Ci Engine Book Modify

AT8401 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES
UNIT I
INTAKE AND EXHAUST MANIFOLDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Heat engine:
A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical

energy or transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses
this energy to produce mechanical work. The combustion of fuel such as coal,
petrol, diesel generates heat. This heat is supplied to a working substance at high
temperature. By the expansion of this substance in suitable machines, heat energy
is converted into useful work.
It is classified into two types-
(a) External combustion engine (b) Internal combustion engine
1.1.1.1 External combustion engine:
External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place

outside the engine. In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel
transfer heat to a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
Examples:
*In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is
employed to generate steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating
type engine) or a turbine (rotary type engine) for useful work.
*In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace
is transferred to gas, usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.
1.1.1.2Internal combustion engine:
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

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In internal combustion engines combustion takes place within the engine.

The combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as the
direct motive force. It can be classified into the following types:
1. According to the basic engine design
 Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),

 Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used
 Petrol engine,
 Diesel engine,
 Gas engine (CNG, LPG),
 Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle-
 Four stroke and

 Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel-
 Spark ignition engine,

 Compression ignition engine
 Hot spot ignition engine
5. According to the working cycle-
 Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine,

 Diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine,
 Dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation-
 Carbureted type (fuel supplied through the carburetor),

 Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel injected
into the cylinder just before ignition).
7. According to the number of cylinder
 Single cylinder
 Multi-cylinder engine

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8. Method of cooling
 Water cooled
 Air cooled
9. Speed of the engine
 Slow speed,
 Medium speed
 High speed engine
10. Cylinder arrangement
 Vertical, horizontal,
 inline,
 V-type,
 radial,
 Opposed cylinder or piston engines.
11. Valve or port design and location
 Overhead (I head),
 Side valve (L head); in two stroke engines: cross scavenging, loop
scavenging, uniflow scavenging.
12. Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed
engines and qualitatively governed engine
14. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for
propulsion of ships, aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines,
prime movers for electrical generators.
Table:1 Comparison between external combustion engine and internal

combustion engine:
External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

*Combustion of air-fuel is outside the * Combustion of air-fuel is inside the
engine cylinder (in a boiler) engine cylinder (in a boiler)
*The engines are running smoothly * Very noisy operated engine

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and silently due to outside combustion

*Higher ratio of weight and bulk to * It is light and compact due to lower
output due to presence of auxiliary ratio of weight and bulk to output.
apparatus like boiler and condenser.
Hence it is heavy and cumbersome.
*Working pressure and temperature * Working pressure and temperature
inside the engine cylinder is low; inside the engine cylinder is very much
hence ordinary alloys are used for the high; hence special alloys are used
manufacture of engine cylinder and its
parts.
*It can use cheaper fuels including *High grade fuels are used with proper
solid fuels filtration
*Lower efficiency about 15-20% *Higher efficiency about 35-40%
* Higher requirement of water for *Lesser requirement of water
dissipation of energy through cooling
system
*High starting torque *IC engines are not self-starting
1.1.2 Major components of reciprocating IC engines
1. Cylinder Block:
Q1
[The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various
components. The cylinder of a multi cylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called
cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder
head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water-
cooling with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head gasket is
incorporated between the cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is
held tight to the cylinder block by number of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of
the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called crankcase, which becomes a
sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase. The inner
surface of the cylinder block, which is machined and finished accurately to
cylindrical shape, is called bore or face.

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2. Cylinder:
It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro.
It should have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and
temperature above 2000 oC. The ordinary engine is made of cast iron and heavy
duty engines are made of steel alloys or aluminum alloys. In the multi-cylinder
engine, the cylinders are cast in one block known as cylinder block.
3. Cylinder head:
The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet and
exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos gasket is
provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight joint.
4. Piston:
Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod.
Usually made of aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property and
greater strength at higher temperature.
5. Combustion Chamber
Fig: 1.1 Combustion Chamber

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The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and
the piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber.
The combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the
building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.
6. Piston rings:
These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer

surface of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even
at high temperature. 2 types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring
is upper ring of the piston which provides air tight seal to prevent leakage of the
burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is lower ring which provides effective
seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
7. Connecting rod:
It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the

crank shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is
connected with the piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is
connected with the crank with crank pin. The special steel alloys or aluminium
alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.
8. Crankshaft:
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with
the help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the manufacturing
of the crankshaft. It consists of eccentric portion called crank.
9. Crank case:
It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as sump
for the lubricating oil.
10. Flywheel:
This is usually made of cast iron, big wheel mounted on the crankshaft and
its primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed by carrying the
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crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston. It is
done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during
other stroke. The size of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the
type and size of the engine. It also helps in balancing rotating masses.
11. Inlet Manifold
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine
and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the
inlet manifold.
12. Exhaust Manifold
The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the
engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere
is called the exhaust manifold. ]Q1
Table: 2 Materials used for engine parts:
Sl. Name of the Parts Materials of Construction

No.
1. Cylinder head Cast iron, Cast Aluminium
2. Cylinder liner Cast steel, Cast iron
3. Engine block Cast iron, Cast aluminum, Welded steel
4. Piston Cast iron, Aluminium alloy
5. Piston pin Forged steel, Casehardened steel.
6. Connecting rod Forged steel. Aluminium alloy.
7. Piston rings Cast iron, Pressed steel alloy.
8. Connecting rod bearings Bronze, White metal.
9. Main bearings White metal, Steel backed Babbitt base.
10. Crankshaft Forged steel, Cast steel
11. Camshaft Forged steel, Cast iron, cast steel,
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12. Timing gears Cast iron, Fiber, Steel forging.

13. Push rods Forged steel.
14. Engine valves Forged steel, Steel, alloy.
15. Valve springs Carbon spring steel.
16. Manifolds Cast iron, Cast aluminium.
17. Crankcase Cast iron, Welded steel
18. Flywheel Cast iron.
19. Studs and bolts Carbon steel.
20. Gaskets Cork, Copper, Asbestos.
1.1.3 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES
 Q2
[Cylinder Bore:
The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore
 Piston area (A):
The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
 Stroke(L):
The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals (TDC and BDC), of its direction of motion.
 Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) :

The top most position of the piston towards cover end side of the cylinder is
called T.D.C.
 Bottom dead Center ( B.D.C.) :

The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder
is called B.D.C.
 Clearance Volume (Vc):

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The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston , when the
piston is at top dead center , is called the clearance volume. That is the
nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the piston at the top
dead centre.
 Displacement volume or Swept Volume(Vs):

The volume swept through by the piston in moving between T.D.C. and
B.D.C, is called swept volume or piston displacement.
Vs=A × L
 Compression Ratio(r):
It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to clearance volume ]Q2
1.1.4 Four Stroke SI Engine

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Fig. 1.2 Cycle of events in a 4-stroke SI engine.
1.1.4.1 Suction or Intake Stroke:
Fig. 1.3 Suction or intake stroke.
 Piston moves from TDC to BDC

 Opening of intake valve
 Suction of the air or air fuel-mixture
(Air in diesel engine and air-fuel mixture in petrol engine)
Suction stroke starts when the piston is at the top dead centre and about to
move downwards. The inlet valve is open at this time and the exhaust valve is
closed. Due to the suction created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom
dead centre, the charge consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
The air fuel mixture in case of petrol engine and only air in diesel engine enters

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into the cylinder. When the piston reaches the bottom dead centre the suction
stroke ends and the inlet valve closes.
1.1.4.2 Compression Stroke:
Fig. 1.4. Compression stroke.
 Piston moves from BDC to TDC

 Compression of air or air-fuel mixture (air in diesel engine and air-fuel
mixture in petrol engine)
 Intake and Exhaust valve remains closed
In compression stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC. The charge taken
into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by the return stroke of the
piston. The inlet and exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke. As the piston
moves upward( from BDC to TDC) the compression of air- fuel mixture in case of
petrol engine and only air in case of diesel engine takes place. The compression
processes completes when piston reaches to the TDC. The compression is done to

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increase the temperature of the air or air-fuel mixture. The temperature is increased
so that it can easily catch fire during sparking in case of petrol engine and spraying
of diesel in case of diesel engine.
1.1.4.3 Power Stroke:
Fig. 1.5. Power stroke.
Petrol engine: The air-fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug. Due to the
ignition the burning process starts. The burning of the air-fuel mixture creates a
very high pressure burnt gases. This high pressure burnt gases exerts a thrust on
the top face of the piston and it starts to move downward from TDC to BDC. This
is the power stroke of the engine. During the burning process the chemical energy
of the fuel is converted into heat energy producing a temperature rise of about
2000 °C. In this stroke we get power which is utilized to run the vehicle. The
intake and exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke.

