ⊆ C
if and only if Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.
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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

As in [7], let T be a Hilbert space of dimension q over the complex number C. Define T ⊗n = T ⊗ T ⊗ · · · ⊗ T (n-times)
to be the n-fold tensor product of the Hilbert space T . Then T ⊗n is a Hilbert space of dimension qn . A quantum code of
′
length n and dimension k′ over Fq is defined as a Hilbert subspace of T ⊗n having dimension qk . A quantum code with
length n, dimension k and minimum distance d over Fq is denoted by [[n, k , d]]q .
′ ′

The Calderbank–Shor–Steane (CSS) construction gave us a very useful tool to construct quantum codes from classical
error-correcting codes.

Theorem 5.7 ([19] CSS Construction). Let C1 and C2 be [n, k′1 , d1 ] and [n, k′2 , d2 ] linear codes over GF (q) respectively with C2⊥ ⊆
C1 . Furthermore, let d = min{d1 , d2 }. Then there exists a quantum error-correcting code C with parameters [[n, k′1 + k′2 − n, d]]q .
In particular, if C1⊥ ⊆ C1 , then there exists a quantum error-correcting code C with parameters [[n, 2k′1 − n, d1 ]]q .

Now, we present our main result to construct quantum codes from any skew Θ -cyclic code over R.

Theorem 5.8. Let C = γ0 C0 ⊕ γ1 C1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ γk Ck be a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R such that n is a multiple of
ord(Θ ). If Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj , for j = 0, 1, . . . , k, then C ⊥ ⊆ C and there exists a quantum error-correcting code with parameters
[[(k + 1)n, 2k′ − (k + 1)n, dH ]]q , where dH denotes the Hamming distance of the code φ (C ) and k′ denotes the dimension of
the code φ (C ).

Proof. Suppose that C = γ0 C0 ⊕γ1 C1 ⊕· · ·⊕γk Ck is a skew Θ -cyclic code of length n over R and Cj⊥ ⊆ Cj for j = 0, 1, . . . , k.
Then by Corollary 5.6, we get C ⊥ ⊆ C . Now to show the existence of quantum error-correcting codes first we show that
φ (C ⊥ ) ⊆ φ (C )⊥ .
Let x1 = γ0 a0 + γ1 a1 + · · · + γk ak ∈ C and y1 = γ0 b0 + γ1 b1 + · · · + γk bk ∈ C ⊥ . Then by the inner product of x1 and
x2 , we get

x1 · x2 = γ0 a0 b0 + γ1 a1 b1 + · · · + γk ak bk = 0.

Note that R is a k + 1 dimensional vector space over Fq . We can write each element of R by linear combination of the
idempotents, thus idempotent set {γ0 , γ1 , . . . , γk } spans R. For linear independence of this set, consider

d0 γ0 + d1 γ1 + · · · + dk γk = 0.

Multiplying both sides by γi , we get di γi2 = 0 implying di = 0, for i = 0, 1, . . . , k. Hence, {γ0 , γ1 , . . . , γk } forms a basis
set.
Therefore, γ0 a0 b0 + γ1 a1 b1 + · · · + γk ak bk = 0 implies a0 b0 = a1 b1 = · · · = ak bk = 0.
Now consider

φ (x1 ) · φ (x2 ) = λ2 (a0 b0 + a1 b1 + · · · + ak bk ), as MM t = λ2 Ik+1 .

Thus, φ (x1 ) · φ (x2 ) = 0 implying φ (x2 ) ∈ φ (C )⊥ , as φ (x1 ) ∈ φ (C ). Therefore, φ (C ⊥ ) ⊆ φ (C )⊥ .
Let x ∈ φ (C ⊥ ) ⊆ φ (C )⊥ , then x ∈ φ (C )⊥ . As x ∈ φ (C ⊥ ), there exists y ∈ C ⊥ such that x = φ (y). Since C ⊥ ⊆ C , so y ∈ C .
Thus x = φ (y) ∈ φ (C ), which implies φ (C )⊥ ⊆ φ (C ). As φ (C ) is a [(k + 1)n, k′ , dH ] linear code over Fq , by Theorem 5.7,
there exists a quantum error-correcting code with parameters [[(k + 1)n, 2k′ − (k + 1)n, dH ]]q . □

We now present some examples to demonstrate our results. The MAGMA Software [15,16,60] is used in our computa-
tions. In the following examples, F∗pm = ⟨w⟩ denotes the cyclic group of non-zero elements of Fpm generated by w ∈ Fpm .
A skew polynomial ring is not a unique factorization domain, as a result we get more than one factorization for any skew
polynomial. For example, if we factorize x8 − 1 over F9 [x, θ], where θ (a) = a3 for all a ∈ F9 , we get the following factor
sets,

x8 − 1 = (1 + x)(2 + x)(w + x)(w 7 + x)(1 + w 3 x + x2 )(1 + w 7 x + x2 )

