ABEn 156

ABEn 156
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Student Learning Guide • Volume 1
TP-IMD-02 v0 No. CET.ABE SLG.20-04
Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE
College of
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
2020
Department of
AGRICULTURAL AND
BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
No copies, temporary or permanent, in whole or in part of
this instructional material shall be made without written
permission from the author.
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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No.
Vision
A globally competitive university for science, technology,

and environmental conservation
Mission
Development of a highly competitive human resource,

cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative
technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
Quality Policy
The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

law to provide excellent instruction, conduct relevant research and foster
community engagement that produce highly competent graduates necessary
for the development of the country. Toward this end, we, at the Visayas State
University, commit to:
1. produce highly competent, quality and world-class manpower in
science and technology (S&T), especially for agriculture, environmental
management and industry who are proficient in communication skills,
critical thinking and analytical abilities,
2. generate and disseminate relevant knowledge and technology that lead
to improved productivity, profitability and sustainability in agriculture,
environment and industry,
3. satisfy the needs of the industry, the community and government sector
who are in need of quality graduates and technology ready for
commercialization through the establishment, operation, maintenance
and continuous improvement of a Quality Management System which
is aligned with the requirements of ISO 9001:2015.
It shall be the policy of the university that the quality policies and procedures
are communicated to and understood by all faculties, staff, students and other
stakeholders and that the system shall be continually improved for their
relevance and effectiveness.
ii ABEn 156: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
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Student Learning Guide in
ABEn 156 – Irrigation

and Drainage
Engineering
Volume 1
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Foreword
This instructional material follows the minimum requirements in the

policies, standards and guidelines of the Commission on Higher
Education for Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering (BSABE). Additional topics are also included to enhance
further learning in irrigation and drainage engineering.
The approach in this instructional material is outcomes-based. As the

learning outcomes, the students are expected to be able to possess
these knowledge, skills and attitude after completing the course: (1)
discuss the importance of irrigation and drainage engineering for
sustainable agriculture; (2) interpret the field data for designing irrigation
and drainage systems; (3) design irrigation and drainage systems (4)
evaluate irrigation and drainage system; and (5) prepare feasibility
studies of irrigation and drainage projects.
This course addresses the following program outcomes in the

Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
program: (1) apply knowledge of mathematics and science to solve
agricultural engineering problems; (2) design a system, component or
process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints, in accordance
with the standards; (3) function in multidisciplinary and multi-cultural
teams; (4) identify, formulate, and solve complex problems; (5)
communicate effectively complex agricultural engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large; and (6) understand
the impact of agricultural engineering solutions in a global, economic,
environmental, and societal context.
Roberto C. Guarte, Ph.D.

Dean
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Acknowledgment
The author expresses his gratitude for the supervision, quality management
and content improvement provided by the Head of the Department of
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Engr. Eldon P. De Padua, the Dean
of the College of Engineering and Technology, Dr. Roberto C. Guarte, and the
Office of Instructional Materials Development headed by Dr. Ma. Rachel Kim
L. Aure.
The author is very thankful for the close overall supervision during the
production of this material provided by the management and staff of the Quality
Assurance Center headed by its Director, Dr. Editha G. Cagasan, and the
Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs of Visayas State University
headed by the Vice President for Academic Affairs, Dr. Beatriz S. Belonias.
To the members of my family for the all-out support during the preparation of
this instructional material and the Almighty Provider for the knowledge,
strength and opportunity to share knowledge to the young generations, my
wholehearted gratitude.
Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE

Author
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About the Author
Prof. Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE
The author received the Bachelor of Science

in Agricultural Engineering degree, cum
laude, at the Visayas State College of
Agriculture (now Visayas State University) in
1984, and the degree of Master of
Engineering specialized in irrigation and
drainage engineering at the Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand, in 1986. He is a 16th
placer in the Licensure Examination for
Professional Agricultural Engineers. He is
the author of the software “Bytex Feasibility
Analyzer” and the book "Biogas Plant
Design." He was awarded as the 1994 Most
Outstanding Agricultural Engineer by the
Philippine Society of Agricultural Engineers,
the Professional Regulation Commission,
and the Philippine Federation of
Professional Associations. He is a recipient
of the His Excellency Fidel V. Ramos
Presidential award for his paper on the
telemetering of hydroelectric power plants in
the Philippines. Currently, he serves as
Professor of Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering at Visayas State University. The
author has also served as Professor of
Agricultural Engineering at the Main Campus
of Mindanao State University, as Visiting
Computer Consultant at the IIU, Malaysia,
and as Trainor On-Call for Long-range
Energy Alternatives Planning at the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, FAO Regional Office for Asia and
the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Table of Contents
Vision i
Mission i
Quality Policy i
Title Page iii
Foreword iv
Acknowledgment v
About the Author vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Course Information xi
Module 1: Introduction to Irrigation and Drainage

Engineering 20
Module Pretest 20
Lesson 1.1: General Information 21
Lesson 1.2: Sources of Irrigation Water 28
Lesson 1.3: Irrigation Structures 37
Lesson 1.4: Innovations and Computer Applications in Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering 50
Module Posttest 58
Module Quiz 58
Module 2: Soil Physics in Relation to Irrigation 59
Module Pretest 59
Lesson 2.1: The Soil, Its Physical and Mechanical Properties 60
Lesson 2.2: Estimating Moisture Availability and Deficiency in the Field 77
Lesson 2.3: Basic Soil-Plant-Water Relations 83
Module Posttest 92
Module Quiz 92
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List of Tables
Tab. 2. 1. Potential rooting depths of mature crops when grown in a

deep permeable, well-drained soil under normal
conditions.................................................................................. 63
Tab. 2. 2. The general relationship of bulk density to root growth ............. 67
Tab. 2. 3. Estimated soil moisture level in percent and the
corresponding irrigation action needed for three soil
textural groups ......................................................................... 68
Tab. 2. 4. Guide on estimating soil moisture condition by
appearance and feel method .................................................... 80
Tab. 2. 5. Fiel capacity, permanent wilting point, bulk density and
water holding capacity of common soil textures ....................... 86
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List of Figures
Fig. 1. 1. Taal Volcano crater as a simple watershed ................................. 29

Fig. 1. 2. Luzon Island watershed bounded by mountain ridges ................. 29
Fig. 1. 3. Agashashok River watershed with two visible subsidiary
watersheds ................................................................................ 30
Fig. 1. 4. Mekong River watershed covering parts of Myanmar,
China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia in Asia ..............30
Fig. 1. 5. Digital elevation model of watersheds and subsidiary
watersheds of Zion National Park, Utah, generated using
LiDAR spatial data ..................................................................... 31
Fig. 1. 6. River network of Biliran, Philippines, generated using
ArcSWAT and GIS software ....................................................... 31
Fig. 1. 7. Map of Mekong River passing through Myanmar, China,
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia showing multiple
dams .......................................................................................... 32
Fig. 1. 8. Image of the Earth showing Nile River taken from the ISS........... 32
Fig. 1. 9. Mouth of the aquifer at Enchanted River, Surigao del Sur,
Philippines ................................................................................. 33
Fig. 1. 10. Drone-taken photograph of Tinago Falls, Biliran,
Philippines ................................................................................. 33
Fig. 1. 11. The Aral Sea as a huge freshwater resource in Central
Asia............................................................................................ 34
Fig. 1. 12. Part of Aral Sea near Alar in Southern Kazakhstan ................... 34
Fig. 1. 13. Pantabangan Dam used for irrigation, electricity
generation and flood control ....................................................... 38
Fig. 1. 14. Spillway with sluice gates .......................................................... 38
Fig. 1. 15. Kokaral Dam in the Aral Sea ..................................................... 39
Fig. 1. 16. Nile River barrage-type low head dam ....................................... 39
Fig. 1. 17. Typical irrigation canal network.................................................. 40
Fig. 1. 18. Primary irrigation canal with headworks ..................................... 40
Fig. 1. 19. Primary irrigation canal .............................................................. 41
Fig. 1. 20. Primary canal showing diversion outlets into secondary
canals ........................................................................................ 41
Fig. 1. 21. Secondary irrigation canal with plastic siphon tubes .................. 42
Fig. 1. 22. Secondary and tertiary irrigation canals ..................................... 42
Fig. 1. 23. Tertiary irrigation canal or ditch.................................................. 43
Fig. 1. 24. NIA water diversion headwork ................................................... 43
Fig. 1. 25. Heady-duty cast iron sluice gate ................................................ 44
Fig. 1. 26. Multi-purpose water control gate for installation ......................... 44
Fig. 1. 27. Farmer-fabricated canal check gate .......................................... 45
Fig. 1. 28. Canal fall structure..................................................................... 45
Fig. 1. 29. Combination of aqueduct and inverted siphon structures
crossing a railway in Alberta, Canada ........................................ 46
Fig. 1. 30. Open channel concreting using advanced technology ............... 50
Fig. 1. 31. Use of satellite remote sensing technology in mapping
irrigation channels ...................................................................... 51
Fig. 1. 32. Irrigation aqueduct for conveying water over land
depressions ............................................................................... 51
Fig. 1. 33. Use of solar-powered irrigation system ...................................... 51
Fig. 1. 34. Center pivot sprinkler irrigation system ...................................... 52
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Fig. 1. 35. Fertigation or combining fertilization with irrigation in

hydroponics ............................................................................... 52
Fig. 1. 36. Award-winning innovation on water conservation: mobile
drip irrigation system developed by Kansas State
University ................................................................................... 52
Fig. 1. 37. Sluice gate design software ....................................................... 53
Fig. 1. 38. Open channel hydraulics software ............................................. 53
Fig. 1. 39. Computer workbook for designing trapezoidal concrete
channel network ......................................................................... 54
Fig. 1. 40. Computer workbook for gravity dam design ............................... 54
Fig. 1. 41. Canal automation system using Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition technology ....................................................... 54
Fig. 2. 1. Typical soil profile ........................................................................ 60
Fig. 2. 2. A typical profile of the upper soil layer ......................................... 61
Fig. 2. 3. Water flow in and out of the root zone ......................................... 62
Fig. 2. 4. Location of water, air and root in a soil aggregate at the
root zone .................................................................................... 62
Fig. 2. 5. USDA soil texture diagram .......................................................... 64
Fig. 2. 6. Soil structure types ...................................................................... 65
Fig. 2. 7. Bulk density sampling .................................................................. 66
Fig. 2. 8. Gypsum block moisture tester ..................................................... 72
Fig. 2. 9. Multipurpose sensors that measure soil moisture, soil pH
and plant exposure to light ......................................................... 73
Fig. 2. 10. Soil moisture sensor .................................................................. 73
Fig. 2. 11. Tensiometer ..............................................................................74
Fig. 2. 12. Appearance and feel of clay, clay loam and silty clay loam
soils ........................................................................................... 78
Fig. 2. 13. Appearance and feel of sandy clay loam and loam soils ............ 78
Fig. 2. 14. Appearance and feel of fine sand and loamy fine sand
soils ........................................................................................... 79
Fig. 2. 15. The soil as a foundation for the plant ......................................... 84
Fig. 2. 16. Sign of no water stress .............................................................. 87
Fig. 2. 17. Sign of mild water stress............................................................ 87
Fig. 2. 18. Sign of moderate water stress ................................................... 88
Fig. 2. 19. Sign of severe water stress ....................................................... 88
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Course Information
2nd Semester, AY 2020-2021
ABEn 156 - Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Class Schedule: ______________
Name of the Program Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Course Code ABEn 156
Course Title Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Pre-requisites Fundamentals of Surveying, Hydrometeorology, Differential
Equation, Principles of Soil Science, Principles of Crop Science,
Principles of Animal Science
Co-requisite None
Credit 3 units
Semester Offered Second Semester
Number of hours 2 hours lecture and 3 hours laboratory per week
Course Description Soil-plant-water relationships; flow measurement; use and selection
of pumps; survey of irrigation and drainage systems; system planning
and design.
Program Outcomes (POs) addressed by the Course Outcomes (COs)
Program Outcomes Code
a b c d e f g h i j k l M
CO 1:
Discuss the importance of and
purposes of irrigation and drainage D D D
engineering for sustainable
agriculture
CO 2:
Interpret the field data for irrigation D D D D D D D
and drainage systems
CO 3:
Design irrigation and drainage D D D D D D
systems
CO 4:
Evaluate irrigation and drainage D D D D D D D
systems
Note: I=Introductory, E=Enabling, D=for demonstrative (Level of competency a course outcome should
achieve to address a specific Program Outcome as indicated in the CMO)
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OBTL Course Contents and Plan