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Diesel engine: As the Piston approaches TDC the injection of the diesel in the
form of spray by fuel injector takes place. As the diesel sprayed by the fuel
injector come in contact with the hot compressed gases it catches fire and burning
processes starts. Due to burning high pressure hot burnt gases originates and it
puts a very high thrust on the top face of the piston. Due the thrust impact on the
piston it starts to move in downward direction i.e. form TDC to BDC.
1.1.4.4 Exhaust Stroke:
Fig. 1.6. Exhaust stroke
 Piston moves from DBC to TDC.

 Opening of the Exhaust Valve.
 Escaping of the hot burnt gases through exhaust valve.
At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve
remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level a part of the burnt gases
escape. The piston starts moving from the bottom dead centre to top dead centre
and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure.

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The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches T.D.C. at the end of the
exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped in the clearance volume remain in
the cylinder. Residual gases mix with the fresh charge coming in during the
following cycle, forming its working fluid. Each cylinder of a four stroke engine
completes the above four operations in two engine revolutions, one revolution of
the crankshaft occurs during the suction and compression strokes and the second
revolution during the power and exhaust strokes. Thus for one complete cycle
there’s only one power stroke while the crankshaft turns by two revolutions.
1.1.5 TWO-STROKE ENGINE
Fig. 1.7. Two-stroke engine.
 No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations

 Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase or by a blower
 Induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion through
exhaust ports
 Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into combustion chamber
The two unproductive strokes, viz., the suction and exhaust could be served by an
alternative arrangement, especially without the movement of the piston then there
will be a power stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft. In such an
arrangement, theoretically the power output of the engine can be doubled for the
same speed compared to a four-stroke engine
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In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the

crankshaft. The main difference between two-stroke and four stroke engines is in
the method of filling the fresh charge and removing the burnt gases from the
cylinder. In the four-stroke engine these operations are performed by the engine
piston during the suction and exhaust” strokes respectively. In a two-stroke engine,
the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed in crankcase or by a
blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the product of
combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston strokes are required for
these two operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for
compressing the fresh charge and the other for expansion or power stroke.
1.1.5.1 CRANKCASE SCAVENGED TWO STROKE ENGINE
Fig. 1.8. Crankcas scavenged two-stroke engine
The crankcase scavenged engine. The air or charge is inducted into the
crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in the crankcase
is reduced due to upward motion of the piston during compression stroke. After the
compression and ignition, expansion takes place in the usual way.

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During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed.

Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and
the cylinder pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the combustion products
leave the cylinder. Further movement of the piston uncovers the transfer ports,
permitting the slightly compressed charge in the crankcase to enter the engine
cylinder.
The top of the piston has usually a projection to deflect the fresh charge
towards the top of the cylinder before flowing to the exhaust ports. This serves the
double purpose of scavenging the upper part of the cylinder of the combustion
products and preventing the fresh charge from flowing directly to the exhaust
ports. The same objective can be achieved without piston deflector by proper
shaping of the transfer port. During the upward motion of the piston from B DC
the transfer ports close first and then the exhaust ports close when compression of
the charge begins and the cycle is repeated.
1.1.6 Four-stroke Diesel engine
In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two revolutions of
the crankshaft. These are respectively, the suction, compression, power and
exhaust strokes. Only pure air is drawn into the cylinder during this stroke through
the inlet valve, whereas, the exhaust valve is closed. These valves can be operated
by the cam, push rod and rocker arm. The next stroke is the compression stroke in
which the piston moves up with both the valves remaining closed. The air, which
has been drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke, is progressively
compressed as the piston ascends. The compression ratio usually varies from 14:1
to 22:1. The pressure at the end of the compression stroke ranges from 30 to 45
kg/cm2. As the air is progressively compressed in the cylinder, its temperature
increases, until when near the end of the compression stroke, it becomes
sufficiently high (650-80O oC) to instantly ignite any fuel that is injected into the
cylinder. When the piston is near the top of its compression stroke, a liquid
hydrocarbon fuel, such as diesel oil, is sprayed into the combustion chamber under
high pressure(140-160 kg/cm2), higher than that existing in the cylinder itself.
This fuel then ignites, being burnt with the oxygen of the highly compressed air.

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During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its
compression stroke and commences to return on its third consecutive stroke, viz.,
power stroke. During this stroke the hot products of combustion consisting chiefly
of carbon dioxide, together with the nitrogen left from the compressed air expand,
thus forcing the piston downward. This is only the working stroke of the cylinder.
During the power stroke the pressure falls from its maximum combustion
value (47-55 kg/cm2), which is usually higher than the greater value of the
compression pressure (45 kg/cm2), to about 3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the
stroke. The exhaust valve then opens, usually a little earlier than when the piston
reaches its lowest point of travel. The exhaust gases are swept out on the following
upward stroke of the piston. The exhaust valve remains open throughout the whole
stroke and closes at the top of the stroke.
The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into the rotary motion of
the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates
in the main bearings, which are set in the crankcase. The flywheel is fitted on the
crankshaft in order to smoothen out the uneven torque that is generated in the
reciprocating engine.
1.1.7 Two-stroke diesel engine:
The cycle of the four-stroke of the piston (the suction, compression, power
and exhaust strokes) is completed only in two strokes in the case of a two-stroke
engine. The air is drawn into the crankcase due to the suction created by the
upward stroke of the piston. On the down stroke of the piston it is compressed in
the crankcase, The compression pressure is usually very low, being just sufficient
to enable the air to flow into the cylinder through the transfer port when the piston
reaches near the bottom of its down stroke.
The air thus flows into the cylinder, where the piston compresses it as it
ascends, till the piston is nearly at the top of its stroke. The compression pressure is
increased sufficiently high to raise the temperature of the air above the self-ignition
point of the fuel used. The fuel is injected into the cylinder head just before the
completion of the compression stroke and only for a short period. The burnt gases
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expand during the next downward stroke of the piston. These gases escape into the
exhaust pipe to the atmosphere through the piston uncovering the exhaust port.
Table: 3 Comparison of Four-stroke and two-stroke engine:
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine

Four stroke of the piston and two Two stroke of the piston and one
revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
One power stroke in every two One power stroke in each revolution
revolution of crankshaft of crankshaft
Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform Lighter flywheel due to more
turning movement uniform turning movement
Power produce is less Theoretically power produce is twice
than the four stroke engine for same
size
Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear
Heavy and bulky Light and compact
Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and
requirements lubrication requirements
Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement
Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
Thermal efficiency is high and also Thermal efficiency is low, part load
part load efficiency better efficiency lesser
It is used where efficiency is It is used where low cost,
important. compactness and light weight are
important.
Volumetric efficiency is more due to Volumetric efficiency less due to
greater time of induction lesser time of induction
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Two-Stroke Cycle Over Four-Stroke Cycle

Engines
Advantages:
1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of
the crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine

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speed and cylinder volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which
gives only one working stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
However, in practice, because of poor scavenging, only 50-60% extra power
is developed.
2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning
moment on the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine
requires a lighter flywheel.
3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is
much simpler and their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
4) The power required overcoming frictional resistance of the suction and
exhaust strokes is saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve
mechanism, the mechanical efficiency is higher.
6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less
space than a four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in
small machines and motorcycles.
8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed
especially when the crankcase compression is used.
9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
10) A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.
Disadvantages:
1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of
the charges takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication
system and normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as
effective as the lubrication of a four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the
two-stroke engine are subjected to greater wear and tear.
3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the
exhaust. Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.