= (1 + x)(2 + x)(w + x)(w7 + x)(1 + wx + x2 )(1 + w5 x + x2 )
= (w3 + x)(w5 + x)(w6 + x)2 (2 + w2 x + x2 )(2 + w6 x + x2 )
= (w2 + x)2 (w3 + x)(w5 + x)(1 + w3 x + x2 )(1 + w7 x + x2 )
= (1 + x)(2 + x)(w 3 + x)(w5 + x)(w6 + x2 )(w2 + x2 ).
We take one such factor set and compute the corresponding parameter. We simply write the factors of xn − 1 in arbitrary
order.

F9 [u]
Example 5.9. Suppose R = ⟨u2 −u⟩
, here k = 1 and p = 3. Let θ be in Aut(F9 ) such that θ (ai ) = a3i , where i = 0, 1. Then
Θ : R −→ R is an extension of θ given by: Θ (a0 + ua1 ) = a30 + ua31 . Take n = 8, then ord(θ ) divides n.
x8 − 1 = (w 2 + x)2 (w 3 + x)(w 5 + x)(1 + w 3 x + x2 )(1 + w 7 x + x2 ) ∈ F9 [x, θ].
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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

Let g0 (x) = w 2 + x and g1 (x) = (1 + w 7 x + x2 )(w 2 + x). Then Ck = ⟨gk (x)⟩ are skew cyclic codes over F9 for k = 0, 1.
Thus, C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x)⟩ is a skew cyclic code over R. Here,
h0 (x) = w 2 + x + w 2 x2 + x3 + w 2 x4 + x5 + w 2 x6 + x7 ,
h1 (x) = w 2 + w 3 x + 2x2 + w 6 x3 + w 3 x4 + x5 .
Then
h∗0 (x) = 1 + w 6 x + x2 + w 6 x3 + x4 + w 6 x5 + x6 + w 6 x7 ,
h∗1 (x) = 1 + w x + w 6 x2 + 2x3 + w 3 x4 + w 6 x5 .
Thus,
h∗0 (x)h0 (x) = (w 6 + w 6 x2 + w 6 x4 + w 6 x6 )(x8 − 1),
h∗1 (x)h1 (x) = (w 6 + w 6 x2 )(x8 − 1).
Therefore, x8 − 1 divides h∗k (x)hk (x) on the right for k = 0, 1, by Theorem 5.5, we get C ⊥ ⊆ C . Consider
1 −1
( )
M= .
1 1
Note that MM t = 2I2 . Then φ (C ) is a linear code over F9 with parameters [16, 12, 4]. Now, using Theorem 5.8, we get a
quantum code with parameters [[16, 8, 4]]9 , which has better parameters than the constructed code [[16, 8, 2]]9 of [6].

3 −u⟩ , here k = 2 and p = 5. Let θ be in Aut(F25 ) such that θ (ai ) = ai , where i = 0, 1, 2.

F [u] 5
Example 5.10. Suppose R = ⟨u25
Then Θ : R −→ R is an extension of θ given by:
Θ (a0 + ua1 + u2 a2 ) = a50 + ua51 + u2 a52 .
Take n = 16, then ord(θ ) divides n.
x16 − 1 = (1 + x)(4 + x)(w 2 + x)(w 5 + x)(w 11 + x)(w 13 + x)(w 19 + x)(w 22 + x)(w + w 8 x + x2 )
×(w5 + w20 x + x2 )(w7 + w17 x + x2 )(w11 + w5 x + x2 ) ∈ F25 [x, θ].
Let g0 (x) = w 5 + x, g1 (x) = w 5 + x and g2 (x) = (w 22 + x)(w + w 8 x + x2 ). Then Ck = ⟨gk (x)⟩ are skew cyclic codes over
F49 , for k = 0, 1, 2. Thus, C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), γ2 g2 (x)⟩ is a skew cyclic code over R.
Similarly as earlier example, for each gi (x) computing hi (x) and h∗i (x), we get
h∗k (x)hk (x) = fk (x)(x16 − 1); k = 0, 1, 2,
where
hi (x) = w 7 + 3x + w x2 + 4x3 + w 19 x4 + 2x5 + w 13 x6 + x7 + w 7 x8 + 3x9 + w x10
+4x11 + w19 x12 + 2x13 + w13 x14 + x15 , i = 0, 1.
h2 (x) = w 13 + w 9 x + w 10 x2 + w 8 x3 + w 5 x4 + w 5 x5 + w 4 x6 + w 2 x7 + w 3 x8 + w 22 x9
+w16 x10 + w 14 x11 + w14 x12 + x13 .
Then
h∗i (x) = 1 + w 17 x + 2x2 + w 23 x3 + 4x4 + w 5 x5 + 3x6 + w 11 x7 + x8 + w 17 x9 + 2x10
+w23 x11 + 4x12 + w5 x13 + 3x14 + w 11 x15 , i = 0, 1.
h2 (x) = 1 + w x + w x + w x + w 22 x4 + w 15 x5 + w 2 x6 + w 20 x7 + w 5 x8 + w x9
∗ 22 14 2 8 3