Teaching Learning Assessment Schedule of
Week Topics
Activities Activities Task Submission
CO1. Discuss the importance of and purposes of irrigation and drainage engineering for sustainable
agriculture
Module 0:  Distribution of  Taking down
Abridged OBTL the Student of notes
Syllabus/Course Info. Learning  Discussion
1 Class Policies Guides during the
Class Requirements  Virtual virtual
Grading System Meeting meeting
Activities (30 minutes)  Instructions
Module 1:  Learning  Pretest  Assessment  One week,

Introduction to Instructions Exercises/ after the
Irrigation and through the  Solving Assignments exercise,
Drainage sample quiz, long,
Student
exercises or term
Engineering Learning  Module Quiz assignment
Guides or exam.
Lesson 1.1: General  Solving  Special is given.
Information (30 min.)  Consultation Assessment Module
and follow-up exercises
Lesson 1.2: Sources Project (if  Please see
of Irrigation Water meetings with applicable) class
students either  Solving policies for
1-2 (60 min.)
through SMS, supplemental details
exercises  Laboratory
Lesson 1.3: Irrigation Messenger,
Facebook, Exercise(s)
Structures (60 min)
Email, Courier  Posttest
Lesson 1.4: Innovations
and Computer
Applications in
Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering (60 min)
CO 2: Interpret the field data for irrigation and drainage systems

Module 2:  Learning  Pre-test  Assessment  One week,
Soil Physics in Instructions Exercises/ after the
Relation to Irrigation  Solving Assignments exercise,
through the
sample quiz, long,
Student
exercises or term
Lesson 2.1: The Soil, Learning  Module Quiz assignment
Its Physical and Guides or exam.
Mechanical  Solving  Special is given.
3-5 Properties (240 min)  Consultation Assessment Module
and follow-up exercises
Project (if  Please see
Lesson 2.2: meetings with applicable) class
Estimating Moisture students either  Solving policies for
Availability and through SMS, supplemental details
exercises  Laboratory
Deficiency in the Messenger,
Facebook, Exercise(s)
Field (60 min.)
Email, Courier  Post-test
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Lesson 2.3: Basic

Soil-Plant-Water
Relations (180 min)
Flow of Water Into Instructions Exercises/ after the
 Solving exercise,
and Through the Soil through the Assignments
sample quiz, long,
Lesson 3.1: Infiltration, Student exercises or term
Learning  Module Quiz
Percolation and assignment
Guides  Solving or exam.
Seepage (60 min)
6  Consultation Assessment  Special is given.
Lesson 3.2: and follow-up exercises Module
Permeability, meetings with
Project (if  Please see
Hydraulic students either
 Solving applicable) class
through SMS,
Conductivity and Messenger, supplemental policies for
Darcy’s Law (60 m) Facebook, exercises  Laboratory details
Email, Courier  Post-test Exercise(s)
Crop Water Instructions Exercises/ after the
Requirements and  Solving exercise,
through the Assignments
Responses to sample quiz, long,
Student exercises
Water Insufficiency and or term
Learning  Module Quiz assignment
Excess
LESSON 4.1: Assessment  Special is given.
Consumptive Use (30  Consultation exercises Module
min) and follow-up  Please see
7 Project (if
meetings with  Solving applicable) class
Lesson 4.2: Methods of students either
supplemental policies for
Estimating through SMS,
Messenger, exercises  Laboratory details
Consumptive Use (60
Facebook,  Post-test Exercise(s)
min)
Email, Courier
Lesson 4.3: Crop
Response to Flooding
and Water Logging (30
min)
8 Midterm Examination (Modules 1 to 4)

CO 3: Design irrigation and drainage systems
Open Channel Instructions Exercises/ after the
Design through the Assignments
sample quiz, long,
Student exercises
Lesson 5.1: Design or term
Learning  Module Quiz assignment
Criteria and Formulas Guides  Solving
(60 min) or exam.
Assessment  Special is given.
9-11  Consultation exercises Module
Lesson 5.2: Design of and follow-up
Concrete Open Project (if  Please see
meetings with  Solving
Channels (240 m) applicable) class
students either
supplemental policies for
through SMS,
Lesson 5.3: Design of
Messenger, exercises  Laboratory details
Unlined Open Facebook,  Post-test
Channels (60 m)
Exercise(s)
Email, Courier
Methods of Irrigation Instructions Exercises/ after the
12 Application and through the Assignments
sample quiz, long,
System Applications Student exercises or term
 Module Quiz assignment
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Lesson 6.1: Irrigation Learning  Solving or exam.

Scheduling (30 m) Guides Assessment  Special is given.
 Consultation exercises Module
Lesson 6.2: Irrigation and follow-up  Please see
Application by Project (if
meetings with  Solving class
Flooding (30 m) applicable)
students either supplemental policies for
through SMS, details
Lesson 6.3: Sprinkler exercises  Laboratory
Messenger,
and Drip Irrigation
Facebook,  Post-test Exercise(s)
Systems (60 m) Email, Courier
Module 7:  Learning  Pre-test  AssessmentE  One week,
Drainage Instructions xercises/ after the
 Solving
through the sample Assignments exercise,
Lesson 7.1: Estimation Student exercises quiz, long,
of Drainage Discharge Learning or term
Guides  Solving  Module Quiz assignment
(30 min)
 Consultation Assessment or exam.
13 exercises  Special
Lesson 7.2: Surface and follow-up is given.
meetings with Module
Drainage (60 min)
students either  Solving Project (if  Please see
through SMS, supplemental applicable) class
Lesson 7.3: Subsurface exercises
Messenger, policies for
Drainage (30 min)  Laboratory
Facebook,  Post-test details
Email, Courier Exercise(s)
CO 4: Evaluate irrigation and drainage systems

Flow Measurement Instructions Exercises/ after the
through the  Solving exercise,
Assignments
Lesson 8.1: Using Student sample quiz, long,
Current Meters (30 Learning exercises or term
Guides  Module Quiz assignment
min)
 Solving or exam.
13  Consultation and
follow-up Assessment  Special is given.
Lesson 8.2: Float
meetings with exercises Module
Method (30 min)
students either  Solving Project (if  Please see
Lesson 8.3: Using through SMS,
supplemental applicable) class
Messenger,
Flumes and Weirs (60 exercises policies for
Facebook, Email,  Laboratory
min) Courier  Post-test details
Exercise(s)
Evaluating the Instructions Exercises/ after the
Feasibility of through the Assignments
sample quiz, long,
Irrigation and Student exercises or term
Drainage Projects Learning  Module Quiz assignment
Lesson 9.1: Using the
Feasibility Study Assessment  Special is given.
Software (60 min)  Consultation exercises Module
and follow-up Project  Please see
Lesson 9.2: Software meetings with
14-15 Input of Investments,
 Solving (Feasibility class
students either
Operating Costs and supplemental Study) policies for
through SMS,
Benefits Data (60 min) Messenger, exercises details
Facebook,  Post-test  Laboratory
Lesson 9.3: Financial and
Email, Courier Exercise(s)
Economic Analyses (60
min)
Lesson 9.4: Interpretation
of Feasibility Indicators
and Feasibility Study
Discussion (60 min)
16 Final Examination (Modules 5 to 9)
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Flexible Learning Resources
References
A. E-books/Textbooks (in order of relation to the course)
Waller & Yitayew. 2016. Irrigation and drainage engineering.

University of Arizona, Arizona, USA
Asawa GL. 2008. Irrigation and water resources engineering.

New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, India
Garg SK. 2005. Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures. Khanna Publishers, Delhi, India
Hansen VE, Stringham GE & Israelsen OW. 1980. Irrigation Principles and Practices, 4 th
edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA
FAO. 1986a. Soil and Water. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
Italy
http://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e03.htm#TopOfPage
FAO. 1986b. Drainage. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
FAO. 1986c. Irrigation System. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, Italy
AMTEC. 2016a. General irrigation terminologies: Philippine agricultural engineering standard

number 601:2016. University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016c. Open channels - design of main canals, laterals and farm ditches: Philippine
agricultural engineering standard number 603:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016d. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open channels –

determination of seepage: Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 604:2016.
UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016e. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open channels –

determination of conveyance loss: Philippine agricultural engineering standard number
605:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016f. Design of canal structures - road crossing drop siphon and elevated flume:
Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 606:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016g. Rainwater and runoff management – small water impounding system:
Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 609:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016h. Rainwater and runoff management – small farm reservoir: Philippine
agricultural engineering standard number 610:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
FAO. 2014. Bioenergy and Food Security Rapid Appraisal User Manual - Crop Production.
FAO, Rome, Italy
Mayuga J. 2019. Agricultural Biodiversity as a Way of Life. Business Mirror, Manila, Philippines
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businessmirror.com.ph/2019/08/19/agricultural-biodiversity-as-a-way-of-life/
Mizyed N. No Date. Agricultural Practices and Irrigation. An-Najah National University, Nablus,
West Bank, Palestine. Retrieved 6-1-2020.
https://wesi.najah.edu/sites/default/files/Irrigation.pdf
B. Faculty Developed PowerPoint and Self-Learning Materials
Tambong AI. 2020. Learning Guide in Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. Visayas State
University, Baybay City, Philippines
PowerPoint Presentations
C. YouTube Links (Free)
The Early History of Water in the Imperial Valley – from Desert into Productive Irrigated Land
by IID Video
https://youtu.be/KAsntugo710
Kitadate Irrigation System by ICID CIID

https://youtu.be/nM-_Spb5SPM
Ten Most Beautiful Largest Dams in the World by 4 Ever Green

https://youtu.be/pzof8Xd3Ygw?list=TLPQMTMwNzIwMjAQxViiGgkmjA
All American Canal Lining Project Documentary by MBI Media

https://youtu.be/UEc1Qi2tjOs
Canal Construction Project Using EPDM Canal Lining by 2MCompanyInc

https://youtu.be/1SjdHyqt7GM
Furrow Irrigation by Organic Farming Research Foundation

https://youtu.be/CEQjuc0gpmM
Irrigation Canal Maintenance by AgriLifeWildLifeFish

https://youtu.be/TTyN268VqOc?list=TLPQMTMwNzIwMjAQxViiGgkmjA
Goal Seek Open Channel Analysis

by Kenneth Lamb
https://youtu.be/FAqNj8Zm6H8
Canal Irrigation System Software - How Does it Work

by Discovery Agriculture
https://youtu.be/CH6guWMFsSI?list=TLPQMTMwNzIwMjAQxViiGgkmjA
D. Webinars (With Fees)
Varied Webinars Related to Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Offered by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
https://www.asce.org/continuing-education/elearning-webinars/

Offered by CED Engineering.Com
https://www.cedengineering.com/live-webinar-categories/civil-engineering
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Offered by NTH Consultants, Ltd.
http://www.nthconsultants.com/webinars.html
E. Open Educational Resources
Omics Online. 2020. Irrigation Engineering Innovations

https://www.omicsonline.org/irrigation-engineering-innovations.php
United Soybean. No Date. 7 Irrigation Advancements That Can Improve Efficiency and
Sustainability
https://www.unitedsoybean.org/article/7-irrigation-advancements-that-can-improve-efficiency-
and-sustainability
Mohamed A. 2018. Positive Prospects for Solar-powered Irrigation Systems. Pumps Africa
https://www.pumps-africa.com/positive-prospects-solar-powered-irrigation-systems
Elsayed SM. 2006. Use of remote sensing technology in mapping irrigation channel network.
ResearchGate
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328538346_APPLICATION_OF_GIS_AND_REMOTE_SE
NSING_IN_IRRIGATION_NETWORKS_MANAGEMENT
Bandara KMPS. 2005. Application of Satellite Remote Sensing for Irrigation Management
Practices in Sri Lanka. Engineer Journal XXXVIII (2), pp. 24-34, The Institution of Engineers,
Sri Lanka
Irrigation & Drainage Systems Engineering Innovations