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4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat
produced. At the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at
light loads.
5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat
generated.
6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression
starts only after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the
compression ratio of this engine is lower than that of a four-stroke engine of
the same dimensions. As the efficiency of an engine is directly proportional to
its compression ratio, the efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is lower than
that of a four-stroke cycle engine of the same size.
Table:4 Comparison of SI and CI engine:
SI engine CI engine
Petrol or gasoline or high octane fuel is Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
used.
Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous Fuel is injected directly into the
mixture in the suction stroke. combustion chamber at high pressure
at the end of compression stroke.
High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
Carburettor used to provide the Injector and high pressure pump used
mixture. to supply of fuel.
Throttle controls the quantity of Quantity of fuel regulated in pump.
mixture introduced.
Use of spark plug for ignition system Self-ignition by the compression of air
which increased the temperature
required for combustion
Maximum efficiency lower due to Higher maximum efficiency due to
lower compression ratio higher compression ratio
Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22

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Higher maximum RPM due to lower Lower maximum RPM

weight
1.1.8 FIRING ORDER:
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-
cylinder reciprocating engine. This is achieved by sparking of the spark plugs in a
gasoline engine in the correct order, or by the sequence of fuel injection in a Diesel
engine. When designing an engine, choosing an appropriate firing order is critical
to minimizing vibration and achieving smooth running, for long engine fatigue life
and user comfort, and heavily influences crankshaft design.
Advantages:
 A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations

 Maintains engine balancing.
 Secures an even flow of power.
The most commonly used in the vertical configuration of cylindersFor 4-

Cylinder engines the possible firing orders are: 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3
For a 6-Cylinder engine firing orders can be: 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-5-4-6-2-3 or 1-2-4-
6-5-3 or 1-2-3-6-5-4
1.2 MANIFOLD
Q3
[In automotive engineering, an inlet manifold or intake manifold (in American
English) is the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders.
The word manifold comes from the Old English word manigfeald' (from the Anglo-
Saxon manig [many] and feald[repeatedly]) and refers to the multiplying of one
(pipe) into many.
In contrast, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders
into a smaller number of pipes – often down to one pipe.
The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the combustion
mixture (or just air in a direct injection engine) to each intake port in the cylinder
head(s). Even distribution is important to optimize the efficiency and performance

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of the engine. It may also serve as a mount for the carburetor, throttle body, fuel
injectors and other components of the engine.
Due to the downward movement of the pistons and the restriction caused by the
throttle valve, in a reciprocating spark ignition piston engine, a
partial vacuum (lower than atmospheric pressure) exists in the intake manifold.
This manifold vacuum can be substantial, and can be used as a source
of automobile ancillary power to drive auxiliary systems: power assisted brakes,
emission control devices, cruise control, ignition advance, windshield
wipers, power windows, ventilation system valves, etc.
This vacuum can also be used to draw any piston blow-by gases from the
engine's crankcase. This is known as a positive crankcase ventilation system, in
which the gases are burned with the fuel/air mixture.
The intake manifold has historically been manufactured from aluminum or cast
iron, but use of composite plastic materials is gaining popularity (e.g. most
Chrysler 4-cylinders, Ford Zetec 2.0, Duratec 2.0 and 2.3, and GM's Ecotec series)
Different Internal Combustion engines work by the use of different fuel intake
systems. In this article, we shall discuss the basic components of an intake system
and their respective functions irrespective of the the type of intake system that it
functions with.
The primary components of the automotive intake system are:
 intake manifold,
 throttle body/carburetor, and
 air induction components such as air cleaner and ducting.
Fig.1.9 Intake manifold

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1.2.1 Intake Manifold

The intake manifold is attached to the cylinder head. Its construction and design
depends on its application. It is normally made of an aluminum alloy.
On carburetor engines, the intake manifold supports or houses the carburetor.

While on EFI engines it can house or support a throttle body.
1.2.2.Throttle body/Carburetor
Fig 1.10 Throttle body/Carburetor

The intake manifold can accommodate a carburetor or a Throttle Body Injection
unit as illustrated. In either case the mixing of the air/fuel mixture is done at the
manifold base. The butterfly shaft connected to the throttle cable controls the air
flow through the unit.
In multi-point EFI systems, a throttle body is attached to the intake manifold.

While the butterfly shaft is attached the throttle cable, it also has a Throttle
Position Sensor (TPS) attached to it as well. The TPS signals the ECU of the
throttle opening position so it can complete its fuel requirement calculations .]Q3

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1.2.3 Air Induction Component
Fig 1.11 Air cleaner

The air induction components consist of an air cleaner and housing, solid and
flexible-duct tubing, and connectors.
The air induction system draws in ambient air from the environment. The inlet
opening may be located in various positions under the hood.
 Air cleaner
The air cleaner filters the incoming air. The air cleaner element may be
manufactured from pleated paper, oil impregnated cloth or felt, or in an oil bath
configuration.
Another function of the air cleaner is to muffle the resonation (that is, dampen the
noise)of the swirling incoming air.
The location of the air cleaner is dependent on the available space and the hood
design
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 Ducting
The ducting can be made of hardened plastic with flexible rubber couplings to
absorb engine movement. These are usually secured in place by metal worm drive
clamps
Fig. 1.12 Duct

Page 25
Most vehicles of today works on Internal Combustion (I.C) engines. In a basic

term, for an engine to work there must intake of fuel into its engines cylinder along
with air. The main function of the intake system on a gasoline engine is the
delivery of the required amount of the mixture of air and fuel. An Internal
combustion engine must have a functional fuel intake system. In this article we
shall talk about types of fuel intake system used by engines.
1.3 Types Of Fuel Intake Systems
1.3.1 Carburetor Fuel System

On a carburetor engine, the intake system is part of the fuel system.In a basic
system, air enters the air cleaner for filtering, then passes into the carburetor, where
it mixes with the required amount of fuel. This air-fuel mixture then enters the
intake manifold, and finally the cylinder. The same basic principle applies on the
rotaryengine.
On all carburetor systems, the intake system can be crucial in increasing engine
output. This can be done by increasing volumetric efficiency, that is, by increasing
the amount of air-fuel mixture burned in the cylinders.
This can be achieved by using a larger inlet valve to admit more charge into the
combustion chamber; by using large, free-flowing intake manifolds; or by using
extra carburetors. Carburetor intake systems were once standard for gasoline
engines, but increasingly they are being displaced by electronic fuel injected
systems.
1.3.2 Electronic Fuel Injection System

The intake system is also part of the fuel system in this case and its main function
on a gasoline engine remains to deliver the required amount of air-fuel mixture.
Air is filtered by passing through an air cleaner.
Information from many parts of the engine are fed into an electronic control unit,
which then determines how much fuel should be injected for those exact
conditions. The computerized system decides the fuel air need of the engine.
Pressure from an electric pump supplies fuel to electrically controlled injectors.

