 used primarily to perform mathematical

operations such as addition, subtraction,

integration and differentiation
 These early devices were constructed with
vacuum tubes and worked with high
voltages.
 Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits
(ICs) that use relatively low dc supply
voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.
 After completing this section, you should be
able to
▪ Describe the basic op-amp and its characteristics
▪ Recognize the op-amp symbol
▪ Identify the terminals on op-amp packages
▪ Describe the ideal op-amp
▪ Describe the practical op-amp
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite voltage gain
 Infinite bandwidth
 Very high voltage gain
 Very high input impedance
 Wide bandwidth
 Very low output impedance
 Push-
Voltage
Differential pull
Vin Amplifier
amplifier
Output
gain stage
Stage Vo
 Forms the input stage of op-amps
 Only the difference in the two signals are
amplified, if there is no difference the output
is zero.
 Forms the input stage of op-amps
 Only the difference in the two signals are
amplified, if there is no difference the output
is zero.
 Three modes of operation
▪ Single-ended
▪ Differential or Double-ended
▪ Common-mode
 Discuss op-Amp modes
 Explain single-ended input operation
 Explain differential-input operation
 Explain common-mode operation
 Define common-mode rejection ratio
 Discuss open-loop voltage gain
 Discuss common mode input voltage range
 Define input offset voltage and discuss input offset
voltage drift with temperature
 Define slew rate
 Single-Ended Mode
▪ One input is grounded and a signal voltage is
applied only to the other input.
 Differential-Mode
▪ Two opposite polarity (out-of-phase) signals are
applied to the inputs
▪ The amplified difference between the two inputs
appears on the output.
 Differential-Mode
▪ Two opposite polarity (out-of-phase) signals are
applied to the inputs
▪ The amplified difference between the two inputs
appears on the output.
 Common-Mode
▪ Two signal voltages of the same frequency, and
amplitude are applied to the two inputs.
▪ When two equal input signals are applied to both
inputs, they cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage.
 The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject
common-mode signals
 A CMRR of 100,000, would mean that the
desired input signal (differential) is amplified
100,000 times more than the unwanted noise
(common-mode)
 set entirely by the internal design
 can range up to 200,000 (106 dB)
 Datasheets often refer to it as the large-
signal voltage gain
 Differential Inputs
▪ When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the
resulting signal is the difference between the two
inputs.
 Common Inputs
▪ When both input signals are the same.
 Output Voltage

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐴𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝐴𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 − 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio
 Calculate the CMMR for the circuit measurements shown.
 When an input signal is applied, the ideal
limits of the peak-to-peak output signal are
±VDD
 Op-amps that operate on a single supply use
the terminology VOH and VOL to specify the
maximum and minimum output voltage
 The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero
volts in.

 In a practical op-amp, however, a small dc voltage,

VOUT(error), appears at the output when no
differential input voltage is applied. Its primary
cause is a slight mismatch of the base emitter
voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of
an op-amp
 is the differential dc voltage required
between the inputs to force the output to
zero volts.
 Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the
base emitter voltages of the differential
amplifier input stage of an op-amp
 Typical values range of 2 mV or less. In the
ideal case, it is 0 V.
 specifies how much change occurs in the
input offset voltage for each degree change
in temperature
 Typical values range from 5uV per degree
Celsius to 50uV per degree Celsius.
 Datasheets often refer to it as Temperature
coefficient of input offset voltage
 is the dc current required by the inputs of the
amplifier to properly operate the first stage
 the average of both input currents
 The dc current required by the inputs of the
amplifier to properly operate the first stage
 The average of both input currents.
 The difference of the input bias currents
 Expressed as an absolute value (Floyd).
 Primary cause: slight mismatch of input
transistors causing it to operate at slightly
different dc current.
 Calculate the offset voltage for the circuit
shown below for an op-amp specification
listing IIO= 100nA.
 Calculate the total offset voltage for the circuit
shown below for an op-amp specification values
of input offset values, VIO=4 mV and IIO=150nA.
 The maximum rate of change of the output
voltage in response to a step input voltage.
 Dependent upon the high frequency response of
the amplifier stages within the op-amp.
 Maximum rate at which amplifier output can
change in volts per micro seconds.
 For an op-amp having slew rate of SR=2V/us
what is the maximum voltage gain that be used
when the input signal varies by 0.5V in 10us?
 The output of a certain op-amp appears as
shown in response to a step input. Determine
the slew rate.
 ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑆𝑅 =
∆𝑡

+9𝑉 − (−9𝑉)
𝑆𝑅 =
1𝜇𝑠
18𝑉
𝑆𝑅 =
𝜇𝑠
 As the frequency of the input signal
increases, the open-loop gain drops off until
it finally reaches the value of 1 (unity). The
frequency at this gain value is specified by the
manufacturer as the unity-gain bandwidth
For low frequency and DC input

Unity-gain
frequency

Unity-Gain Bandwidth
 Determine the cutoff frequency of an op-amp
having specified values B1 = 1 MHz and AVD =
200 V/mV
 -AvVi

Ro=0
-AvVi=Vo
Ri=∞ -AvVi
-AvVi=Vo
-AvVi=Vo
 Unity Gain
 Constant Magnitude Gain
 Virtual Ground

-AvVi=Vo

Vi=0

Ii=0
 Inverting Amplifier
is more widely used
because it has
better frequency
stability
 If the circuit below has R1=100kΩ and Rf=500kΩ,
what output voltage results for an input of
V1=2V?
 Calculate the output voltage of a non-inverting
amplifier for values Vi=2V, Rf=500kΩ and
R1=100kΩ.