Hilaris Publisher
https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access-journals/irrigation--drainage-systems-
engineering-innovations-17968.html
University of Canterbury. 2020. Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/courseinfo/GetCourseDetails.aspx?course=ENNR422&occurrenc
e=20S1(C)&year=2020
Adama University. 2020. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering Houndout

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/nueva-vizcaya-state-university/agricultural-and-
biosystems-engineering/other/153766620-irrigation-drainage-engineering-houndout-adama-
university/3965911/view
Indian Institute of Technology. 2020. Irrigation and Drainage

https://www.classcentral.com/course/swayam-irrigation-and-drainage-14171
Course Assessment and Evaluation

Item Percentage Individual Task
Assessment Tasks No. of Times
No. Contribution % Contribution
1 Quizzes 10% 9 1.11%/quiz
2 Assignment/Exercises 10% 9 1.11%/Assignmnt
3 Laboratory Exercises 15% 9 1.67%/Lab.Ex.
5 Midterm & Final Exams 40% 2 20%/Exam.
6 Special Module Project (SMP) 5% 4 1.25%/SMP
7 Final Course Project (FCP) 20% 1 20%/FCP
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Grading System (60% Passing)

Range Grade Range Grade
96-100 1.00 68 – 71 2.50
92-95 1.25 64 – 67 2.75
88-91 1.50 60 – 63 3.00
84-87 1.75 50 - 59 3.25
80-83 2.00 40 - 49 3.50
76-79 2.25 30 - 39 4.00
72-75 2.50 01 - 29 5.00
Course Policies
a. The course official virtual classroom is VSU E-Learning Portal

(https://elearning.vsu.edu.ph). A class orientation will be conducted on the use and
navigation of the said VSU E-Learning Portal.
b. The Flexible Learning Materials are available both in printed copies for offline
instructions and in online form for online instructions. For students who opted for
printed learning materials, printed copies are sent to their individual residences.
Students who opted for online materials, the same materials are available in the VSU
E-Learning Portal.
c. For online instructions, ZOOM or Google Meet will be used both for real-time virtual
meetings and virtual consultations which serve as avenue for synchronous teaching.
Username and password link will be posted in VSU E-Learning Portal. Attending the
virtual meeting is highly - encouraged but not compulsory. Sharing of ideas,
feedbacking of the students’ outputs and other related concerns of the course will be
done during this time
If a student cannot attend a virtual meeting due to internet connection limitation,

among others, the student is advised to just keep up with the lessons provided in the
e-learning portal and do all the required exercises independently. Assessment
exercises are given after discussing a lesson, quizzes are given every after completing
a module, and long examinations are given after completing three (3) modules. The
Final Course Project (FCP) may be given at the start of the course. Its contents are
developed progressively after discussing each module and is completed after
discussing the last module.
Submission of all requirements such as but not limited to quizzes, exercises, long
and/or term examinations, and reports should be done preferably through the VSU E-
Learning Portal or through email. However, if the internet connection is not stable, the
student may send them through a courier.
For queries, clarifications, or urgent questions, a student may contact the course
instructor during official class schedule; Monday to Friday only using the contact
information given at the last part of this document.
For offline instructions, printed materials are used. Students are tasks to read,
understand, and solve the pre-test, assessment questions and exercises, post-test
questions to enhance their knowledge, skills, and attitude on the covered subject
matters. Regular and unplanned consultations between the students and the instructor
are done using SMS, Messenger, Facebook, emails, and other means to maintain
close supervision and interaction between the students and the instructor. Assessment
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xix
exercises are given after discussing a lesson, quizzes are given every after completing
a module, and long examinations are given after completing three (3) modules. The
Final Course Project (FCP) may be given at the start of the course. The contents are
developed by each module until the FCP is completed after discussing the last module.
Submission of all requirements such as but not limited to quizzes, exercises, long and
term examinations, and reports may be done through courier, email, and other means
following the prescribed university procedures. All requirements are expected to be
received by the instructor one (1) week after they are given.
The office address where the student can send the requirements is:
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

College of Engineering and Technology
Visayas State University, Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines
For queries, clarifications, or urgent questions, a student may contact the course
instructor during official class schedule; Monday to Friday only using the contact
information given at the last part of this document.
d. All students are reminded to observe all policies, regulations, and rules of the
university and other related laws of the land and are advised to read, understand, and
practice the provisions of the VSU Student Manual.
These class policies shall serve as our written agreement for the whole semester. The students
will be informed immediately of any changes on these policies that may arise for reasons of
improving the delivery of the quality of instructions for the betterment of the Teaching and
Learning process.
Instructor/Professor Information
1. Name of Professor Engr. Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE
2. Office and Department Faculty Room No.4, College of Engineering
3. Telephone/Mobile Numbers +63 921 1951 438
4. Email Address arthur.tambong@vsu.edu.ph
5. Consultation Time As announced in the online classroom
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Module 1: Introduction to
Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering
Module Overview
This module gives an introductory discussion of the course. It touches

on information about irrigation and drainage in general and knowing the
sources of water to be applied for irrigation. It also emphasizes the
structures that will be designed, constructed, operated and maintained
in the professional work of an agricultural and biosystems engineer in
the field of irrigation and drainage engineering.
Motivational Question
As a future agricultural and biosystems engineer, what will be the professional
work in the field of irrigation and drainage engineering?
Module Pretest
The pretest for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
For students who have no steady access to the online classroom, it will be
emailed to the course-registered email addresses of the students. Instruction
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the pretest.
21
Lesson 1.1: General Information
Lesson Summary
Both irrigation and drainage are crucial to crops. The irrigation network is
needed to supply the water needed to boost crop production. In contrast,
drainage facilities need to be in place to remove excess water to avoid crop
losses. Both irrigation and drainage are necessary not only for local food
production but also for global food security.
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to define important
terminologies and describe the major irrigation water resources and identify the
structures needed in an irrigation and drainage system.
What is the crucial role of irrigation and drainage engineering in agriculture in
particular and in society in general?
Time Frame: 30 minutes
Discussion
Definition of Terms
The pioneering author in irrigation engineering, Orson Winso Israelsen, who

authored the classical and authoritative book Irrigation Principles and
Practices, published by John Wiley & Sons in 1932, defined irrigation as the
application of water to the soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture
essential for plant growth. The same definition was retained by him and his co-
authors, V.E. Hansen, G.E. Stringham and O.W. Israelsen (1980), when the
fourth edition of the book came out in the early 80s. Until this time, the same
definition is used by many authors in the field of agricultural and biosystems
engineering. Moisture refers to the small quantity absorbed in the soil out of the
irrigation water applied, while water refers to the big volume of the same liquid.
If in irrigation, we apply water into the soil, drainage is, to some extent, the
reverse of it. Drainage is the removal of excess water (FAO, 1986).
An irrigation system consists of a water intake structure or pumping station, a

conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system and a
drainage system (FAO, 1986). From this definition by the Food and Agriculture
of the United Nations or FAO, the drainage component is already included in
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22 ABEn 156: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
the irrigation system. Hence when referring to a system, the terminology

“irrigation and drainage system” is improper.
A Watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a
common outlet such as the outflow to a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point
along a stream channel (USGS, 2020). Watershed also refers to drainage
basin or catchment.
The definitions below, provided in the Philippine Agricultural Engineering

Standard No. 601:2016 (AMTEC, 2016), are commonly used in irrigation and
drainage engineering:
1. Application efficiency - the ratio of the average depth of irrigation

water infiltrated and stored in the root zone to the average depth of
irrigation water applied.
2. Conveyance efficiency - the ratio between water received at the inlet

for a block of fields to that released at the project's headwork.
3. Conveyance loss - the loss of water from a channel during transport

due mainly to seepage and percolation.
4. Crop evapotranspiration - the rate of evapotranspiration of a disease-

free crop growing in a large field of one hectare or more under optimal
soil conditions, including sufficient water and fertilizer and achieving
full production potential of that crop under the given growing
environment; includes water loss through transpiration by the
vegetation, and evaporation from the soil surface and wet leaves.
5. Dam - any barrier constructed to store water.
6. Evapotranspiration - the combination of water transpired from

vegetation and evaporated from the soil, water, and plant surfaces.
7. Farm ditch - a channel which conveys irrigation water from the turnout
to the paddy field.
8. Farm water requirement - the amount of water to replenish the crop

water requirement and losses less the effective rainfall.
9. Irrigation period - time required to cover an area with one application

of water.
10. Natural spillway - spillway which is not excavated such as natural

draw, saddle or drainage way.
11. Open channel flow - water flow that is conveyed in such a manner that
top surface is exposed to the atmosphere such as flow in canals,
ditches, drainage channels, culverts, and pipes under partially full flow
conditions.
12. Percolation - the vertical flow of water to below the root zone which is
affected by soil structure, texture, bulk density, mineralogy, organic
matter content, salt type and concentration.
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13. Pond - sealed section formed between earth embankments where

combined seepage and percolation will be measured.
14. Potential irrigable area - area capable of being irrigated, principally as

regards to availability of water, suitable soils, and topography of land.
15. Reference crop evapotranspiration - the rate of evapotranspiration

from a reference surface which is a hypothetical reference crop with
an assumed crop height of 0.2 m, a fixed surface resistance of 70 s/m
and an albedo of 0.23.
16. Reservoir - part of the system that impounds the runoff.
17. Seepage - water escaping below or out from water conveyance

facilities such as open ditches, canals, natural channels, and
waterways.
18. Unlined canal - canals that are cut through the soil, in which the soil
excavated from the bed are used to form the embankment.
Importance of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Both irrigation and drainage are essential in crop production. Crop yield highly
depends on irrigation, while crop loss and quality are highly affected by
drainage.
Irrigation and drainage are major players in global food security since they
significantly increase net food production. It is predicted that food will be
increasingly scarce in the years to come due to the increasing demand for food,
which is brought about by the fast-growing world population. Along with this
fast increasing food demand, potential food production is decreasing due to the
conversion of farmlands for other purposes.
Irrigation System Coverage
The irrigation system includes the drainage component. As defined by FAO

stated earlier, an irrigation system is a water management network consisting
of a water intake structure or pumping station, a conveyance system, a
distribution system, a field application system and a drainage system.
The major components of the system are the following:
1. Dams or pumping stations

2. Irrigation canal network composed of primary, secondary and
tertiary canals
3. Water application systems like sprinklers and drip irrigators
4. Water control structures like headworks and gates, and
5. Drainage canals.
Professional Work in Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
The professional work of an agricultural and biosystems engineer in the field of

irrigation and drainage engineering primarily involves the management and
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efficient distribution of water to the crop fields, the drainage of excess water
and all engineering practices associated with them.
This work heavily involves the design, operation and maintenance of irrigation
and drainage structures for efficient water utilization in agriculture.
Further Learning
For those who have access to the internet, the YouTube videos listed under
references and other related videos that may be found in YouTube are
recommended to enhance learning.
Assessment
The quiz for this lesson is incorporated in the module quiz and given separately
in the online classroom.
References
E-books/Textbooks (in order of relation to the course)


Garg SK. 2005. Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures. Khanna

Publishers, Delhi, India
Hansen VE, Stringham GE & Israelsen OW. 1980. Irrigation Principles and
Practices, 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA
FAO. 1986a. Soil and Water. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy
FAO. 1986b. Drainage. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

FAO. 1986c. Irrigation System. Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations, Rome, Italy
AMTEC. 2016a. General irrigation terminologies: Philippine agricultural

engineering standard number 601:2016. University of the Philippines Los
Baños, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016c. Open channels - design of main canals, laterals and farm
ditches: Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 603:2016. UPLB,
Laguna, Philippines
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AMTEC. 2016d. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open

channels – determination of seepage: Philippine agricultural engineering
standard number 604:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016e. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open

channels – determination of conveyance loss: Philippine agricultural
engineering standard number 605:2016. UPLB, Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016f. Design of canal structures - road crossing drop siphon and
elevated flume: Philippine agricultural engineering standard number
AMTEC. 2016g. Rainwater and runoff management – small water impounding

system: Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 609:2016. UPLB,
Laguna, Philippines
AMTEC. 2016h. Rainwater and runoff management – small farm reservoir:

Philippine agricultural engineering standard number 610:2016. UPLB,
Laguna, Philippines
FAO. 2014. Bioenergy and Food Security Rapid Appraisal User Manual -
Crop Production. FAO, Rome, Italy
Mayuga J. 2019. Agricultural Biodiversity as a Way of Life. Business Mirror,

Manila, Philippines
businessmirror.com.ph/2019/08/19/agricultural-biodiversity-as-a-way-of-life/
Mizyed N. No Date. Agricultural Practices and Irrigation. An-Najah National

University, Nablus, West Bank, Palestine. Retrieved 6-1-2020.
Faculty Developed PowerPoint and Self-Learning Materials
Tambong AI. 2020. Learning Guide in Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.