Page 26
There are two basic electronic fuel injection systems.
 single-point, and
 multi-point.
In the single-point system, the intake manifold carries an air-fuel mixture. Fuel is
sprayed into the top-centre of the intake manifold. This manifold is the same as on
a carbureted system.
In a multi-point system, the intake manifold carries air only. Multi-point injection
has a fuel injector in each inlet port going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed
into each port, toward each intake valve.
The intake system can be crucial in increasing engine output. This can be done by
increasing volumetric efficiency, that is, by increasing the amount of air-fuel
mixture burned in the cylinders like in the carburetor system. However, in fuel
injection systems, this partly occurs automatically because of the increased
efficiency of fuel injection compared to carbureted systems. Output can also be
improved by using large, free-flowing intake manifolds, and by using larger valves
to admit more charge into the combustion chamber.
Another method uses forced induction or supercharging.
1.3.3Diesel Induction System

In this case we shall be discussing the diesel induction system of the 2 stroke and 4
stroke diesel engines.
4 Stroke: The two main components of the 4-stroke intake system are the air
cleaner and the intake manifold. But in a diesel engine, fuel is delivered separately
and the intake system carries air only. Also, since the diesel engine doesn’t have a
carburetor, it has no throttle. Some diesels use a pneumatic governor with a
butterfly valve at the entrance to the inlet manifold. Diesel engines often have
more than one air cleaner.
 2 Stroke: Intake system for a 2-stroke diesel engine. There is only a very
short time at the end of its power stroke to scavenge the exhaust gases and refill the
cylinder with air. To achieve this in the time available, 2-stroke diesels use an
Page 27
engine-driven air pump, usually called a blower. It pressurizes the air so that when
the inlet ports open, air from the blower enters the cylinder and helps scavenge the
exhaust gases. Some 2-stroke diesel engines use a turbocharger which feeds air
under pressure to the blower.
The intake system of the diesel engine can be used to increase engine output. This
can be done by increasing volumetric efficiency, that is, by increasing the amount
of air-fuel mixture burned in the cylinders. In diesel injection systems, this partly
occurs automatically because of the increased efficiency of fuel injection. Output
can also be improved by using large, free-flowing intake manifolds, and by
increasing the number, or the size, of inlet valves per cylinder to admit more
charge into the combustion chamber.
1.4 Turbochargers
Q4
[Today's vehicles are being equipped more and more with turbochargers. To
understand what they do, we'll explain how they work. A turbocharger is made up
basically of 3 sections: a center body consisting of the shaft housing, an intake
housing and an exhaust housing. The center housing is a shaft with the turbine fins
attached on each side; the bearings and seals of the shaft are in the center housing.
Now that you have found it, you can take the cover off.
Fig 1.13 Turbo charger

Page 28
Now, how it works. The exhaust of the engine flows through the exhaust housing
and turns the turbine on the exhaust side, which in turn turns the intake turbine that
pressurizes the air going into the intake. There is a wastegate on the exhaust side
that regulates how much of the exhaust pressure is applied to the turbo and how
much bypasses it. Without the waste gate, the pressure could build to a point of
destroying the engine. The waste gate is the turbocharger's "failsafe", for lack of a
better term.
The air to the intake is usually cooled by an intercooler, which uses the engine
cooling system to reduce the high temperature of the air before it goes into the
intake system. The cooler the air into the cylinders, the denser the fuel/air mixture
can be. So for optimum efficiency, the air going into the cylinders needs to be as
cool as it can be.
A turbocharger is a positive feedback unit, in which as exhaust flow increases, the

turbine of the turbocharger increases, which increases the pressure or boost
supplied to the intake system. As engine rpm increase, turbo boost increases to a
point where the waste gate regulates it.
Normally most problems occur with turbochargers when foreign debris gets into
the turbine blades and binds the turbines or when the oil drain tube becomes
clogged with hardened oil that has gone from the extreme heat of the turbo to the
cooler oil drain tube. When the oil drain tube becomes clogged, the oil builds up in
the center housing, having no place to go, it pushes out the shaft seals and often
creates an extremely smoky engine. With regular oil changes and servicing,
turbochargers can be pretty reliable.
A turbocharger is an exhaust-driven air compressor. It becomes an air compressor

by utilizing expanded exhaust gases from the engine. The exhaust gas pressure and
the heat energy extracted from the gas causes the turbine wheel to rotate, thus
driving the compressor wheel through a common shaft. Exhaust temperature and
pressure drop as they pass through the turbine housing and into the atmosphere.
The rotating compressor wheel draws air in and the blades accelerate and expel the
air into the compressor housing. Once into the compressor housing, the air is
compressed and flows toward the intake manifold, pressurizing the intake in a
measurable form we call boost pressure.]Q4

Page 29
Fig 1.14 I.C. Engine with Turbocharger
1.4.1 The Engine:
The Toyota MR2 is a two-seat, mid-engine, rear wheel drive sports car produced
by Toyota from 1984 until July 2007 when production stopped in Japan. Sales in
North America ended in 2005. There are three different generations of the MR2,
often referred to as MKI (1984-1989), MKII (1990-1999), and MKIII (2000-2007)
Some car historians contend that the MR2 was Lotus-designed. This is a reference
to the Lotus M90 (a.k.a. the X100) project, but this was scrapped after a single
prototype was built. This used the same engine and gearbox as the MR2. At the
time, Toyota, along with the Chapman family was a major share holder in Lotus,
but General Motors later acquired majority control. Lotus Engineering, a prolific
consultancy company forming part of Group Lotus but separate from Lotus Cars,
was heavily involved in the designing the 4AG series Toyota engines (in the first
MR2s) and the ZZ series engines in modern Toyotas. However, the MR2's
suspension and handling were designed by Toyota with the help of Lotus engineer
Roger Becker.

Page 30
1.4.2 The Compressor:

Here's a comparison chart of turbo compressor wheel and turbine wheel. Not
necessarily sorted by size and power.
Compressor Turbine
Exduc
Wheel Inducer Exducer Inducer Flange
Turbo Whee er
Trim Diamete Diamete Diamete style,
Hou CF l Diamet
r r sing M r
map er Housing
(in./mm) (in./mm) Trim (in.)
avail (in.) size
304
T22
Stock 1.57"/40 2.02"/51 TB2 1.53"/3 1.85"/47
T2 T25
TB02/22 mm mm 2 ma 8.9mm mm
69
x
405
T25 T25
Garrett 1.66"/42 2.14"/54. TB2 1.64"/4 2.09"/53
ma T25
T25 60 mm 4mm 5 62 1.7mm mm
x
448
T3 T25
Garrett 1.83"/46. 2.37"/60 TB0 1.64"/4 2.09"/53
T25
T28 5mm mm 3 ma 1.7mm mm
60 62
x
1.53"/38. 2.06"/52 TB2 1.59"/4 1.83"/45.
JWT 500 T25 T25
9mm? mm? 2 0.4mm 7mm
JWT
530BB GT25R GT25 T25
1.65"/42 2.14"/54. GT2 1.64"/4 2.09"/53
mm 3mm 5R 1.7mm mm
GT25R/G 60 62 .64 A/R
T2554R
T3?
1.83"/46. 2.37"/60 TB2 1.86"/4 2.09"/53
JWT 600 T25
60? 5mm mm 5 7.2mm mm?
506
T3
1.89"/48 2.37"/60 1.86"/4 2.09"/53
JWT 650 T3 T3 T25
mm mm ma 7.2mm mm
63
x

Page 31
JWT 700
GT28R 535
BB GT28 T25
S 1.86"/47. 2.37"/60 GT2 1.85"/4 2.09"/53.
2mm mm 8RS Ma 6.9mm 9mm
GT28RS/ 76 .86 A/R
62 x
GT2860R
GT2871 599
GT28 T25
R 1.94"/49. 2.79"/71 GT2 1.85"/4 2.09"/53.
GT2871R
2mm? mm? 8RS ma 6.9mm 9mm
76 .86 A/R
48 x
494
PE ? P20
1.79"/45. 2.37"/60 1.73"/4 1.89"/48 ?
? ma
57 5mm mm 84 4 mm
1420
x
635
PE ? P20
2.07"/52. 2.76"/70 1.74"/4 2.047"/5 ?
?
5mm mm ma 4.7 2mm
1820 55 84
x
Greddy 15C TD04H
1.65"/42 2.187"/5 TD0 TD04 1.74"/4 2.047"/5
TD04H-
55 mm 5.5mm 4 H 4.7 2mm 3bolt
15C
TD05H
520
Greddy 16G
1.83"/46. 2.236/57 TD0 TD05 1.93"/4 2.20"/56
TD05- 6,7,8cm2
5mm mm 5 @2 H 9mm mm
16G 60
PR 3bolt
? TD05H
Greddy 18G
1.99"/50. 2.68/68m TD05 1.93"/4 2.20"/56
TD05- a* 6,7,8cm2
5mm m @2 H 9mm mm
18G 50
PR 3 bolt
b* 685 TD06S
20G
Greddy 2.07"/52. 2.68"/68 TD0 TD06 2.17"/5 2.56"/65
8,10cm2
TD06- 6mm mm 6 ma S 5.1mm mm
60
20G x
3 bolt
GT28R 1.90"/47. 2.37"/60 T3 477 T25 .64
HKS 1.85"/4 2.12"/54
S GT25 A/R
GT2530 7mm mm 63 ma 7mm mm
T3

