NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are large biological molecules (macromolecules, polymers), that are crucial in all
life forms. They were discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. There are two kinds of nucleic
acids: DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA) and RiboNucleic Acid (RNA); both are composed of
monomeric units known as nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components: a pentose or 5-
carbon sugar (ribose/deoxy ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is
deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA. There are 5
primary nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T),
and uracil (U).

Nucleic acids were named for their initial discovery within the nucleus, and for the presence of
phosphate groups (related to phosphoric acid). Although first discovered within the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells, nucleic acids are now known to be found in all life forms as well as some
nonliving entities, including within bacteria, archaea, mitochondria, chloroplasts, viruses and
viroids. All living cells contain both DNA and RNA (except some cells such as mature red blood
cells), while viruses contain either DNA or RNA, but usually not both.

Nucleic acids take part in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information—in other
words, information is conveyed through the nucleic acid sequence, or the order of nucleotides
within a DNA or RNA molecule. Strings of nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are
the mechanism for storing and transmitting hereditary (or genetic) information via protein
synthesis.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA
viruses). The DNA segments carrying this genetic information are called genes. Likewise, other
DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic
information. Along with RNA and proteins, DNA is one of the three major macromolecules that
are essential for all known forms of life. DNA consists of two long polymers (characteristically
as double helix) of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and
phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite directions to each
other and are, therefore, anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules
called nucleobases (informally, bases) adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. It is the
sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes information. This
information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids
within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA
in a process called transcription. Within cells DNA is organized into long structures called
chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA
replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms
(animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of
their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria
and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin
proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the
interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are
transcribed.

Ribonucleic Acid

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in converting genetic information from genes into the amino
acid sequences of proteins. The three universal types of RNA include transfer RNA (tRNA),
messenger RNA (mRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Messenger RNA acts to carry genetic
sequence information between DNA and ribosomes, directing protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA
is a major component of the ribosome, and catalyzes peptide bond formation. Transfer RNA
serves as the carrier molecule for amino acids to be used in protein synthesis, and is responsible
for decoding the mRNA.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information
from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products
of gene expression, whose existence is suggested by Jacques Monod and François Jacob.
Following transcription of primary transcript mRNA (known as pre-mRNA) by RNA
polymerase, processed, mature mRNA is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein, as
summarized in the central dogma of molecular biology.

As in DNA, mRNA genetic information is in the sequence of nucleotides, this time, adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine which are arranged into codons consisting of three bases each.
Each codon encodes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons, which terminate protein
synthesis. This process of translation of codons into amino acids requires two other types of
RNA: transfer RNA (tRNA), that mediates recognition of the codon and provides the
corresponding amino acid, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), that is the central component of the
ribosome's protein-manufacturing machinery.

Synthesis, Processing and Function

Transcription Transcription is when RNA is made from DNA. During transcription, RNA
polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process is similar
in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference, however, is that eukaryotic RNA
polymerase associates with mRNA-processing enzymes during transcription so that processing
can proceed quickly after the start of transcription. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially
processed product is termed precursor mRNA, or pre-mRNA; once completely processed, it is
termed mature mRNA.
Transport. Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport.
Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic
mRNAs must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm—a process that may be regulated
by different signaling pathways. Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed
modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore.

Translation Because prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed or transported,

translation by the ribosome can begin immediately after the end of transcription. Therefore, it
can be said that prokaryotic translation is coupled to transcription and occurs co-
transcriptionally. Eukaryotic mRNA that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm
(i.e., mature mRNA) can then be translated by the ribosome. Translation may occur at ribosomes
free-floating in the cytoplasm, or directed to the endoplasmic reticulum by the signal recognition
particle. Therefore, unlike in prokaryotes, eukaryotic translation is not directly coupled to
transcription.

The helical structure of DNA

Messenger RNA mRNA and Protein Synthesis