Visayas State University, Baybay City, Philippines
YouTube Links (Free)
The Early History of Water in the Imperial Valley – from Desert into
Productive Irrigated Land by IID Video
https://youtu.be/KAsntugo710
Kitadate Irrigation System by ICID CIID

https://youtu.be/nM-_Spb5SPM


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Irrigation Canal Maintenance by AgriLifeWildLifeFish

https://youtu.be/TTyN268VqOc?list=TLPQMTMwNzIwMjAQxViiGgkmjA

by Kenneth Lamb

Webinars (With Fees)



Open Educational Resources

United Soybean. No Date. 7 Irrigation Advancements That Can Improve

Efficiency and Sustainability
https://www.unitedsoybean.org/article/7-irrigation-advancements-that-can-
improve-efficiency-and-sustainability
Mohamed A. 2018. Positive Prospects for Solar-powered Irrigation Systems.

Pumps Africa
https://www.pumps-africa.com/positive-prospects-solar-powered-irrigation-
systems
Elsayed SM. 2006. Use of remote sensing technology in mapping irrigation

channel network. ResearchGate
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328538346_APPLICATION_OF_GIS_A
ND_REMOTE_SENSING_IN_IRRIGATION_NETWORKS_MANAGEMENT
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Bandara KMPS. 2005. Application of Satellite Remote Sensing for Irrigation

Management Practices in Sri Lanka. Engineer Journal XXXVIII (2), pp. 24-
34, The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Hilaris Publisher
https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access-journals/irrigation--drainage-
systems-engineering-innovations-17968.html

https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/courseinfo/GetCourseDetails.aspx?course=EN
NR422&occurrence=20S1(C)&year=2020

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/nueva-vizcaya-state-
university/agricultural-and-biosystems-engineering/other/153766620-
irrigation-drainage-engineering-houndout-adama-university/3965911/view

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Lesson 1.2: Sources of Irrigation Water
Lesson Summary
A water resource is any source of water for agricultural use, non-agricultural

use or both. The agricultural use is basically for irrigation. Non-agricultural uses
are for industrial, recreational, environmental and household activities.
The oceans and seas are huge resources that are outside the watersheds
which indirectly contribute to irrigation water through water cycle. They
evaporate salt-free moisture into the clouds which are then transformed into
rainfall. The groundwater, rivers, aquifers and wells, water falls, lakes and other
freshwater bodies and the irrigation water sources which are within a
watershed.
What are the huge sources of irrigation water in the Philippines and Asia?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to identify the sources of
irrigation water and the important information about these sources that are
related to irrigation engineering.
Discussion
Watersheds as Water Collector
As defined earlier, a watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams
and rainfall to a common outlet such as the outflow to a reservoir, mouth of a
bay, or any point along a stream channel (USGS, 2020). Every person who
lives on land lives in a watershed.
The watershed, also referred to as drainage basin or catchment, is the collector

of water for irrigation. Mountain ridges usually bound it. The design of the
irrigation system and its components are highly dependent on the watershed
because it is immediately upstream of the irrigation system, which collects
water for the system.
For each watershed unit, the boundary are the surrounding mountain ridges or
elevated parts of the land. The water collected is carried down to the common
water outlet like a big river, lake or mouth of a bay. A big watershed may contain
inside it two or more subsidiary watersheds. A subsidiary is a small watershed
within the boundaries of a big watershed.
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29
The simplest example of a watershed is a volcano crater. It has only one rainfall
catchment area. The ridge surrounding the crater serves as the boundary. The
lowest part of the ridge serves as the single outlet which flows when full. This
watershed is shown below.
Fig. 1. 1. Taal Volcano crater as a simple watershed

(Source: A Wanderful Sole)
Fig. 1.2 shows the Luzon Island watershed covering the vast area between
mountain peaks. The elevated areas are the mountains that serve as water
catchments, while the red-colored areas are the low lying fields that have
drainage problems during times of heavy rain and flooding.
Fig. 1. 2. Luzon Island watershed bounded by mountain ridges

(Source: Dartmouth Flood Observatory)
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A watershed may be composed of one or more subsidiary watersheds. By

definition, one watershed has only one common water outlet. Fig. 1.3 shows a
big watershed composed of two subsidiary watersheds, each with its own
common outlet. In this figure, the branching rivers are the smaller watershed
outlets, while the big river, where the two smaller ones are tributaries, is the
common outlet of the big watershed.
Fig. 1. 3. Agashashok River watershed with two visible subsidiary watersheds

(Source: Josh Koch, USGS. Public domain)
Rivers
Rivers are the usual dependable sources of water for irrigation. Immense or
huge rivers can support a series of irrigation systems. Fig. 1.4 shows an
immense watershed Asia with its rivers passing parts of Myanmar, China,
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia.
Fig. 1. 4. Mekong River watershed covering parts of Myanmar, China, Thailand,

Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia in Asia
(Source: Chiang Rai Times)
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Fig. 1.5 is a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) showing a network of rivers from
various watersheds whose big watersheds are composed of small subsidiary
watersheds. The dark blue color in the DEM indicates deep rivers; the light blue
color is shallow rivers; the orange color is high elevations while the red color at
very high elevations. The boundaries of a watershed are mountain ridges.
Hence, a watershed map can be easily traced from an existing DEM since DEM
clearly shows the mountain ridges.
Fig. 1. 5. Digital elevation model of watersheds and subsidiary watersheds of

Zion National Park, Utah, generated using LiDAR spatial data
(Credit: Jason Stoker, USGS. Public domain)
A river network can support more than one small communal irrigation systems
owned by farmers’ cooperatives. This is typical in hilly areas with forests in the
mountainous parts as shown in the figure below.
Fig. 1. 6. River network of Biliran, Philippines, generated using

ArcSWAT and GIS software
(Source: Tambong et al, PCIEERD-VSU Phil-LiDAR 2 Project)
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Rivers are not only used for irrigation. They are also used for electricity
generation. Fig. 1.7 shows a map of a huge river with dams across it. A long
river like this one can support many dams. These dams are of varied use. Only
a fraction of the dams shown is used for irrigation.
Fig. 1. 7. Map of Mekong River passing through Myanmar, China, Thailand,

Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia showing multiple dams
(Source: Bangkok Post)
A river can support bigger irrigable lands at its lower portion because it grows
bigger as it descends from the mountain to the river delta due to the tributaries
along its path that contribute to the flow. A river delta is a wetland formed from
sediments as the river meets a bigger water body like a lake or sea. This is
shown by the image of the Nile River taken by USA’s National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) from the International Space Station (ISS).
Fig. 1. 8. Image of the Earth showing Nile River taken from the ISS
(Image Credit: NASA)
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Aquifers and Wells
Aquifers and wells are significant contributors to irrigation water. They are
coming from groundwater. The figure below shows the mouth of a big aquifer
which forms the start of the river. It appears that the river flows from no source;
thus, the river was named Enchanted River. Besides being a good source of
water for irrigation and other purposes, it also attracts tourists every year.
Fig. 1. 9. Mouth of the aquifer at Enchanted River, Surigao del Sur, Philippines
(Source: Travel.Earth)
Waterfalls
In farms where both irrigation and electricity are needed, waterfalls are good
sources of water. They can also be used for generating hydroelectric power.
One advantage of waterfalls is that they are usually elevated relative to the low
lying farms. This elevation favors the flow of water by gravity and easy
distribution to the farms. However, they are usually far from farmlands.
Fig. 1. 10. Drone-taken photograph of Tinago Falls, Biliran, Philippines

(Source: Project LUPAD)
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Lakes and Other Freshwaters
Lakes and other freshwaters are also sources of irrigation water. Figs. 1.11 and
1.12 show the Aral Sea, an immense water resource, a former sea in Central
Asia that turned into a freshwater lake due to environmental changes.
Fig. 1. 11. The Aral Sea as a huge freshwater resource in Central Asia
(Source: University of Nebraska - Omaha)
Fig. 1. 12. Part of Aral Sea near Alar in Southern Kazakhstan

(Source: Journal of Nomads)
Further Learning
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Assessment
References



Practices, 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey

USGS. 2020. Watersheds and Drainage Basins. US Geological Survey, USA

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/watersheds-
and-drainage-basins

Greenpeace Southeast Asia. 2007. State of water resources in the

Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines


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How do Aquifers Work?

by Texas Water Development Board
https://youtu.be/nOfbkGSrO10
How Rivers Work: The Role of Groundwater

by British Geological Survey
https://youtu.be/ci-ABWPG7LQ
What is a Watershed?
by Indiana Department of Environmental Management
https://youtu.be/y1SQIh0KGsc
What is a Watershed?
by North Texas Municipal Water District
https://youtu.be/QoqgzJAf6LQ






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Lesson 1.3: Irrigation Structures
Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces the major structures used in irrigation engineering. A

structure is anything that is composed of several parts that are put together. In
irrigation engineering, these structures are primarily the dams, headworks,
open channels and water flow control devices.
Motivational Questions
How is water diverted from rivers and distributed to individual fields? What are
the three kinds of open channels or irrigation canals?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to identify and describe
the major irrigation structures.
Discussion
Dams
Dams are structures placed across water flows in rivers to provide a diversion
to deliver water into the irrigation channels or canals. The dams and irrigation
channels are major irrigation structures. Aside from irrigation, a dam may also
be used for electricity generation and flood control. A high-head dam, usually
30 meters and above in hydraulic head, like Pantabangan Dam (Fig. 1.13), can
generate electricity. Hence, it is also used for hydropower generation. The
irrigation support component of the Pantabangan Dam is administered by the
National Irrigation Administration (NIA), while its component supporting
electricity generation is administered by National Power Corporation (NPC).
NIA and NPC are government agencies of the Philippines.
The design of irrigation dams will be discussed in detail in the following course,
the Land and Water Conservation Engineering. The detailed design, cost
estimation, construction supervision, operation and maintenance supervision
of an irrigation dam are the responsibilities of agricultural and biosystems
engineers together with civil engineers. The hydropower generation component
of the dam is the responsibility of electrical engineers.
A spillway usually is part of a dam for the controlled release of water. It serves
as an overflow channel to ensure that the water does not overflow at the dam
and damage it. Fig. 1.13 to 1.13 show dams and a spillway with water control
sluice gates.
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Fig. 1. 13. Pantabangan Dam used for irrigation,

electricity generation and flood control
(Source: NIA)
Fig. 1. 14. Spillway with sluice gates