Page 32
63 x
To4 564
T04E
HKS 2.1"/51.7 E 1.85"/4 2.12"/54
3"/76mm @2 GT25 .64 A/R
GT2540 46 mm 7mm mm
46 PR
608
b*HKS GT35 T25
2.01"/51. 2.79"/71 GT3 2.01"/5 2.23"/56.
GT2835 ma GT28
52 2 mm 5 1.8mm 5mm .61, .73
d* x
709
c*HKS GT37 T25
2.17"/55 3.00"/76 GT3 2.16"/5 2.36"/60
GT3037 GT30
mm mm 7 ma 5mm mm
d* 52
x
694 T25
GT37
Garrett 2.08"/53 3.00"/71 GT3 2"/50.8 2.22"/56. flange
ma GT30
GT3071R 56 mm mm 7 mm 5mm
x .86 A/R
752 T3flange
GT30R
Garrett 2.24"/57 3.00"76. GT3 2.16"/5 2.36"/60
GT30
GT3076R 56 mm 2mm 7 ma 5mm mm .82, 1.06
x A/R
*Turbone To4B To4 520 2.05"/5
1.90"/48. 2.75"/70 B 2.35"/59.
tics @2 T3 2.1mm T3
2mm mm 7mm?
T3/To4B S S PR
?
To4 650
*Turbone 2.05"/5
To4E 2.29"/58. 2.95"/75 E 2.35"/59.
tics @2 T3 2.1mm T3
60 2mm mm 7mm?
T3/To4E 60 PR ?

Page 33
Standard Compressor Flow Map
Procedure:
 Collect all the details of the engine mentioned above.

 Calculate the amount of air required for different boost pressures and engine
speeds.
 Study the compressor chart given above.
 Calculate the operating points of the compressor for various engine speeds.
 Calculate the increase in power output of the engine.
1.5 Exhaust Manifolds

Q5
[The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gas from the cylinder head exhaust ports
and channels it to a single outlet, connected to an exhaust pipe. The exhaust
continues flowing through pipes in the system, through the catalytic converter and
muffler, and out the tailpipe. The manifold is secured to the cylinder head and
exhaust pipe with bolts or studs and nuts, and these junctures are sealed with
gaskets. Exhaust manifolds are generally durable, but if your vehicle needs repair,
you can count on our replacements to look, fit, and function just like original
equipment, but for much less cash.
An exhaust system is usually piping used to guide reaction exhaust gases away
from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system conveys
burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes. Depending
on the overall system design, the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of:
 Cylinder head and exhaust manifold

Page 34
 A turbocharger to increase engine power.
A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution
Fig 1.15 Exhaust Manifolds
Exhaust System Piping The function of the exhaust piping is to convey the exhaust
gases from the engine exhaust outlet to the silencer and other exhaust system
components, terminating at the system outlet. Piping is a key feature in overall
exhaust system layout. Exhaust System Design The physical characteristics of the
engine room or engine bay will determine the exhaust system layout. Exhaust
piping should be designed to minimize the exhaust backpressure while keeping
engine serviceability in mind. The exhaust piping should be securely supported
however; the exhaust piping should never be supported directly by the engine
block or engine components. Allowances should be made for system movement
Page 35
and vibration isolation by using suitable flexible components such as rubber

dampers or springs. Piping must be designed with engine service in mind. In many
cases, an overhead crane will be used to service the heavier engine components on
the larger engines. The following recommendations should be followed when
designing an exhaust piping system.]Q5
1.6 MUFFLERS
Fig 1.16 Mufflers

Q5
[Mufflers are installed within the exhaust system of most internal combustion
engines. The muffler is engineered as an acoustic device to reduce the loudness of
the sound pressure created by the engine by acoustic quieting. The noise of the
burning-hot exhaust gas exiting the engine at high velocity is abated by a series of
passages and chambers lined with roving fiberglass insulation and/or resonating
chambers harmonically tuned to cause destructive interference, wherein opposite
sound waves cancel each other out. An unavoidable side effect of this noise

Page 36
reduction is restriction of the exhaust gas flow, which creates back pressure, which
decreases engine efficiency. This is because the engine exhaust must share the
same complex exit pathway built inside the muffler as the sound pressure that the
muffler is designed to mitigate.]Q5
Fig 1.17 Mufflers
1.7 RESONATOR
Q6
[A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior,
that is, it naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called its resonant frequencies,
with greater amplitude than at others. The oscillations in a resonator can be

Page 37
either electromagnetic or mechanical (including acoustic). Resonators are used to

either generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from
a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of
specific tones. Another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such
as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise
frequency
Fig 1.18 Resonators
The purpose of a resonator is to cancel out a certain range of sound frequencies.

Without getting too scientific, sound is simply a pressure wave emitted at a certain
frequency. Like waves in the ocean, sound waves have certain amplitudes
(comparable to overall size), a crest and a trough. At the beach, when the crest of a
wave meets the trough of wave of the same size, the two waves actually cancel
each other out and there will no longer be any wave. The exact same principle
applies to sounds waves. If you have two sound waves of the same size and
frequency meet crest-to-trough, they too will cancel.]Q6
PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1.What is meant by Heat engine?
A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical

energy or transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses
this energy to produce mechanical work. The combustion of fuel such as coal,
petrol, diesel generates heat. This heat is supplied to a working substance at high

Page 38
temperature. By the expansion of this substance in suitable machines, heat energy

is converted into useful work.
It is classified into two types-
(b) External combustion engine (b) Internal combustion engine
2.What is meant by External combustion engine?
External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place

outside the engine. In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel
transfer heat to a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
3.What is meant by Internal combustion engine?
In internal combustion engines combustion takes place within the engine.

The combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as the
direct motive force.
4.How to classify Internal combustion Engine?
1. According to the basic engine design
 Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),

 Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used
 Petrol engine,
 Diesel engine,
 Gas engine (CNG, LPG),
 Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle-
 Four stroke and

 Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel-

Page 39
 Spark ignition engine,

 Compression ignition engine
 Hot spot ignition engine
5. According to the working cycle-
 Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine,

 Diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine,
 Dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation-
 Carbureted type (fuel supplied through the carburettor),

 Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel injected
into the cylinder just before ignition).
7. According to the number of cylinder
 Single cylinder
 Multi-cylinder engine
8. Method of cooling
 Water cooled
 Air cooled
9. Speed of the engine
 Slow speed,
 Medium speed
 High speed engine
10. Cylinder arrangement
 Vertical, horizontal,
 inline,
 V-type,
 radial,
 Opposed cylinder or piston engines.
11. Valve or port design and location
 Overhead (I head),

Page 40
 Side valve (L head); in two stroke engines: cross scavenging, loop

scavenging, uniflow scavenging.
12. Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed
engines and qualitatively governed engine
14. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for
propulsion of ships, aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines,
prime movers for electrical generators.
6.What are the Major components of reciprocating IC engines?
2. Cylinder Block
2. Cylinder
3. Cylinder head
4. Piston
5. Combustion Chamber
6. Piston rings
7. Connecting rod
8. Crankshaft:
9. Crank case:
10. Flywheel:
11. Inlet Manifold
12. Exhaust Manifold
7.What are the materials used for manufacturing of engine components?.

Sl. Name of the Parts Materials of Construction
No.
1. Cylinder head Cast iron, Cast Aluminium
2. Cylinder liner Cast steel, Cast iron
3. Engine block Cast iron, Cast aluminum, Welded steel
4. Piston Cast iron, Aluminium alloy
5. Piston pin Forged steel, Casehardened steel.
6. Connecting rod Forged steel. Aluminium alloy.
7. Piston rings Cast iron, Pressed steel alloy.
8. Connecting rod bearings Bronze, White metal.
Page 41
9. Main bearings White metal, Steel backed Babbitt base.

