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EG 401 LECTURE 4
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS
FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS

• Research methods and experimental techniques form a crucial

part of the methodology.
• In engineering, detailed methodology and tasks to be carried
out depend mainly on the type of data to be collected i.e.
quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (describe by words).
• In certain conditions, qualitative data can still be converted to
numerical data and analysed by quantitative methods.
• Another aspect of scientific research concerns the research
approach, where the common approach could be inductive or
deductive or both.
• Most researchers in applied science, engineering and the built
environment prefer the deductive approach - in which a problem
is identified and then its cause and effect is confirmed by
experimental data.
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Experiments
• Experiments carried out for the purpose of collecting data to be analysed and
studied are done in the laboratory, in the field or using computer numerical
models. It also can be a combination of two or three of these techniques.
• The decision on which experimental approach need to be used depends on the
objectives and scope of the research. Each method has its own strengths,
challenges and limitations:
o A laboratory scale model has to deal with scale and similitude issues.
o The field experiment involves a lot of variants and possible disturbances.
o Computer simulation depends a lot on the input data.
• Despite the limitations and possible problems, deductive experimental research
techniques are preferable in the case of product, technique or technology
focused research. This is because it is confirmatory in nature and has specific
objectives – compared to addressing concepts and guesswork commonly seen in
the inductive approach.

Laboratory Experiments
• Laboratory experiments can be done using:
o standard testing methods,
o independently developed procedures or
o laboratory scale model investigations.
a. Standard testing methods such as those done according to SANS, BS or
ASTM or other established standards, are commonly used to test materials
and systems to be used in or related to the research or investigation.
• In engineering and built environment, these tests can relate to strength,
environmental and durability characteristics – e.g. tensile, water quality and
water absorption.
• The standard tests are usually performed to gather preliminary data on the
material to be used in model testing or field experiments. In the case of
numerical or computer modelling, results from standard laboratory tests can
be used as specific input data for the model.
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For example, in a computer structural model, data on material

properties such as strength, modulus and dimensions have to be
established before the computer numerical model investigation can
proceed.

b. Scientific research is about discovery of new things, methods,

systems or theories. Thus it is almost inevitable that in the course of
most experimental research, a researcher MAY come up with one or
more independent & new procedures that can be calibrated and
repeated to obtain the desired results.
• The proposed/new procedure can be very simple or very
sophisticated. It could simply relate to a small portion of the
investigation, but could also relate to the major part for the research.
In this case, data and discussion on repeatability and measurement
of uncertainty must be provided in the research report or thesis.
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c. Laboratory scale model is a small scale, physical model of a larger

actual element/system. It may also be a prototype structure. Such models
are constructed in a laboratory and tested under controlled and monitored
conditions. The advantages of small scale models include: controlled
varied loading conditions, observable effect of extreme/failure loading
conditions, and the reasonable / minimum cost of making such models.
• However, scale models have other issues to be considered such as
boundary conditions and similitude.
• Similitude is the appropriate scaling effect of multiple variants such as
dimensional, force, time, instrumentation, etc.
• While dimensions may be simply scaled, other parameters such as
pressure, temp, velocities and fluid type may need to be appropriately
altered in a model.
• Similitude is achieved when testing conditions are created such that the
test results are applicable to real design.
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Field Experiments
• Experiments carried out in the field require careful planning and coordination.
Reasonable contingencies in terms of budget and time must be considered. Controlling
and monitoring the changing parameters on site as well as the security of the
instrumentation/apparatus must also be seriously considered.
• As with other experiments, the purpose of field experiment is to collect data for the
research.
• It is worth noting that field data could be compromised by the various influences from
natural conditions in the field. For example:
• If one is dealing with the ground, the variation in water table may be hard to control because the water
movement in soil may extend to distant locations - something that MAY not be controlled but can only be
observed as part of the research.
• Astronomers study the sky by observation: What is happening in the sky cannot be controlled; it
can only be observed. Based on observations, scientist and researchers are able to make some
conclusions and theories.
• Thus, it is important for researchers to differentiate between observations and
experiment data collection methods.

Modelling
• A model is an idealisation of the part of real world that aids
in the analysis of a problem.
• In engineering we come across several conceptual models
like free body diagram, electric circuit diagram, etc.
• A model may be either descriptive or predictive
• A descriptive model enables us to understand the real-world
system or phenomenon (eg: sectional model of an aircraft gas
turbine).
• A predictive model on the other hand is used primarily in
engineering design because, it helps us to both understand and
predict the performance of a system (e.g. a model of a water
reticulation system).
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MATHEMATICAL MODELS
• A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe
a system.
• Mathematical models are not only used in natural sciences and
engineering disciplines but also in social sciences. Physicists,
engineers, computer scientist and economists use
mathematical models extensively.
• The process of developing a mathematical model is termed as
mathematical modelling”.
• Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not
limited to dynamical system statistical models, differential
equations, etc

• A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of

variables and a set of equations that establish relationships between
variables.
• The values of variables can be practically anything; real numbers,
integer numbers or Boolean values.
• An example of a model showing the steady – state relationship
between the temperature and heat flow in a material is given by
Fourier’s Law of Heat conduction.