(Source: Philippine News Agency)
Low-head dams usually are used for irrigation only. These are the dams placed
across rivers running along a low slope. Figs. 1.15 and 1.16 show low-head
diversion dams located in the Aral Sea and Nile River. The Aral Sea is an
ancient sea located between southern Kazakhstan and northern Uzbekistan in
the central part of Asia, has transformed into a freshwater resource useful for
irrigation.
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Fig. 1. 15. Kokaral Dam in the Aral Sea

(Source: Panoramio/Journal of Nomads)
Fig. 1. 16. Nile River barrage-type low head dam

(Source: water-technology.net)
Primary Irrigation Canal

The irrigation canals or channels distribute water into the farms for water
application to the individual fields. The canal section closest to the headwork is
called primary canal. In an irrigation system, this canal has the biggest cross-
section and is usually concrete-lined to minimize seepage.
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The irrigation structure constructed to distribute water from the diversion dam
to the crop fields is the open channel or canal. Fig. 1.17 shows a typical
irrigation canal network. In the figure, main canal refers to the primary canal;
branch canal refers to the secondary canal, distributary refers to the tertiary
canal, and minor refers to the small temporary ditches. Figs. 1.18 and 1.19
show an irrigation system headwork and primary canals.
Fig. 1. 17. Typical irrigation canal network

(Source: theconstructor.org)
Fig. 1. 18. Primary irrigation canal with headworks

(Source: Suyapi.com.tr)
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Fig. 1. 19. Primary irrigation canal

(Source: Suyapi.com.tr)
A primary canal has diversion outlets into the secondary canals. The figure
below shows a primary canal with two visible sluice gates at a distance from
each other. These gates regulate diversion into the secondary canals or
laterals.
Fig. 1. 20. Primary canal showing diversion outlets into secondary canals
(Source: riverrestoration.com)
Secondary and Tertiary Canals
The irrigation facilities constructed to distribute water from the diversion dam to
the crop fields are the primary, secondary and tertiary canals. Regardless of
the material used, concrete or earth, they are classified as irrigation structures.
By definition, a structure is anything that is composed of several parts that are
put together.
The primary canal takes water from the diversion structure or pumping station
to the secondary canal. The secondary canal distributes the water to the tertiary
canals. Secondary canals are also referred to as laterals, and tertiary canals
are also referred to as ditches. In small irrigation systems where tertiary canals
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are absent, the secondary canals carry the water to the fields. In large systems,
small ditches may be further branch out of a tertiary canal or ditch. If a
secondary canal serves a wider front width, it may branch into two or more sub-
secondary canals.
The tertiary canals are the small water passages that distribute the water
supply to the fields. They are generally unlined or have no concrete lining.
Because they are narrow, they are also referred to as ditches. A secondary
canal may also supply water to fields adjacent to it. The figure below shows a
secondary canal with siphon tubes for supplying water to the furrows.
Fig. 1. 21. Secondary irrigation canal with plastic siphon tubes

(Source: Haseeb Jamal, aboutcivil.org)
Fig. 1.22 shows a secondary canal with several tertiary canals branching from
it. In the intersection of the secondary and tertiary canals, a small check gate
is visible in the figure. This check gate serves as a control structure which
checks the water to facilitate diversion to the tertiary canals or ditches. Fig. 1.23
shows a tertiary irrigation canal or ditch.
Fig. 1. 22. Secondary and tertiary irrigation canals

(Source: Kolin Irrigation Project)
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Fig. 1. 23. Tertiary irrigation canal or ditch

(Source: komatsushima-seibutsu.jp)
Water Control Structures
The water control structures serve as regulators of water diversion or

distribution at various locations in the irrigation system. The headwork of an
irrigation system is usually equipped with a water diversion control structure.
Fig. 1.24 shows a headwork with a diversion control structure consisting of a
series or big sluice gates. The sluice gate produces a high water velocity when
opened; hence spurs are sometimes constructed behind a sluice gate (bottom
of Fig. 1.24). A spur is a kind of water control structure to dissipate the energy
of fast-flowing water.
Fig. 1. 24. NIA water diversion headwork

(Source: panaynews.net)
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Sluice gates also regulate water entry into the canals or any channel. Two
heavy-duty sluice gates are shown in Fig. 1.25. A multipurpose gate can serve
as a sluice gate. Fig. 1.26 shows one kind of multipurpose gate ready for
installation.
Fig. 1. 25. Heady-duty cast iron sluice gate

(Source: Armtec-Canada, archiexpo.com)
Fig. 1. 26. Multi-purpose water control gate for installation

(Source: rainwatermanagement.ca)
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A check gate is used to elevate the water surface slightly to facilitate diversion
to fields slightly higher than the canal bed at the point of diversion. Farmers
themselves can easily fabricate a check gate out of low-cost and locally
available materials. Fig. 1.27 shows a farmer-fabricated check gate.
Fig. 1. 27. Farmer-fabricated canal check gate

(Source: skiepic.com)
Canal Fall
In a canal route where there is a sudden change in ground slope, the canal fall
is constructed to connect two ends of a canal having different elevations. The
figure below shows a canal fall.
Fig. 1. 28. Canal fall structure

(Source: AboutCivil.org)
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Inverted Siphon
When the open channel needs to cross an obstruction like a river or a road
where the canal cannot be constructed above ground, the inverted siphon is
the remedy. An inverted siphon is shown below.
Fig. 1. 29. Combination of aqueduct and inverted siphon structures

crossing a railway in Alberta, Canada
(Source: G Kennedy, Roadside America)
Further Learning
Assessment
References



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47



and-drainage-basins

AMTEC. 2016b. Irrigation water requirements: Philippine agricultural

Laguna, Philippines



Laguna, Philippines

Laguna, Philippines

Manila, Philippines
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2019/08/19/agricultural-biodiversity-as-a-way-
of-life/

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Tambong AI. 2020. Learning guide in Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.

Headworks in Irrigation: Canal Headworks in engineering

by JaysoftNews
https://youtu.be/C1xtT582JoA
How Gated Dams Work by Seqwater

https://youtu.be/nzlOo2mHTWM?list=TLPQMTMwNzIwMjAQxViiGgkmjA
Sluice Gate Mechanism – Solidworks

by Igidius Christian
https://youtu.be/awtzYqVdQgk
How to Construct Canal

by Design Education
https://youtu.be/AiHSuBKq1Tc
Irrigation Canal Design

by TechSoftForum for Engineering Software
https://youtu.be/O3CaKFjRhks

Building a 1.5-Acre Pond

by LetsDig18
https://youtu.be/JgclCEbiQgA
Excavating a Farm Dam

By Harman Radio Australia
https://youtu.be/F3M3btijsQg
Dam working model for school project: Dam irrigation model:

Water dam model for science exhibition
by Diya’s FunPlay
https://youtu.be/SMIoIGUpVZs

Canal Construction Project Using EPDM Canal Lining by 2M Company Inc.

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49






Evan R, Cassel D & Sneed RE. 1996. Soil, Water and Crop Characteristics
Important to Irrigation Scheduling. North Carolina State University, North
Carolina, USA
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Lesson 1.4: Innovations and Computer

Applications in Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering
Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces some of the innovations and new technologies in

irrigation and drainage engineering. Computer applications in this field will also
be introduced to the students for their self-learning.
How can an agricultural and biosystems engineer contribute in making

innovations in irrigation and drainage engineering?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to identify and describe
the new technologies, innovations and essential computer applications.
Discussion
Innovations
New technologies and innovations are available in irrigation and drainage

engineering. These are primarily aimed at reducing costs and working time with
higher accuracy. There are many innovations and new technologies. A few of
them are shown below. Engineers can contribute in innovating by doing these
general steps: identify the problem, examine related innovations from the World
Intellectual Property Organization (https://www.wipo.int/portal/en/index.html),
conceptualize applying engineering principles, draw and document the
innovation, create a prototype, do series of tests, and apply the innovation.
Fig. 1. 30. Open channel concreting using advanced technology

(Source: AboutCivil.org)
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51
Fig. 1. 31. Use of satellite remote sensing technology in mapping irrigation channels
(Source: Sherif Mohamady Elsayed, ResearchGate)
Fig. 1. 32. Irrigation aqueduct for conveying water over land depressions
(Source: Prasad & Company Limited, indiamart.com)
Fig. 1. 33. Use of solar-powered irrigation system

(Source: Aziz Mohamed, pumps-africa.com)
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Fig. 1. 34. Center pivot sprinkler irrigation system

(Source: Irrigation Listings)
Fig. 1. 35. Fertigation or combining fertilization with irrigation in hydroponics

(Source: Climate Control Systems Inc.)
Fig. 1. 36. Award-winning innovation on water conservation: mobile

drip irrigation system developed by Kansas State University
(Source: agfax.com)
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Computer Applications
Computer applications make the work fast and accurate. A computer

application refers to a software or program. Engineers need to have working
knowledge on some of these programs since these are part of their routine
work. The engineers use computer programs for speed, accuracy and
convenience. The few programs below are just a sample of the many computer
applications used in irrigation and drainage engineering. The students are
expected to search course-related computer applications in the internet and do
self-learning as these topics cannot be discussed in detail in this learning
material.
Fig. 1. 37. Sluice gate design software

(Source: Dlubal Software, dlubal.com)
Fig. 1. 38. Open channel hydraulics software

(Source: hydrologystudio.com/open-channel-design-software)
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Fig. 1. 40. Computer workbook for gravity dam design

(author’s work)
Fig. 1. 39. Computer workbook for designing

trapezoidal concrete channel network
(author's work)
Fig. 1. 41. Canal automation system using Supervisory

Control and Data Acquisition technology
(Source: Shashane et al, 2016, ResearchGate)
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Further Learning
Assessment
References



Practices, 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA



Laguna, Philippines

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How to Make Innovation & Change Happen

Innovation Keynote Speaker Jeremy Gutsche
https://youtu.be/ZgdZfFA6v3I

by Kenneth Lamb





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57


United Soybean. No Date. 7 Irrigation Advancements That Can Improve

Efficiency and Sustainability
https://www.unitedsoybean.org/article/7-irrigation-advancements-that-can-
improve-efficiency-and-sustainability
Mohamed A. 2018. Positive Prospects for Solar-powered Irrigation Systems.