10. Crankshaft Forged steel, Cast steel
11. Camshaft Forged steel, Cast iron, cast steel,
12. Timing gears Cast iron, Fiber, Steel forging.
13. Push rods Forged steel.
14. Engine valves Forged steel, Steel, alloy.
15. Valve springs Carbon spring steel.
16. Manifolds Cast iron, Cast aluminium.
17. Crankcase Cast iron, Welded steel
18. Flywheel Cast iron.
19. Studs and bolts Carbon steel.
20. Gaskets Cork, Copper, Asbestos.
8. What are the Advantages And Disadvantages Of Two-Stroke Cycle Over Four-
Stroke Cycle Engines?
Advantages:
11) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of
the crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine
speed and cylinder volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which
gives only one working stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
However, in practice, because of poor scavenging, only 50-60% extra power
is developed.
12) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning
moment on the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine
requires a lighter flywheel.
13) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is
much simpler and their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
14) The power required overcoming frictional resistance of the suction and
exhaust strokes is saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
15) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve
mechanism, the mechanical efficiency is higher.
Page 42
Disadvantages:
7. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of
the charges takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
8. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication
system and normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as
effective as the lubrication of a four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the
two-stroke engine are subjected to greater wear and tear.
9. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the
exhaust. Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.
10. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat
produced. At the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at
light loads.
11. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat
generated.
9.Compare the SI and CI engine
SI engine CI engine
Petrol or gasoline or high octane fuel Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
is used.
Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous Fuel is injected directly into the
mixture in the suction stroke. combustion chamber at high pressure
at the end of compression stroke.
High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
Carburettor used to provide the Injector and high pressure pump used
mixture. to supply of fuel.
Throttle controls the quantity of Quantity of fuel regulated in pump.
mixture introduced.
Use of spark plug for ignition system Self-ignition by the compression of air
which increased the temperature
required for combustion
Maximum efficiency lower due to Higher maximum efficiency due to
lower compression ratio higher compression ratio

Page 43
Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22

Higher maximum RPM due to lower Lower maximum RPM
weight
10. What is meant by Inlet Manifold?

In Automotive Engineering, An Inlet Manifold Or Intake Manifold (In
American English) Is The Part Of An Engine That Supplies The Fuel/Air Mixture
To The Cylinders.
11. What is meant by Exhaust Manifold?

An Exhaust Manifold Collects the Exhaust Gases from Multiple Cylinders
Into A Smaller Number Of Pipes – Often Down To One Pipe
12. What are the components of the automotive intake system?

The primary components of the automotive intake system are:
1.Intake Manifold,
2. Throttle Body/Carburetor, And
3. Air Induction Components Such As Air Cleaner And Ducting
13. What is the use of Air Cleaner?

The air cleaner filters the incoming air. The air cleaner element may be
manufactured from pleated paper, oil impregnated cloth or felt, or in an oil bath
configuration.
Another function of the air cleaner is to muffle the resonation (that is, dampen the
noise)of the swirling incoming air.
14. What is the function of Ducting?
The ducting can be made of hardened plastic with flexible rubber couplings
to absorb engine movement. These are usually secured in place by metal worm
drive clamps
15. What Are The Types Of Fuel Intake Systems?

1.Carburetor Fuel System
2.Electronic Fuel Injection System
3.Diesel Induction System

Page 44
16. What is the function of Turbocharger?

The exhaust of the engine flows through the exhaust housing and turns the
turbine on the exhaust side, which in turn turns the intake turbine that pressurizes
the air going into the intake.
17.What is meant by Exhaust Manifolds?

The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gas from the cylinder head exhaust
ports and channels it to a single outlet, connected to an exhaust pipe.
18. What is the function of Mufflers?

The muffler is engineered as an acoustic device to reduce the loudness of
the sound pressure created by the engine by acoustic quieting.
19. What is meant by Resonator?

Resonators are used to either generate waves of specific frequencies or to
select specific frequencies from a signal.
20.What is meant by Diesel Induction System?

The two main components of the 4-stroke intake system are the air cleaner
and the intake manifold. But in a diesel engine, fuel is delivered separately and the
intake system carries air only. Also, since the diesel engine doesn’t have a
carburetor, it has no throttle. Some diesels use a pneumatic governor with a
butterfly valve at the entrance to the inlet manifold. Diesel engines often have
more than one air cleaner.
PART B & PART C QUESTIONS
1. Explain in details of Major components of reciprocating IC engines

(Answer: Ref. page no. 4-6)
Q2.Explain the Terminology of I.C engine. (Answer: Ref. page no.8-9)
Q3.Explain with neat sketch of Intake manifold for C.I Engine


Page 45
Q4.Explain with neat sketch of Turbocharger used in C.I Engine

Q5. Explain with neat sketch of Exhaust manifold for C.I Engine
Q6. Explain with neat sketch of Mufflers for C.I Engine
Q7.Explain with neat sketch of Resonator


Page 46
UNIT II
DIESEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Q1
[Fuel supply system in a diesel engine has to perform certain functions. These
functions along with the names of the components which perform the same are
given below.
1.Storing of fuel
Fuel tank is usually positioned along the side of the vehicle chassis
2. Filtering
Water and dirt must be removed from the diesel for which two filters are
employed. Primary filter is usually in the form of coarse wire gauze and is often
optional. It prevents large solid particles and water from particles of dust, dirt etc.
from the diesel which is to go to the injection pump.
3. Delivery of fuel to injection pump.
From the fuel tank the fuel is delivered to the fuel injection pump by means of fuel
feed pump. The rate of fuel delivery depends upon the engine requirements.
4. Injecting the fuel into engine cylinders
Exact amount of fuel is metered, atomized and injected under high pressure to each
cylinder in correct sequence and at the correct moment according to the engine
requirements. This is done by means of a fuel injection pump in conjunction with
injectors for each cylinder .Exact strong steel pipes transmit the metered,
pressurized and timed fuel from the fuel injection pump to each injector.
2.2 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
The function of a fuel injection system is to inject proper quantity of fuel into the
engine cylinders at the correct time and at a predetermined rate. The fuel injection
systems may be broadly classified in to the solid injection system and the air
injection system. In the solid injection system, only the liquid fuel is injected,

Page 47
whereas in the air injection system liquid fuel is injected along with compressed
air. The air injection system is less reliable, less efficient and requires an air
compressor for supplying air at 7Mpa or higher pressure (which consumes up to
10% of the power output of the engine), due to which reasons it has become
obsolete.]Q1 The solid injection system will, therefore, be discussed here in detail.
Two types of solid injection systems are in use:
1. Common rail fuel injection system
2. Individual pump fuel injection system
2.2.1 Common rail fuel injection system
Fig. 2.1 Common rail fuel injection system

Q2
[Layout of a conventional mechanical common rail fuel injection system is
shown in fig. This type of fuel supply system is used in the Detroit diesel engine,
commonly known as Jimmy diesel. In this a single injection pump with injector,
called as unit injector is employed on each cylinder. The unit injectors are operated
by rocker arms and springs similar to the engine valves. A linkage connects the
control racks of all the unit injectors, so that fuel injection in all the cylinders may
be equal and simultaneously controlled.

