Friction clutch

A friction clutch is a clutch in which the drive is transmitted by the friction between surfaces
attached to the driving and driven shafts. These surfaces are lined with cork, asbestos, or
other fibrous material. Cars with friction clutches need to have the linings replaced
periodically. Friction clutches are by far the most well-known type of clutches. A clutch is a
mechanical device that provides for the transmission of power (and therefore usually motion)
from one component (the driving member) to another (the driven member) when engaged,
but can be disengaged. Clutches are used whenever the transmission of power or motion
needs to be controlled either in amount or over time (e.g., electric screwdrivers limit how
much torque is transmitted through use of a clutch; clutches control whether automobiles
transmit engine power to the wheels). In the simplest application, clutches are employed in
devices which have two rotating shafts (drive shaft or line shaft). In these devices, one shaft
is typically attached to a motor or other power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft
(the driven member) provides output power for work to be done. In a torque-controlled drill,
for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch
connects the two shafts so that they may be locked together and spin at the same speed
(engaged), locked together but spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and
spinning at different speeds (disengaged).
Center of Gravity of a Trapezoidal lamina

The center of gravity of a trapezoid can be estimated by dividing the trapezoid in two
triangles. Nickzom Calculator calculates the centre of gravity of a trapezium with parallel
sides a and b at a distance measured from side b. The formula for calculating this center of
gravity is:

C.G. = h (b + 2a) / 3 (b + a) Where, a and b are the length of the parallel sides of the trapezium (b
being the base length and a being the top length) whereas h is the height of the trapezium.
A Barometer
in the mid-17th century, an Italian scientist by the name of Evangelista Torricelli, decided to
create a device to measure atmospheric pressure. This device is called the barometer.

The function of a barometer is to let pressure is rising or falling. They are essential tools for
weather forecasters and scientists when it comes to understanding the nature of storms or
predicting changes in weather.
In his experiment he took a tube and filled it with water. He then turned this filled tube upside
down and placed it in a pool of water. As the water slowly drained he realized the only force
acting on the water was air. This experimental tool was not only creating a vacuum, but a
balance was being established between two different forces: (1) the force of the atmosphere
air exerting on the water and (2) the force of the water inside the tube. He saw that the water
would continue to drain until these two pressures were balanced.

This first experiment was quite large in design. Let's just say the the glass tube was almost 35
feet high. In an effort to make a more compact experiment, he decided to use mercury as
opposed to water. Mercury (13.534g/cm3) was denser than water (1.00 g/cm3), causing it to
fall farther than water in the tube. More importantly, the use of a dense element further
supported Torricelli's explanation that atmospheric weight was a factor.
Fortin’s barometer
The barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. Fortin’s barometer is a
modified form of Torricelli’s simple barometer.
Construction
A Fortin’s barometer consists of a narrow glass tube of length about 90 cm. This tube is
closed at one end. The tube is completely filled with mercury and kept inverted in a cistern
filled with dry mercury. Usually, the glass tube is protected by enclosing it in a brass tube.
The upper part of the brass tube has a slit that enables the level of the mercury in the glass
tube to be seen. A scale graduated in millimetres is attached to the brass tube. This functions
as the main scale. For accurate measurement, a vernier scale that can slide over the main
scale is also fixed to the barometer. The vernier scale can be moved up and down using a
screw. The bottom of the cistern is like a bag made of flexible leather. The mercury level can
be adjusted by means of a screw provided underneath. There is an ivory pointer in the cistern,
placed at the top. The tip of this pointer coincides with the zero of the main scale. The level
of the mercury column in the cistern can be changed with the screw under it. It is so adjusted
that the ivory point is exactly at the surface of the mercury in the cistern. The whole
apparatus is fixed in a vertical position.
Working
Any change in the atmospheric pressure is accompanied by an immediate change in the level
of the mercury in the glass tube. As the height of the mercury column in the barometer
changes, mercury flows between the tube and cistern. As a result, the level of the mercury in
the cistern also changes. To determine the length of the mercury column in the barometer, it
is necessary to know the position of the free surface in the cistern as well as in the tube. The
first step in measuring atmospheric pressure using Fortin’s barometer is to set the mercury
level in the cistern. Using the adjustment screw, set the level of the mercury in the cistern
such that the ivory pointer just touches the mercury. The reading of the top of the mercury
column is then measured using both the main scale and the vernier scale. Before the readings
are noted, the vernier scale needs to be positioned properly. The vernier scale is to be
adjusted so that its edge and the corresponding reading in the main scale just set tangentially
to the meniscus. Now, the readings on the main scale and the vernier scale are noted, and the
atmospheric pressure is calculated.
Advantages
Fortin’s barometer is widely used in laboratories and in meteorological departments. The
main advantages of Fortin’s barometer are :

 It is portable.

 It allows the mercury level in the cistern to be set to zero. This makes the reading
more accurate
Correction for barometer
The corrections that must be applied to the reading of a mercury barometer in order that this
observed value may be rendered accurate. There are four kinds. 1) The instrument
correction is the mean difference between the readings of a given mercury barometer and
those of a standard instrument. It is a composite correction, including the effects
of capillarity, index misalignment, imperfect vacuum, and scale correction, which are
the barometric errors. 2) The temperature correction is applied to account for the difference
between the coefficient of expansion of mercury and that of the scale. 3) The gravity
correction is necessary because the acceleration of gravity varies with
both altitude and latitude. 4) The removal correction is applied when the barometer
elevation differs from the adopted station elevation and/or climatologically station elevation. 
Faulty barometer
A faulty barometer contains certain amount of air and saturated water vapour. It reads 74.0
cm when the atmospheric pressure is 76.0 cm of mercury and reads 72.10 cm when the
atmospheric pressure is 74.0 cm of mercury. Saturation vapour pressure at the air temperature
=1.0 cm of mercury. Find the length of the barometer tube above the mercury level in the
reservoir.

Let the barometer has a length = x

Height of air above the mercury column = (x – 74 – 1) = (x – 73)

Pressure of air = 76 – 74 – 1 = 1 cm

For 2nd case height of air above = (x – 72.1 – 1 – 1) = (x – 71.1)

Pressure of air = (74 – 72.1 – 1) = 0.99 (x – 73)(1) =9/10(x – 71.1)       

=> 10(x – 73) = 9 (x – 71.1) => x = 10 × 73 – 9 × 71.1 = 730 – 639.9 = 90.1

Height of air = 90.1

Height of barometer tube above the mercury column = 90.1 + 1 = 91.1 mm