Pumps Africa
https://www.pumps-africa.com/positive-prospects-solar-powered-irrigation-
systems
Elsayed SM. 2006. Use of remote sensing technology in mapping irrigation

channel network. ResearchGate
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328538346_APPLICATION_OF_GIS_A
ND_REMOTE_SENSING_IN_IRRIGATION_NETWORKS_MANAGEMENT
Bandara KMPS. 2005. Application of Satellite Remote Sensing for Irrigation

Management Practices in Sri Lanka. Engineer Journal XXXVIII (2), pp. 24-
34, The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Hilaris Publisher
https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access-journals/irrigation--drainage-
systems-engineering-innovations-17968.html



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Module Posttest
The posttest for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the posttest.
Module Quiz
The quiz for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the quiz.
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59
Module 2: Soil Physics in

Relation to Irrigation
Module Overview
This module covers the discussion of selected topics in soil physics, which are
needed to understand the succeeding topics in irrigation and drainage
engineering.
How are soil physical properties related to irrigation and drainage engineering?
Module Pretest
The pretest for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the pretest.
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Lesson 2.1: The Soil, Its Physical and

Mechanical Properties
Lesson Summary
This lesson discusses the important information on soils and their physical
properties. Applications of the major properties to irrigation engineering are
also covered.
Motivational Questions
How much irrigation water shall be applied per hectare to avoid permanent
wilting of a vegetable crop? What should be the minimum discharge of the
pump per hectare of the crop?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to identify the major
physical and mechanical properties of soils and relate their applications to
irrigation and drainage engineering.
Discussion
Soil Profile
A soil profile is the view of the vertical cut of a soil. It shows the variation of soil
from top to bottom. It likewise indicates other physical features of the soil that
are important in irrigation and drainage engineering.
Fig. 2.1 shows the typical soil profile of the soil. Soil profile slightly varies from
one location to another.
Fig. 2. 1. Typical soil profile

(Source: USDA)
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The figure emphasizes the topsoil layer containing most of the organic matter
(O), the root zone depth (A and B), the hardpan (C) and the bedrock (R). The
root zone depth varies slightly from field to field, depending on the crop grown.
The Upper Soil Layer
The upper soil layer holds the water for supplying moisture to plants. Hence, it
is essential when it comes to the relationship of the soil with water and plants.
It is in this upper soil layer where the root zone is located. Fig. 2. 2 shows the
typical upper soil layer.
Fig. 2. 2. A typical profile of the upper soil layer

(Source: Jeff Ball, Noble Research Institute)
Root Zone
The root zone is the upper layer of the soil that is in contact with the plants. It
is where nutrients and water inputs from rainfall and irrigation are temporarily
stored. The water released through evapotranspiration and drained through
deep percolation comes from the root zone. Root zone depth varies with the
kind of plants and is affected by permeability, bulk density and other soil
conditions. Fig. 2.3 shows a root zone while Fig. 2.4 shows the location of
water, air and root in a soil aggregate at the root zone.
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Fig. 2. 3. Water flow in and out of the root zone

(Source: Michael D. Dukes, Researchgate)
Fig. 2. 4. Location of water, air and root in a soil

aggregate at the root zone
(Source: FAO)
Practical Unit of Soil Depth
When dealing with irrigation, the practical unit of soil depth is feet, although a
metric unit is also usable. It is because actual root zones of most irrigated crops
are estimated in feet since they rarely reach one meter. The actual root zone
depth is much smaller than the potential root zone depth. Plants do not usually
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attain the potential rooting depth since most soils are not deep permeable and
are not well-drained. The limited depth of plowing causes this soil condition.
For instance, actual rooting depth is best estimated in feet since it cannot be
expressed accurately in centimeters. If the rooting depth is in feet, soil moisture
deficit and depth of water application should also be estimated in feet or a
fraction of a foot. If desired, the resulting value can be easily converted into the
metric unit.
Crop Rooting Depth
When irrigating, crop rooting depth is one of the major considerations in the
volume of water applied in the field. A deeper root zone requires a bigger
volume of water. The table below indicates the potential rooting depths of
various crops in a deep permeable and well-drained soils under normal
conditions.
Tab. 2. 1. Potential rooting depths of mature crops when grown in a deep

permeable, well-drained soil under normal conditions
(Source: USDA-NRCS National Engineering Handbook)
Soil Type
Soil type is the taxonomic grouping of soils and not a physical property. For
agricultural soils, these are primarily the clay, silt, loamy and sandy soils. Peaty
and chalky soils are also soil types but are not common. Other soil types are
the combinations of any of the four primary types. Soil type is a technical term
in soil classification, the part of soil science responsible for the systematic
classification of soils. It does not refer to particular soil that one can find in the
field. What one can see in the field is only a soil belonging to a specific soil
type.
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Soil Physical Properties

Soil Texture
Soil texture is the soil's property that indicates the size of particles it contains
in a soil aggregate. In irrigation and drainage engineering, soil texture is a factor
that affects soil water intake, water holding capacity, water storage permeability
and other water-related physical processes. Particles of soil are divided into
three classes depending on their diameters. These are the sand, silt and clay.
Soil texture is the classification of the soil according to percentages of sand,
silt and clay.
The following are the three major soil classifications according to texture with
their corresponding particle diameters:
Sand 0.005-1.000 mm
Silt 0.002-0.005 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm
Soil texture can be determined using the USDA soil texture diagram shown in
Fig. 2.5. This diagram shows the different textural classes of soil like sand,
sandy loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, loam, sandy clay, clay, silty clay, silty
clay loam, silt loam and silt.
Fig. 2. 5. USDA soil texture diagram

(Source: USDA-NRCS in Waller and Yitayew, 2016)
To determine the particular soil textural class, just plot imaginary lines in the
diagram according to the percentages of clay, sand and silt then locate the
intersection of the three lines. This intersection will indicate the soil textural
classification of the soil.
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Illustrative Problem 2.1
Determine the textural classification of the soil with 30% sand, 35% clay and
35% silt.
Solution: Plot the percentages of sand, silt and clay in the USDA soil
texture diagram.
Answer: Clay loam
Soil Structure
The Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) of the USDA defines soil
structure as the arrangement and organization of soil particles into natural units
of aggregation. As in soil texture, soil structure also affects soil irrigation water
intake into the soils, field water holding capacity, water storage and
permeability. In drainage engineering, it is a factor that affects water seepage
in unlined canals.
Fig. 2.6 shows the different soil structures showing the granular, lenticular,
wedge, blocky, platy, prismatic and columnar soil structures. Note that, as
indicated in the figure, single grain and massive soils as structureless types.
Fig. 2. 6. Soil structure types

(Source: SoilHub.com)
Porosity
Porosity is the soil property which refers to the proportion or percentage of

voids to the total volume of a soil block. These voids are occupied by pores,
cavities, and open spaces between soil particles that can be filled by water or
air. Porosity affects the amount of water stored in the soil. Coarse textured soils
like sandy loam have higher porosity, while fine-textured soil like silty clay has
lower porosity.
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Determine the porosity of a block of soil with a total volume of 1,000 cubic
centimeters (cm3) when thoroughly dried and absorbs 200 ml of water when
fully saturated? One cubic centimeter equals one milliliter (ml).
Solution:
Porosity = Volume of voids/Total Volume
= 200 ml / (1,000 cm3 x 1 cm3/ml)
= 0.2 or 20%
Void Ratio
Void ratio is the proportion of total voids to total solids only, not total volume. It
is related to porosity; hence, the formula for calculating the void ratio is similar
to that of calculating porosity.
Determine the void ratio of a block of soil stated in Illustrative Problem 2.2.
Solution:
Void Ratio = Volume of voids/(Total Volume – Volume Voids)
= 200 ml / (1,000 cm3 x 1 cm3/ml – 200 ml)
= 0.25
Bulk Density
Bulk density is the soil dry weight divided by its volume, including whatever
pore spaces in it. In taking the volume, the soil should be undisturbed. When
getting soil samples from the field, a metallic cylinder of known weight is
carefully penetrated vertically into the soil such that the pore spaces are
retained and compaction remains the same as shown in the figure below.
Fig. 2. 7. Bulk density sampling

(Source: USDA ARS)
Bulk density greatly affects the growth of plant roots. One of the reasons why
the soil is pulverized before planting is to lower its bulk density and facilitate
the rooting of plants. Tab. 2.2 shows the relationship of bulk density to the
growth of plant roots.
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Tab. 2. 2. The general relationship of bulk density to root growth

(Source: USDA-NRCS)
What is the bulk density of a silty clay loam topsoil having 7.5 cm radius and
10 cm height? It was oven-dried at 105 °C until its weight does not change. The
dry weight of the soil less the container is 2.8 kg. Will this soil restrict root
growth?
Solution:
Bulk Density = Dry Weight/Volume

= (2,800 g)/(3.14x7.52x10 cm3)
= 1.59 g/cm3
Root growth will not be restricted. Based on the last column of the above
table for a soil having a texture of silty clay loam, a bulk density of 1.59
g/cm3 will not restrict root growth. The bulk density that will limit root
growth for this particular soil texture is higher than 1.65 g/cm 3.
Apparent Specific Gravity
Like bulk density, the apparent specific gravity is also a measure of soil
compactness. The lesser the apparent specific gravity of the soil, the more it
favors root growth. It is the weight of a given volume of dry soil, including air
space, divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. Since it is a ratio of
two weights, it is dimensionless. It is affected by soil structure, texture and
degree of compaction.
Estimate the apparent specific gravity of an oven-dried soil measuring 10 cm x

10 cm x 10 cm and weighing 1.25 kg. One liter of water weighs 1 kg with an
equivalent volume of 1,000 cm3.
Solution:
Soil Volume = 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm
= 1,000 cm3
Apparent Sp. Gravity = Weight/Weight of Equivalent Water Volume

= (1.25 kg)/(1 kg/1,000 cm 3 x 1,000 cm3)
= 1.25
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Real Specific Gravity
The real specific gravity is the weight of a single soil particle divided by the
weight of an equal volume of water. It is the particle specific gravity of the soil.
This property is challenging to measure in the laboratory since soil particle is
tiny. The real specific gravity of the soils with low organic matter content varies
but in the likelihood of 2.65. However, for irrigated soils with high organic matter
content, the real specific gravity is between 1.5 and 2.0.
Moisture Content
Moisture content is the indicator of the amount of water present in the soil. It
can be in the gravimetric or volumetric unit. Gravimetric moisture content is the
weight of moisture per unit weight of dry soil, while volumetric moisture content
is the weight of moisture per unit volume of dry soil. The former is usually on a
dry basis or the weight of moisture per unit weight of dry soil but can also be
expressed on a wet basis or the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet soil.
When gravimetric moisture content does not indicate the basis, it is presumed
to be on a dry basis. When it is on a wet basis, it should always be indicated.
Measurement of gravimetric and volumetric soil moisture contents is discussed
in a separate section below.
The gravimetric moisture content is very useful when estimating the volume of
irrigation water that needs to be applied. An irrigation engineer needs this
information together with the root zone depth and the hectarage when
determining the volume of water that needs to be applied.
Besides gravimetric and volumetric units, moisture content can also be

expressed in inches of water depth per foot of soil layer or mm of water depth
per meter of soil layer. Although it is in the English unit, the inches per foot unit
is practical to irrigation engineers since actual root zone depths of crops are
best estimated in feet and mostly less than a meter.
Moisture content is the primary basis for water applications. The table below
shows the moisture levels that need irrigation applications for fine, medium,
and coarse-textured soils.
Tab. 2. 3. Estimated soil moisture level in percent and the corresponding

irrigation action needed for three soil textural groups
(Source: Delmhorst)
Soil Mechanical Properties
Erodibility
Erodibility is the property that indicates the susceptibility to detachment and

transport of the soil particles. Sandy and loamy soils are easily detached but
need higher water velocity to transport due to their relatively heavy particle
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weight. Clays have tight cohesion between particles; thus, they are difficult to
detach. Once detached, clays are easily transported down in sloping lands due
to their light particle weight.
Rainfall erosivity highly affects soil erodibility. Rainfall erosivity is the capacity
of rainfall to effect soil erosion. Rainfall with higher intensity and longer duration
has higher erosivity.
Permeability
Permeability is the property that indicates ease of flow through the soil. Clays
are less porous compared to loamy and sandy soils. Hence, clays are used as
materials in dikes and in the impermeable core of earth dams to minimize
seepage.
Corrosivity
Corrosivity is the ability of the soil to corrode metals and other materials
embedded in the ground. The factors that affect corrosivity are moisture
content, soil type, pH, resistivity, temperature, exposure duration, differential
aeration and presence of anaerobic bacteria. Resistivity is the soil’s resistance
to the flow of current.
Methods of Moisture Content Measurement
There are four common methods of soil moisture content measurement. Each
method is named after the principle or device it uses. These methods are:
1. Oven drying
2. Gypsum-block
3. Electronic soil moisture sensor
4. Tensiometer
Oven drying the most accurate method; hence its measurement is generally
used as the standard. The electronic moisture sensor method is the fastest at
relatively acceptable accuracy and needs very minimal skills; hence it is used
in large scale industrial applications. Electronic moisture sensors are usually
attached to automated watering equipment and instruments. The electronic
sensor method is a variation of the old gypsum-block method, which is semi-
electronic. The two methods use the same or similar moisture measurement
principles; hence they are approximately of the same accuracy. The
tensiometer is a soil moisture measuring device that operates on negative
pressure or tension.
Oven Drying Method
This method uses a laboratory oven. The measured moisture content may be
in a gravimetric or volumetric unit, depending on its intended use.
A. Gravimetric Moisture Content
Gravimetric refers to measurement based on weight or full of gravity. The

method uses soil samples placed inside an oven at 105-110°C for 24-48 hours
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to ensure that no gravitational water is left. Moisture content is then calculated

using a formula.
Gravimetric moisture content on a dry basis (MC) is expressed as:
MC = (Ww – Wd)/Wd x 100%
where:
Ww = weight of wet soil, grams
Wd = weight of dry soil, grams
Alternatively, the moisture content in wet basis (MCwb) is expressed as:
MCwb = (Ww – Wd)/Ww x 100%
A 20 g aluminum dish was filled with moist soil and weighed using a digital
balance. The weight of the dish and moist soil was 120 g. After 24 hours of
oven drying at 105 °C, the dish and dried soil weight reduced to 115 g.
Determine the gravimetric moisture content is both dry and wet bases.
Solution:
Weight of container is 20 g
Weight of wet soil less container Ww is 120-20 or 100 g
Weight of dry soil less container Wd is 115-20 or 95 g
Determining gravimetric moisture content in dry basis (MC):
MC = (Ww-Wd)/Wd x 100%
= (100-95)/95 x 100%
= 5/95 x 100%
= 5.26%
Determining gravimetric moisture content in wet basis (MCwb):
MCwb = (Ww-Wd)/Ww x 100%