• The heat transfer Qh is related to the temperature gradient in the

direction of heat flow dT/dx
• The negative sign indicates that there is a temperature drop in the
direction of flow.
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Computer Numerical Model

• Computer numerical modelling is considered another method of carrying
out experiments. Presently there are various computer codes/software that
can be utilised to construct models.
• One of them is the Finite Element (FEM) technique. This involves an
assembly of FEM instructions that have been pre-programmed to
accomplish certain tasks. Another popular technique in engineering
investigations is the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis used to
simulate the action of thermo-fluids in a system.
• In the past, researchers were required to write their own FEM or CFD
program in order to come up with computer numerical models of their
investigation. Today, however, there are various types of software that can
be utilised to construct numerical models and simulations.
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• Notwithstanding, some researchers still prefer to write their own

programmes as that allows them more freedom of decision in their
experimentation. This can be time consuming.
• By using the FEM or CFD techniques to construct a model, a researcher
will be able to control the various input parameters and study the
output – the cause and effect. In this regard it is worth noting that the
quality and accuracy of the output or data or observation is as good as the
input data (garbage in, garbage out!).
• In some computer numerical modelling studies, realistic input data must
first be obtained from laboratory testing of the material involved in the
studies. The model must also be calibrated against known or previously
recorded events or cases that may jeopardise the outcome.

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SIMULATION
• Simulation refers to the application of computational models to the
study and prediction of physical events or the behaviour of engineered
systems.
• The development of computer simulation has been drawn from a deep
pool of scientific, mathematical, computational knowledge and
methodologies
• Simulation provides a powerful alternative to the techniques of
experimental science and observation when phenomena are not
observable or when measurements are impracticable or too expensive.
• In the recent past simulation theory and technology has made dramatic
impact in many engineering fields. This has come about mainly
because of developments in the computational and computer sciences
and the rapid advancement in computing equipment and systems.

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System simulation
• System simulation comprises of a mathematics model of a real world
situation called ‘the system’, in such a way that the model behaves like the
actual system to events and inputs that takes place over time.
• It involves designing a model of a real system and conducting experiments
with this model for the purpose of understanding the behaviour of the
system or evaluating various strategies for the operation of the system.
• By collecting data on system’s response under various conditions, it is
possible to learn how the real system may perform, without having to
attempt costly experiments with the actual system.
• One main advantage of simulation is that it can be conveniently
manipulated until the designed results are obtained.
• Simulation can be performed on existing systems to identify options for
problem solving or system improvements.

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Some simulation applications

• To help detail and measure the presence of biological or chemical
contaminants in the air, and given the weather data, identify the likely
release location and magnitude of the release. This can help to
design a response plan.
• Optimize the designs of buildings and other infrastructure elements.
Such designs could be site specific, interact well with natural
surrounding and blend with other urban systems of which they are a
part.
• Can help predict the effects of effluents from existing and proposed
facilities in urban and natural environments. This will increase the
reliability and usefulness of environmental impact studies.
• Can be used to assist in the design and placement of air and water
contaminant disposal and flood abetment.
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Data Collection
• Data collected by researchers from experiments is analysed or
processed to produce meaningful conclusions.
• There are four major ways to collect data: surveys,
observation, computer simulation and experiment.
• As indicated earlier, computer model simulation may be
considered as an experiment - in addition to laboratory and field
experiments.
• In experiments, one or more independent variables can be
changed and the outcome is recorded.
• If the independent variable cannot be controlled, the
investigation is not an experiment. Instead it is an observation
(although it is still the act of collecting data) - as noted earlier.
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Instrumentation and Sensors

• Instrumentation is a system used to control, measure and
transmit information or data during the experimentation process.
• Typical instrumentations include hardware for transducers and
software for data processing and storage.
• A transducer is a device that converts a physical parameter
sensed by its sensor into an analogue electrical signal.
• Some common transducers and their applications are described
in the following table

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Common transducers used in civil engineering

research

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Data Logging
• Transducers described above produce analogue electrical signals that need to be
converted to a digital signal for it to be able to be used in digital computer processing.
• This can be done through the use of specialised hardware and software called a data
logger. In some situations, if the analogue signal is too small or too noisy, it has to go
through another piece of hardware called an amplifier to be filtered and amplified first.
• There are two general classes of data loggers. One is the static data logger and the
other one is the dynamic data logger. The choice of use depends on the type and
quality of data required.
• If the required data is very sensitive to time such as impact, vibration and other high-
speed phenomena, the dynamic data logger is required. The static data logger is
sufficient for tests such as load, pressure and temperature tests.
• The data capture interval for a static data logger is usually only up to one second
interval. However, in the case of dynamic data logger the interval can be set to micro
or nano seconds (usually in terms of hertz i.e. 1000hz, 5000hz or 25000hz – cycles
per second).

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