Page 48
The fuel is taken from the fuel tank by the feed pump and is supplied at low
pressure through a filter, to the low pressure common rail and therefore, to all the
unit injectors. This avoids the high pressure fuel lines necessary in the individual
pump system. Any excess fuel from the relief valve is returned to the fuel tank .]Q2
2.2.2 Individual pump fuel injection system
Fig. 2.2 Individual pump fuel injection system

Q3
[Individual pump fuel injection system using in-line pump is shown in fig.
Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by means of a fuel feed pump which is operated
from the injection pump camshaft. Generally, the plunger type or the diaphragm
type of fuel pumps are employed in automobiles.
The pump is provided with hand priming lever so that the diesel oil can be
forced in to the system and the air bled out without turning the engine. The fuel is
then passed through a filter and hence to the Fuel injection pump. Without the filter
or with a poor quality filter, abrasive matter would reach the fuel injection pump
and injectors, resulting in poor starting, irregular idling and deterioration in
performance due to decreased fuel delivery from the injection pump. The abrasive
matter would also cause faulty spraying and leakage in the injectors thus resulting
in increased fuel consumption and heavy exhaust smoke.
The fuel injection pump then, injects definite quantity of fuel into individual
cylinders in turn according to firing order, through injectors fitted on them. The
injection pump is gear driven from the engine camshaft so that it is driven at half

Page 49
the engine speed. Contained in the injection pump on its side, is a governor which
provides automatic speed control, relative to any set position of the accelerator
pedal. Any excess fuel after lubrication of injector nozzle is returned to the fuel
tank.]Q3
2.2.3 Distributor type fuel injection pump
Fig. 2.3 Distributor type fuel injection pump
Q4
[The principle of working of a Distributor type fuel injection pump has been
illustrated by means of fig.2.3
A single pumping element in this type of pump and the fuel is distributed to each
cylinder by means of a rotor. The rotor has a central longitudinal passage and a set
of radial holes (suction ports) equal to the number of engine cylinders, four in the

Page 50
figure shown. Similarly the outer sleeve also has a set of equal number of
holes(Delivery ports) at a different level BB, which are offset from the suction
ports in top view also. Besides there is a metering port in the sleeve for the fuel
intake at level AA and a distribution port in the rotor at level BB. This distribution
port is connected to the central passage in the rotor. Each of the delivery ports is
connected to the high pressure delivery lines leading to injectors on the engine
cylinders.
a)Suction b)Delivery
As the rotor revolves, the suction ports align with the intake metering port one by
one, while the distribution port aligns with the delivery ports in turn, though these
alignments of suction ports and the distribution port with the relevant ports takes
place at different instants.
The lower end of the central passage in the rotor opens in to a chamber in which
two opposed pumping plungers are housed. As the rotor rotates, a stationery ring
with internal cams operates the plungers through rollers and shoes which are
placed in slots into the rotor base. The number of lobes on the cam ring is equal to
the number of engine cylinders and these are evenly spaced around the ring.
As the pump plungers move away from each other, the fuel is drawn into the
central rotor passage from the inlet port through suction ports. The fuel thus
charged is delivered to each cylinder in turn at high pressure, when the distribution
port in the rotor coincides with the delivery port for any cylinder.]Q4

Page 51
2.2.4 Fuel injector

Q5
[This is also known as nozzle, atomizer or fuel valve. Its function is to inject the
fuel in the cylinder in properly atomized form and in proper quantity. An American
bosh type fuel injector is shown in fig. It consists of mainly two parts, i.e. the
nozzle and the nozzle holder, the former being connected to the later by means of a
screwed cap. This facilitates the change of nozzle valve when ever required. A
spring-loaded spindle in the nozzle holder keeps the nozzle valve pressed against
its seat in the novel body, till the fuel supplied by fuel injection pump through inlet
passage exerts sufficient pressure so as to lift the nozzle valve against the spring
force, when a spray of atomized fuel is fed into the combustion chamber.
Fig. 2.4 Fuel injector

Page 52
The fuel spray continuous till the delivery from injection pump is exhausted
when the spring pressure again suddenly closes the nozzle valve back on its seat.
The actual opening fuel-line pressure can be varied by adjusting the initial degree
of spring compression. A small quantity of fuel is purposely allowed to leak
between the nozzle valve and its guide for lubrication purpose. The fuel
accumulated around the spindle in this way is drained back to the fuel tank through
the leak off connection. Adjusting screw provided at the top serves to adjust the
tension in the spring, and hence the pressure at which the nozzle valve opens.]Q5
Nozzles:
Fig. 2.5 Hole type nozzle Fig. 2.6 Pintle type nozzle
Q6
[Hole type nozzles are generally used in engines with open type combustion
chambers, where as pintle type nozzles are common in engines with pre-
combustion chambers and some special swirl chambers. The pintle type nozzle
carry an extension, which produces a hollow cone type spray. Such nozzles have
the advantage of being self-cleaning. In the throttling pintle type of nozzle the
pintle is much longer and is also shaped like a truncated cone at its lower end. Such
a shape causes only a small amount of the fuel to be injected as the injection starts,
the rate of injection increasing gradually as the pintle protrudes further from the
nozzle end. The pintaux nozzle has been developed specially for the comet type
combustion chamber. This helps easy starting under cold conditions. The opening
pressure of hole type nozzles varies from 17 to 34Mpa, where as that of pintle type
nozzles varies from 7 to 15Mpa.]Q6

Page 53
2.3 ELECTRONIC CONTROL COMMON RAIL INJECTION SYSTEM

Q7
[Fig shows the layout of Bosch common rail fuel injection system with ECU.
The fuel from the fuel tank is pumped by a low pressure electric fuel pump through
a filter, to the high pressure pump, which builds up the high pressure in the
common rail with the help of a pressure regulator valve which is controlled by
ECU(Electronic Control Unit) through pressure sensor. Thus the fuel pressure in
the rail is independent of engine speed and the injected fuel quantity. Flow limiters
protect the system against consequences of a potential leak of the injector. A
pressure limiter valve guards the system against excess pressure. The fuel is
injected in the engine combustion chamber by the injection nozzle of an injector
controlled by a solenoid-operated valve. The injector receives its operation signals
from the ECU. The system pressure, the duration of injection and the size and
shape of the injection nozzle determine the fuel quantity injected.
Fig. 2.6 Electronic Control Common Rail Injection System

Page 54
The main components of the system are the low pressure pump, the high
pressure pump, the common rail ECU, injection lines, the injectors, sensors and
actuators, the details of which are ass follows
Low pressure pump
It is an electrical fuel pump for pre-supply to the high pressure pump. In the
more advanced systems, a gear pump integrated with the high-pressure pump takes
over pre-supply, making additional electrical fuel pump obsolete.
High pressure pump
This is a radial-piston pump which generates high pressure in the
accumulator, i.e., the rail, independent of engine speed and injected fuel quantity.
Engine drives the pump through coupling. Gear wheel, chain or toothed belt. The
maximum fuel pressure in this pump is 1350bar which has been raised to 1600bar
is the second generation systems
Common rail
Pressure level of the rail is electrically regulated by a combination of inlet
metering to the high-pressure pump and fuel discharge by bleeding the pressure off
quickly via the injector solenoid return. Fuel pressure level is set by a closed
control loop consisting of rail-pressure sensor, ECU and pressure control valve.
The pressure sensor continually measures the rail pressure. Using various
programme maps stored in the ECU, the system adapts the pressure, start of
injection and duration of injection to suit engine’s operating conditions. Rail
pressure is independent of engine speed/ load so that high injection pressure can be
produced event at low engine speeds, if required.
A series of injectors is connected to the rail and each injector is opened and closed
by a solenoid driven by ECU.
The main functions of ECU are.
1.Provides map-based control of pilot injection, secondary injection, injection
timing and delivery duration, providing thereby, minimal exhaust emissions and
maximum fuel economy in all engine load and speed ranges.
2.Controls the fuel pressures in the common rail.
3.Integrated diagnosis-sensor monitoring and malfunction recognition.
4.Supplementry functions, such as
i)Glow control
ii)Exhaust gas recirculation
iii)Selective cylinder shut-off
iv)Vehicle speed governing
Injectors
High speed solenoid controlled injectors spray fuel into the engine’s
combustion chambers through the integrated injection nozzles. A single such