= (100-95)/100 x 100%
= 5/100 x 100%
= 5.00%
B. Volumetric Moisture Content
Volumetric refers to measurement based on the volume of the soil. The

formula for calculating volumetric moisture content (VMC) is:
VMC = Gravimetric Moisture Content in Ratio x Bulk Density
or
VMC = Weight of Moisture / Volume of Soil
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Determine the volumetric moisture content of the soil in the above illustrative
problem. The soil has a bulk density of 1.5 g/cm 3.
Solution:
From the above illustrative problem, the gravimetric moisture content

is 5.26% or 0.0526 g moisture per gram of soil.
VMC = Gravimetric Moisture Content in Ratio x Bulk Density

= 0.0526 g/g x 1.5 g/cm3
= 0.08 g/cm3
Determine the volume of irrigation water per hectare area of vegetables with
an estimated root zone depth of 3 feet needed to raise the water availability
from permanent wilting point to field capacity. As previously measured, the soil
bulk density is 1.2 g/cm3, while gravimetric moisture contents are 9% at
permanent wilting point and 18% at field capacity. If this volume of water is
consumed in the field in 10 days, what should be the minimum continuous
discharge of the pump in liters/second? One hectare is 10,000 m2 while 1 m3
water weighs 1,000 kg or 1 tonne.
Solution:
VMC at FC = Bulk Density x Gravimetric MC in Ratio at FC

= 1.2 g/cm3 x 0.18
= 0.216 g/cm3
VMC at PWP = Bulk Density x Gravimetric MC in Ratio at PWP

= 1.2 g/cm3 x 0.09
= 0.108 g/cm3
Soil Vol./ha = Root Zone Depth x Area

= [3 ft x 1 m/3.28 ft] [10,000 m2]
= 9,146 m3
Tonnes Water/ha = (VMC at FC - VMC at PWP) x Soil Volume/ha

= (0.216 g/cm3 - 0.108 g/cm3)(9,146 m3)
= [0.108 g/cm3 x 1 tonne/1,000,000 g x (100 cm/m)3]
x [9,146 m3]
= 987.768 tonnes
m3 Water/ha = Tonnes Water/ha x 1 m3 water/tonne

= 987.768 tonnes x 1 m3 water/tonne
= 988 m3. Answer
Pumping Rate = Water Volume/Pumping Duration

= (988 m3/ha x 1,000 li/m3)/(10 days x 1 day/86,400 s)
= 1.14 lps/ha minimum pump discharge. Answer
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Gypsum Block Method
The gypsum block method uses a pre-calibrated and factory-supplied gypsum

blocks made from Plaster of Paris or calcium sulfate (CaSO4). The wires
attached to gypsum blocks are connected to the accompanying electronic
meter. The readings are generally in ohms. Fig. 2.8 shows a sample of gypsum
block moisture tester.
Fig. 2. 8. Gypsum block moisture tester

(Source: Delmhorst)
In the absence of factory-supplied gypsum blocks, they can be fabricated and

then calibrated. The dimension of each block is approximately 5.5 cm x 3.75
cm x 2 cm. Each block is fabricated using Plaster of Paris or calcium sulfate
(CaSO4) and a 1-meter long AWG No. 18 stranded flat cord or twin copper wire.
Two parts of Plaster of Paris are thoroughly mixed with one part of water,
placed in a rectangular cast form, air-dried (not sun-dried) for 48 hours, then
the solidified gypsum block is soaked in water for 24 hours and air-dried again
for 12-24 hours. In the process of casting the gypsum block, remove the
insulation of the 4-cm end of each of the twin copper wire then placed inside
the gypsum block form spaced at 2-cm apart. Make sure the uninsulated end
of the wire is wholly contained inside the block.
At least 30 pieces of the fabricated gypsum blocks should be calibrated against

the gravimetric method of soil moisture determination. The resistance readings
are converted to equivalent percent moisture content on a dry basis. You need
at least three trials per gypsum block. In the calibration, the mean gypsum block
readings in ohms are plotted against the gravimetric moisture content data on
a percent dry basis using a log-log graphing paper. The equation on the
relationship of ohms readings to percent moisture content is determined using
exponential regression. The equation can only be accepted if the coefficient of
determination (R2) is 0.7 or higher. The accuracy of the block is high if R2 is
nearly 1.
Electronic Soil Moisture Sensor Method
The method uses an electronic soil moisture sensor. It is the easiest method
and requires less time to use. It requires a battery or electricity to operate.
Some soil moisture sensors have costs that are close to gypsum block moisture
testers or even less. With basic knowledge in electronics and computer
programming, an electronic soil moisture sensor can be made. One advantage
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73
of this method is its adaptability to automated soil moisture monitoring; hence

it is used in large scale and electronically controlled irrigation. Figs. 2.9 and
2.10 are some of the commercially available soil moisture sensors.
Fig. 2. 9. Multipurpose sensors that measure soil moisture,

soil pH and plant exposure to light
(Source: OEM)
Fig. 2. 10. Soil moisture sensor

(Source: Instruments Direct)
Tensiometer Method
The method uses a tensiometer. A tensiometer is a soil moisture measuring

device that operates on tension. It does not need a battery or electricity to
operate. Using a tensiometer is simple. Its tube is penetrated at the root zone
level. Water is filled in its tube and air-sealed by closing the tube tightly using
its end cap. The soil then draws water through the porous material at the tip of
its tube. The drawing of water creates suction pressure inside the tube or a
negative difference in pressure with the outside air. The suction pressure is
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then displayed in its pressure gauge. A suction pressure of zero indicates water
saturation in the soil. A suction pressure that causes permanent wilting is
usually indicated in its pressure gage.
Fig. 2. 11. Tensiometer

(Source: certifiedmtp.com)
Further Learning
Assessment
References


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75
Singh MJ & Khera KL. 2010. Evaluation and estimation of soil erodibility by
different techniques and their relationships. 19th World Congress on Soil
Science, Brisbane, Australia, 1-6 August 2010
https://www.iuss.org/19th%20WCSS/Symposium/pdf/0166.pdf

How to Test Your Soil Texture (sand, silt, clay composition)

by Central West Local Land Services
https://youtu.be/fufeaLBLGlk
Gravimetric and Volumetric Moisture Content

by Forest Soil and Canopy Processes
https://youtu.be/SGHVcMoET5k
Soil Bulk Density Test by CropWatch-Youth

https://youtu.be/bf9qTZQGNHs
Measurement of Bulk and Particle Density of the Soil with Pycnometer

by Make Me Scientific
https://youtu.be/3DaRkIpiL5k
Determination of Water Content of Soil by Oven Drying Method by NCTEL

https://youtu.be/N2J-tvEeI4c
Tensiometers for Corn Crops by Netafim

https://youtu.be/IvqmuUJRFEA
What is a Tensiometer and How it Works?

Agri by Dr. Bipin Kumar
https://youtu.be/0tghcsHLQ5Y
How Does a Soil Moisture Sensor Work?

by EZ Electronics
https://youtu.be/FoO8ow9koFA
Soil Moisture Meter - How To Use It?

by My City Plants
https://youtu.be/G0E6-L50bxA
How to Make Soil Moisture Sensor by Dr SimpleHack

https://youtu.be/e6CBy9TMIj0
Gravimetric Soil Content

Virtual Soil Science Learning Resources
Page 75 of 95
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https://youtu.be/GSCE_7f5ZCM
Understanding Porosity and Permeability

by Francis Ramos II
https://youtu.be/cg5FraTalzo
Measuring Permeability and Porosity of Rocks

by Moomoo Math and Science
https://youtu.be/4DvIW1ec0Jc



ECoursesOnline. 2014. Mechanical Properties of Soils

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2682
ECoursesOnline. 2014. Mechanical Properties of Soils

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2683



Carolina, USA
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77
Lesson 2.2: Estimating Moisture Availability

and Deficiency in the Field
Lesson Summary
A practical method of estimating moisture availability and deficiency is to be

studied in this lesson. This is the physical appearance and feel method. The
method is relatively less accurate and requires estimation skills, but essential
to every irrigator since it can be made quickly right in the field.
How can an irrigator quickly know the need for water application in the field
without an instrument?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to estimate the soil
moisture available and deficit in the field without using any instrument.
Discussion
Percent Available Moisture
Experienced farmers and field technicians can quickly estimate the range of
percentage available soil moisture available in the field by using the physical
appearance and feel method. The method is done by holding the soil in hand,
trying to form a ball by squeezing the soil in the palm, and then forming a ribbon
by rolling the soil between the thumb and forefinger. Figs. 2.12 to 2.14 show
how to do the estimation method for various soil textures.
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Fig. 2. 12. Appearance and feel of clay, clay loam and silty clay loam soils
(Source: M. Risinger, USDA-SCS in A.W. Wyatt & K. Carver, HPUWCD No. 1)
Fig. 2. 13. Appearance and feel of sandy clay loam and loam soils
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79
Fig. 2. 14. Appearance and feel of fine sand and loamy fine sand soils
In addition to the above procedures, soil moisture conditions higher than field
capacity can also be determined using the physical appearance and feel
method. To do this, simply hold the soil loosely in your palm. If water drops
from your palm, the soil moisture is higher than field capacity, or the available
soil moisture is higher than 100%. The moisture over field capacity is called
gravitational water.
Equivalent Depth of Moisture Deficiency
From percent available moisture, the equivalent depth of soil moisture needs
to be estimated such that the depth of irrigation application can be set. Once
the depth of application is set, the irrigation volume, discharge and time can be
easily calculated.
Tab. 2.4 indicates the equivalent depth of soil moisture deficiency

corresponding to each range of percent available moisture. For a quick
estimation of soil moisture deficiency, an irrigator can refer to this table.
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Tab. 2. 4. Guide on estimating soil moisture condition by appearance

and feel method
(Source: cestanislaus.ucanr.edu)
A clay loam soil was subjected to physical appearance and feel method of soil
moisture determination. After the procedure, the soil formed a soft ball; free
water appears on the surface upon squeezing, sticky thick soil coating left on
fingers.
Estimate the ranges of the following:
1. Available soil moisture (ASM) in percent

2. Soil moisture deficiency (SMD) in inches water per foot of soil
Answers:
Based on Tab. 2.4,

ASM = 100% of field capacity
SMD = 0.0 inch of water per foot of soil
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81
Further Learning
Assessment
References