+w8 x10 + w2 x11 + w9 x12 + w17 x13 .

fi (x) = w + w x + w x + w x + w x + w x + w 19 x8 + w 19 x9 + w 23 x10
19 19 23 2 7 4 7 5 11 6

+w7 x12 + w 7 x13 + w11 x14 , i = 0, 1.

f2 (x) = w + w 15 x + w 3 x2 + 3x4 + 2x6 + w 3 x8 + w 3 x9 + w 17 x10 .
Thus, x16 − 1 divides h∗k (x)hk (x) on the right for k = 0, 1, 2, by Theorem 5.5, we get C ⊥ ⊆ C . Consider
⎛ ⎞
1 2 2
⎜ ⎟
M=⎜ 2 1 −2 ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−2 2 −1
Note that MM = 9I3 . Then φ (C ) is a linear code over F25 with parameters [48, 43, 4]. Now, using Theorem 5.8, we get a
t

quantum code with parameters [[48, 38, 4]]25 .

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H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

Table 1
F9 [u]
Quantum codes from skew cyclic codes over ⟨u2 −u⟩
.

n g0 (x) g1 (x) φ (C ) Quantum code Existing Quantum code

8 w 6 ww 7 1 w2 1 [16, 12, 4] [[16, 8, 4]]9 [[16, 8, 2]]9 [6]
8 w6 1 w6 w3 w1 [16, 12, 4] [[16, 8, 4]]9 [[17, 1, 4]]9 [41]
12 w5 1 w2 w5 w5 w3 w7 1 [24, 18, 4] [[24, 12, 4]]9 [[24, 8, 2]]9 [6]
40 w2 1w 2 w 7 w 7 1 w6 1 [80, 74, 4] [[80, 68, 4]]9 [[80, 48, 4]]9 [6]

4 −u⟩ , here k = 3 and p = 7. Let θ be in Aut(F49 ) such that θ (ai ) = ai , where i = 0, 1, 2, 3.

F [u] 7
Example 5.11. Suppose R = ⟨u49
Then Θ : R −→ R is an extension of θ given by:
Θ (a0 + ua1 + u2 a2 + u3 a3 ) = a70 + ua71 + u2 a72 + u3 a73 .
Take n = 18, then ord(θ ) divides n.
x18 − 1 = (1 + x)(3 + x)(4 + x)(6 + x)(w 22 + x)(w 34 + x)(w 10 + w 7 x + w 18 x2 + x3 )
×(w14 + w22 x + w27 x2 + x3 )(w26 + w22 x + w21 x2 + x3 )(w46 + w7 x + w6 x2 + x3 ) ∈ F49 [x, θ].
Let g0 (x) = (w 26 + w 22 x + w 21 x2 + x3 )(w 34 + x)(w 22 + x), g1 (x) = w 22 + x, g2 (x) = w 46 + w 7 x + w 6 x2 + x3 an g3 (x) = 4 + x
Then Ck = ⟨gk (x)⟩ are skew cyclic codes over F49 , for k = 0, 1, 2, 3. Thus, C = ⟨γ0 g0 (x), γ1 g1 (x), γ2 g2 (x), γ3 g3 (x)⟩ is a skew
cyclic code over R.
Similarly as earlier example, for each gi (x) computing hi (x) and h∗i (x), we get

h∗k (x)h∗k (x) = fk (x)(x18 − 1); k = 0, 1, 2, 3,

where
f0 (x) = w 14 + w 29 x + w 44 x2 + w 34 x3 + w 44 x4 + w 10 x5 + w 44 x6 + w 5 x7 + w 26 x8 ,
f1 (x) = w 26 + w 5 x + w 4 x2 + w 29 x3 + w 14 x4 + w 26 x6 + w 5 x7 + w 4 x8 + w 29 x9 + w 14 x10
+w26 x12 + w5 x13 + w4 x4 + w29 x15 + w26 x14 ,
f2 (x) = w 2 + w 41 x + w 33 x2 + w 3 x3 + w 39 x4 + w 41 x5 + w 28 x6 + w 17 x7 + w 9 x8 + w 27 x9
+w15 x10 + w17 x11 + w38 x12 ,
f3 (x) = 2 + 2x + 5x + 5x + 2x + 2x + 5x + 5x + 2x + 2x + 5x15 + 5x16 .
3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