Determining Soil Moisture by Feel Method by USDA-NRCS

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https://youtu.be/PlZf_yjVL1M
Soil Moisture Monitoring by Feel and Appearance Method by Netafim

https://youtu.be/ovhaiSzGuTA






Carolina, USA
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83
Lesson 2.3: Basic Soil-Plant-Water Relations
Lesson Summary
This lesson tackles discussion on the essential knowledge needed by an

irrigation engineer on the interrelationship of soil, water and plant. This
knowledge is a prerequisite on water application and irrigation scheduling.
Challenge/Motivation
What are the visual indicators that it is time for water application?
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to discuss the
interrelationship among soil, water and plant; know the water holding capacities
of different soils; and identify the visual indicators of varying levels of water
stress in plants.
Discussion
Lesson Summary
The soil, plant and water have essential interrelationship. This interrelationship
is crucial to crop growth and yield. When water is supplied, water infiltrates the
soil, stored in the soil for a specific time. As time elapses, water is gradually
lost through percolation or downward movement and evaporation at the soil
surface. The plant withdraws water from the soil for its needs. The water
holding capacity of the soil depends on its texture. When water is insufficient,
the plant suffers from water stress. On the other hand, when water is excessive,
the water is lost through percolation. If excess water is not removed, the plant
suffers from waterlogging and reduces its yield.
Functions of Soil and Water in Plant Growth
The soil has vital functions in plant growth and crop production. Without the
soil, plant growth is still possible, but the cost of production can be high. This
kind of plant culture is called hydroponics. Soil is needed for regular crop
production involving large farm hectarage.
The primary functions of the soil in plant growth are:
1. Foundation - provides a foundation as physical support for plants;

2. Medium – serves a medium for transporting water and nutrients to
the roots;
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3. Water buffer – absorbs, stores and release water to plants, and

drains the excess;
4. Habitat provides habitat to soil micro-organisms that facilitate
biochemical transformations in the soil medium and macro-
organisms that render physical soil transformations; and
5. Nutrient reactor - absorbs, releases and transforms inorganic and
biochemical compounds such as essential plant nutrients,
minerals, pesticides, heavy metals and many other compounds.
Fig. 2. 15. The soil as a foundation for the plant

(Source: John Doran, passel2.unl.edu)
Like the soil, the water has equally essential functions to plant growth, from the
early stage of growth to harvesting. It is not only important in plant growth but
also the entire crop production.
The primary functions of water in plant growth are:
1. Dissolves and transports minerals;

2. Stabilizes temperature;
3. Prevents water stress;
4. Provides rigidity and shape to plant stem and leaves; and
5. Facilitates photosynthetic activity and other internal processes in
plants.
In crop production, the primary purpose of water is for irrigation. Besides

irrigation, water also serves the following purposes:
1. Facilitates easy soil cultivation before planting;

2. Controls rodents; and
3. Leaches the salts below the root zone.
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85
Classes and Availability of Water in the Soil

Gravitational water
The water that flows out of the soil when the soil is drained. This class of water
is not available to plants that do not grow normally with standing water like corn
and beans. For plants that require standing water like rice, gravitational water
is necessary.
Capillary water
The moisture which exists in the pore space of the soil which cannot be
removed by the force of gravity. This is the class of water that is available to
plants.
Hygroscopic water
The small amount of moisture which cannot be removed by the action of both
gravity and capillary forces. This class of water is not available for plants
since plant roots cannot absorb it.
Field capacity
The level of moisture content of the soil when gravitational water has been
drained. Field capacity is determined two days after water application.
Temporary and Permanent Wilting Points
When soil moisture drops below field capacity, the plants may experience
wilting. Wilting can be temporary or permanent. The soil moisture content in
which plant starts to wilt but recovers if irrigated is called temporary wilting
point. On the other hand, the soil moisture content in which plants can no longer
recover from water stress even if irrigated is called permanent wilting point.
Available Water
Available water is the moisture range between field capacity and permanent
wilting point. The finer the soil texture like clay and clay loam, the more water
it can hold and the more available water. Sandy soils have less water holding
capacities and hence have less available water.
Tab. 2.5 shows the field capacity, permanent wilting point, bulk density, and
available water by soil texture in depth per meter soil layer. Imagine this depth
as a purely liquid layer above the soil when water is still unmixed with the soil
layer. When 1 cm of water depth mixes with the soil, it wets a soil layer much
deeper than 1 cm depending on the soil texture.
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Tab. 2. 5. Fiel capacity, permanent wilting point, bulk density and

water holding capacity of common soil textures
(Source: Kharagpur, IIT, India)
Water Stress
Soil Moisture Deficit
The soil is deficit in moisture when the water availability level is less than field
capacity or the water holding capacity of the soil. This is because the amount
of water the soil can hold is not totally filled. The situation is aggravated if the
soil moisture deficit reaches the temporary wilting point. When moisture
deficiency level is no longer tolerable to plant, the plant experiences temporary
wilting because the soil is too dry for root hairs to absorb moisture into the
plants. Different plants have different degrees of tolerance to moisture
deficiency. Upland crops are more tolerant than lowland crops.
Water stress is a manifestation of prolonged soil moisture deficiency. The level

of stress that causes temporary wilting can affect the growth performance of
plants. If, in severe cases, it aggravates to permanent wilting, some plants or
the entire crop may suffer, which can significantly reduce crop yield or may
even result in no yield at all.
Visual Indications of Water Stress
The water stress in plants can be easily and quickly determined through visual
indications but can hardly be expressed into the equivalent percent moisture
deficiency. This stress is noticeable in leaf changes, especially drooping and
discoloration.
Water stress levels can be classified into four categories:
1. No water stress
2. Mild
3. Moderate
4. Severe
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87
Figs. 2.16 and 2.17 show leaf visual change as sign of changing levels of water
stress in plants.
Fig. 2. 16. Sign of no water stress

(author's work)
Notice the difference in the drooping of leaves by level of water stress. The
leaves of the plant not experiencing any water stress are sturdy, while the
leaves of the plant experiencing mild water stress are a bit droopy. When the
soil has insufficient moisture, the leaves of the plant droop.
Fig. 2. 17. Sign of mild water stress

(author's work)
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The mild and moderate water stresses can be corrected by immediate water
application, but the severe water stress can hardly be corrected by irrigation.
When severe water stress is reached, the leaves turn dry and discolored with
curling edges. This is the natural defense mechanism of plants. Shedding their
leaves helps lessen their surface area, thereby reducing transpiration.
Fig. 2. 18. Sign of moderate water stress

(author's work)
Fig. 2. 19. Sign of severe water stress

(Source: Shelley Frost, HomeGuides)
The prolonged period under water stress can damage the plants. Hence,
irrigation must be applied immediately, while water stress has not reached a
severe level. Irrigation scheduling may be programmed such that plants cannot
experience any water stress. In this way, farmers can avoid yield reduction.
Page 88 of 95
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89
Further Learning
Assessment
References






and-drainage-basins

Laguna, Philippines
Page 89 of 95
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Laguna, Philippines

Laguna, Philippines
Greenpeace Southeast Asia. 2007. State of water resources in the

Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines

Manila, Philippines
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2019/08/19/agricultural-biodiversity-as-a-way-
of-life


Physical Properties of Soils by Amrita

https://youtu.be/POivZf4vc-c
Understanding Soil Types and Soil Texture by Garden Fundamentals

https://youtu.be/AUhOBxVFcFk
Calculating Soil Bulk Density by WWCCSoils

https://youtu.be/NYw5r41GWxQ?list=TLPQMDgwODIwMjCGKf7YwCXuOg
Page 90 of 95
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91
How to Measure Soil Bulk Density by NWCag

https://youtu.be/5M7XdaMUV6Y?list=TLPQMDgwODIwMjCGKf7YwCXuOg
Bulk Density Practice Problems by Tyler DeWitt

https://youtu.be/7tVebi3TSsg?list=TLPQMDgwODIwMjCGKf7YwCXuOg
Determination of Water Content of Soil by Oven Drying Method by NCTEL

https://youtu.be/N2J-tvEeI4c?list=TLPQMDgwODIwMjAXp4RGEBguww
Determination of the Moisture Content of Soils by Trikona Conskill

https://youtu.be/YCu8CXUICuo
How to Estimate Moisture Content of Soil Samples by Dedicated to Science

https://youtu.be/c0VSemrlmPU
Root Zone Considerations by USDA-NRCS

https://youtu.be/TR1CF7TKbdA
Wilting Point and Field Capacity by Agricultural Sciences

https://youtu.be/ClRtUgPV9rE?list=TLPQMDgwODIwMjAXp4RGEBguww
Wilting Point by USDA-NRCS

https://youtu.be/m7DAej5-d6w
Response of Plants to Water Stress by Ana Sienna Sesbreno

https://youtu.be/7XL46vXh98Y





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Carolina, USA
Module Posttest
The posttest for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the posttest.
Module Quiz
The quiz for this module is given separately in the online classroom.
on how and when to submit the answers is stated in the quiz.
Page 92 of 95
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93
DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
College of Engineering and Technology
For inquiries, contact:
ENGR. ELDON P. DE PADUA

eldon.depadua@vsu.edu.ph • dabe@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600 Local 1015
Use this code when referring to this material:

TP-IMD-02 v0 • No. CET.ABE SLG.20-04
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte

Philippines 6521
information@vsu.edu.ph
+63 53 565 0600
Page 93 of 95
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ABEn 156 - Irrigation and Drainage Engineering - SLG Modules 1 - 2 Volume 1 - Arthur Tambong - 09082020

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Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE

A globally competitive university for science, technology,

Development of a highly competitive human resource,

The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

Student Learning Guide in

ABEn 156 – Irrigation

This instructional material follows the minimum requirements in the

The approach in this instructional material is outcomes-based. As the

This course addresses the following program outcomes in the

Roberto C. Guarte, Ph.D.

Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE

About the Author

Prof. Arthur It. Tambong, FPSAE

The author received the Bachelor of Science

Module 1: Introduction to Irrigation and Drainage

Module 2: Soil Physics in Relation to Irrigation 59

Tab. 2. 1. Potential rooting depths of mature crops when grown in a

Fig. 1. 1. Taal Volcano crater as a simple watershed ................................. 29

Fig. 1. 35. Fertigation or combining fertilization with irrigation in

2nd Semester, AY 2020-2021

ABEn 156 - Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Name of the Program Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

OBTL Course Contents and Plan

Module 1:  Learning  Pretest  Assessment  One week,

CO 2: Interpret the field data for irrigation and drainage systems

Lesson 2.3: Basic

8 Midterm Examination (Modules 1 to 4)

Lesson 6.1: Irrigation Learning  Solving or exam.

CO 4: Evaluate irrigation and drainage systems

16 Final Examination (Modules 5 to 9)

Flexible Learning Resources

Waller & Yitayew. 2016. Irrigation and drainage engineering.

Asawa GL. 2008. Irrigation and water resources engineering.

AMTEC. 2016a. General irrigation terminologies: Philippine agricultural engineering standard

AMTEC. 2016d. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open channels –

AMTEC. 2016e. Conveyance systems: performance evaluation of open channels –

B. Faculty Developed PowerPoint and Self-Learning Materials

C. YouTube Links (Free)

Kitadate Irrigation System by ICID CIID

Ten Most Beautiful Largest Dams in the World by 4 Ever Green

All American Canal Lining Project Documentary by MBI Media

Canal Construction Project Using EPDM Canal Lining by 2MCompanyInc

Furrow Irrigation by Organic Farming Research Foundation

Irrigation Canal Maintenance by AgriLifeWildLifeFish

Goal Seek Open Channel Analysis

Canal Irrigation System Software - How Does it Work

D. Webinars (With Fees)

Varied Webinars Related to Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Varied Webinars Related to Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

Varied Webinars Related to Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

E. Open Educational Resources

Omics Online. 2020. Irrigation Engineering Innovations

Irrigation & Drainage Systems Engineering Innovations

University of Canterbury. 2020. Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

Adama University. 2020. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering Houndout

Indian Institute of Technology. 2020. Irrigation and Drainage

Course Assessment and Evaluation

Grading System (60% Passing)

a. The course official virtual classroom is VSU E-Learning Portal

If a student cannot attend a virtual meeting due to internet connection limitation,