Thus, x18 − 1 divides h∗k (x)hk (x) on the right for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, by Theorem 5.5, we get C ⊥ ⊆ C . Consider
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1
1 −1 1 −1 ⎟
M=⎝ .
⎜
1 1 −1 −1 ⎠
1 −1 −1 1
Note that MM t = 4I4 . Then φ (C ) is a linear code over F49 with parameters [72, 62, 4]. Now, using Theorem 5.8, we get a
quantum code with parameters [[72, 52, 4]]49 .
In the following tables, we present some quantum error-correcting codes from our study of skew cyclic codes over R.
In the first rows of the following tables, we write n to denote the code lengths, gi to denote the coefficient of generator
polynomials, and φ (C ) to denote parameters of the Gray images. We write the coefficients of generator polynomials in
increasing order, for example; we use w 2 ww 6 0121 to represent the polynomial w 2 + w x + w 6 x2 + x4 + 2x5 + x6 . For
Tables 1 and 2, we consider
1 −1
( )
k = 1, M1 = .
1 1
Note that, M1 M1t = 2I2 .

6. Conclusion

For any odd prime p, and integer k such that k | (p − 1), in this paper, we constructed quantum codes from skew
Fq [u]
Θ -cyclic codes over the ring R = ⟨uk+1 −u⟩
, where q is a power of p. We first studied Θ -skew cyclic and θ -skew cyclic
codes using a set of idempotents over R. Then a set of generators of both skew Θ -cyclic and dual skew Θ -cyclic codes
over R are obtained. A necessary and sufficient condition for a skew Θ -cyclic code over R to contain its dual is provided,
which is actually the corrected version of [63, Corollary 5.7 and Theorem 5.8]. Taking the advantage of the structure of
Θ -skew cyclic codes over R, we constructed quantum codes over Fq . We used Frobenius automorphism to construct the
11
H.Q. Dinh, T. Bag, A.K. Upadhyay et al. Discrete Mathematics 344 (2021) 112189

Table 2
Fq [u]
MDS Quantum codes from skew cyclic codes over ⟨u2 −u⟩
.

n g0 (x) g1 (x) φ (C ) MDS Quantum code

3 w3 1 w3 1 [6, 4, 3] [[6, 2, 3]]33
4 w62 1 w 74 1 [8, 6, 3] [[8, 4, 3]]34
5 w177 1 w 81 1 [10, 8, 3] [[10, 6, 3]]35
5 w83 1 w130 w102 1 [10, 7, 4] [[10, 4, 4]]35
5 w122 w92 1 w44 w134 1 [10, 6, 5] [[10, 2, 5]]35
6 w22 1 41 [12, 10, 3] [[12, 8, 3]]72
6 w28 w 11 1 31 [12, 9, 4] [[12, 6, 4]]72
6 w30 w7 1 w14 w 17 1 [12, 8, 5] [[12, 4, 5]]72
6 w88 1 w92 1 [12, 10, 3] [[12, 8, 3]]132
8 w78 1 w69 w 28 1 [16, 13, 4] [[16, 10, 4]]34
9 w50 1 w80 w 16 1 [18, 15, 4] [[18, 12, 4]]53
10 w 98 1 w16 1 [20, 18, 3] [[20, 16, 3]]112
10 21 w54 w90 1 [20, 17, 4] [[20, 14, 4]]112
10 w 18 w2 1 w16 w109 1 [20, 16, 5] [[20, 12, 5]]112
12 41 w24 w48 1 [24, 21, 4] [[24, 18, 4]]132

quantum codes. However, we believe that the more efficient MAGMA algorithms may lead to better quantum codes. We
hope our findings will encourage the algebraic coding scientists to construct new quantum codes with better parameters
from the non-commutative structure of polynomial rings over different finite rings, and their applications in other areas
of quantum computation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers who have given us helpful comments to improve the manuscript.
T. Bag is thankful to University Grant Commission (UGC), Govt. of India for financial support under Sr. No. 2061441025
with Ref No. 22/06/2014(i)EU-V. H.Q. Dinh and R. Tansuchat are thankful to the Centre of Excellence in Econometrics,
Faculty of Economics, Chiang Mai University, Thailand, for partial financial support.

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