Page 55
injector is fitted to each cylinder. The injection process is controlled by ECU by

transmitting an optimally timed trigger pulse to the injector solenoid. Actual flow
of fuel depends upon i) injector nozzle’s spray aperture ii) solenoid’s opening
duration and iii)rail pressure]Q7
2.4 UNIT INJECTOR SYSTEM
Q8
[The unit injector comprises a pumping element, injection nozzle and
solenoid valve. Each such unit injector is mounted on each engine cylinder/head,
thus dispensing with a high pressure fuel line. The maximum injection pressures in
these systems are currently 2050 bar in passenger cars and 1800 bar in commercial
vehicles.
The unit injector pumps are operated mechanically by means of over head
camshaft of the engine.
When the high speed solenoid valve is closed, the fuel flow starts
immediately towards the injectors nozzle’s spray orifice, thus making the injection
timing. The duration of the solenoid valve closures into an overflow line. This
entire fuel injection process is defined by the electronic closed-loop control of the
solenoid. The ECU also takes care of many auxiliary functions, e.g., temperature
sensitive injection timing, smooth running control and active surge suppression,
besides providing the diagnostic capabilities. This system also reduces the
combustion noise by means of pilot injection.]Q8
Fig. 2.7 Unit Injector System

Page 56
2.5 COMPARISION OF VARIOUS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

1.In-line injection pumps along with mechanical governors have proved their
reliability and precision till recently. However, finer requirements in the diesel
engine fuel supply and combustion systems have been possible only with
electronic control.
2.The distributor type injection pump is excellent for small. High speed diesel
engines, on account of its compact design and low weight.
3.Single-plunger pump system(unit Injector and Unit pump systems)are ideal for
precision metering of fuel to each cylinder.
4.Common Rail System separates the pressure generation and injection functions,
thus giving more flexibility to the designer for improving engines combustion
process.
2.6 INDIRECT INJECTION
Q9
[Indirect injection in an internal combustion engine is fuel injection where fuel is
not directly injected into the combustion chamber. In the last decade, gasoline
engines equipped with indirect injection systems, wherein a fuel injector delivers
the fuel at some point before the intake valve, have mostly fallen out of favor
to direct injection. However, certain manufacturers such as Volkswagen and
Toyota have developed a 'dual injection' system, combining direct injectors with
port (indirect) injectors, combining the benefits of both types of fuel injection.
Direct injection allows the fuel to be precisely metered into the combustion
chamber under high pressure which can lead to greater power, fuel efficiency. The
issue with direct injection is that it typically leads to greater amounts of particulate
matter and with the fuel no longer contacting the intake valves, carbon can
accumulate on the intake valves over time. Adding indirect injection keeps fuel
spraying on the intake valves, reducing or eliminating the carbon accumulation on
intake valves and in low load conditions, indirect injection allows for better fuel-air
mixing. This system is mainly used in higher cost models due to the added expense
and complexity.
An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion
chamber, called a pre chamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the
main combustion chamber. The pre chamber is carefully designed to ensure
adequate mixing of the atomized fuel with the compression-heated air.
2.6.1 Advantages of indirect injection
 Smaller diesels can be produced.

 The injection pressure required is low, so the injector is cheaper to produce.

Page 57
 The injection direction is of less importance.

 Indirect injection is much simpler to design and manufacture; less injector
development is required and the injection pressures are low (1500 psi/100
bar versus 5000 psi/345 bar and higher for direct injection)
 The lower stresses that indirect injection imposes on internal components
mean that it is possible to produce petrol and indirect injection diesel
versions of the same basic engine. At best such types differ only in the
cylinder head and the need to fit a distributor and spark plugs in the petrol
version whilst fitting an injection pump and injectors to the diesel. Examples
include the BMC A-Series and B-Series engines and the Land
Rover 2.25/2.5-litre 4-cylinder types. Such designs allow petrol and diesel
versions of the same vehicle to be built with minimal design changes
between them. Higher engine speeds can be reached, since burning
continues in the pre chamber.
2.6.2Disadvantages
 Fuel efficiency is lower than with direct injection because of heat loss due to
large exposed areas and pressure loss due to air motion through the
throats. This is somewhat offset due to indirect injection having a much
higher compression ratio and typically having no emissions equipment.
 Glow plugs are needed for a cold engine start on diesel engines.
 Because the heat and pressure of combustion is applied to one specific point
on the piston as it exits the pre combustion chamber or swirl chamber, such
engines are less suited to high specific power outputs (such as turbo
charging or tuning) than direct injection diesels. The increased temperature
and pressure on one part of the piston crown causes uneven expansion which
can lead to cracking, distortion or other damage due to improper use; use of
" starting fluid" (ether) is not recommended in glow plug, indirect injection
systems, because explosive knock can occur, causing engine damage.
In 80’s and 90’s, Indirect Injection (IDI) was used but now-a-days Direct
Injection (DI) is used mostly in vehicles. Below paragraphs will explain the
basic difference between IDI and DI. We can see the difference in these by
looking below figure too.]Q9
2.7 DIRECT INJECTION

In DI engines, injectors directly injects fuel into main combustion chamber which
is gap between cylinder and piston where it penetrates into hot mass of compressed

Page 58
air.
Some notable points about DI engines are given below:
1. Injection pressure is higher (21 kg/cm2) in this case as compare to IDI
because fuel atomization is solely depend upon pressure of injection.
2. This type of engines are easy to start in cold also.
3. Fuel injection nozzle have multiple holes as high atomization and mixing
is required because swirling of air is less in this case.
4. Thermal efficiency is higher as compare to IDI engine.
*Diesel injection system:

Requirements of diesel injection system:
-fuel must introduce precisely defined period of cycle
-amounts metered very accurately
-rate of injection meet desired heat release pattern
-quantities of fuel meet changing speed and load condition
-good atomization of fuel
-good spray pattern for rapid mixing of fuel and air
-no dribbling and after injection of fuel i.e. sharp injection
-injection timing suits the speed and load requirements
-distribution of fuel in multi-cylinder should uniform
-weight, size and cost of fuel injection system should be less
Types of diesel injection system:
(a) Air injection system:
-fuel supplied through camshaft driven fuel pump
-fuel valve is also connected with high pressure airline to inject into cylinder
-multi-stage compressor which supply air at a pressure of about 60 to 70 bar
Fig. 2.8. Air injection system

Page 59
-blast air sweeps the fuel along with it

-good atomization results in good mixture formation and hence high mean
effective pressure
-heavy and viscous fuels are used
-fuel pump require small pressure
-but it is complicated due to compressor arrangement and expensive
-bulky engine and low bhp
-overheating and burning of valve seat
(b) Solid injection system:
-Fuel directly injected to combustion chamber without primary atomization termed
as solid injection.
-Also known as airless mechanical injection
-2 units-pressurize and atomizing unit
3 different types which are described below,
(i) Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system:

-separate metering and compression pump is used for each cylinder
-reciprocating fuel pump is used to meter and set the injection pressure of the fuel
-heavy gear arrangements which gives jerking noise, hence name is given is jerk
pump
-jerk pump is used for medium and high speed diesel engines
Fig.2.9. Individual pump and injector or jerk pump system

Page 60
Fig. 2.10 Unit injector

(ii) Common rail system:
-high pressure fuel pump delivers fuel to an accumulator whose pressure is
constant
-plunger type of pump is used
-driving mechanism is not stressed with high pressure hence noise is reduced
-common rail or pipe is connected in between accumulator and distributing
elements
-separate metering and timing elements connected to automatic injector
-self-governing type
Fig. 2.11. Common rail system
(iii) Distributor system:

-fuel pump pressurizes, meters and times the fuel supply to rotating distributor

Page 61
-number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump equals to the number of
cylinder
-One metering element which ensure uniform distribution
Fig. 2.12. Distributor system
Q10
[Fuel Injectors
3 main types of fuel injectors,
Blast injector:
-these are superseded by mechanically operated injectors used in air injection
system
Mechanically operated injector:
-consist of a set of camshaft, cams and rocker gear and other cams for controlling
the timing of the fuel injection
Automatic injector:
-consists of spring loaded needle valve and operated hydraulically by the pressure
of fuel
-quanity of fuel is metered by the fuel pump
Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:
-fuel seeks air
-air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
-multi-hole nozzle injects fuel at a pressure of about 200 to 300 bar to slow moving
air
-provide good cold starting performance and improved thermal efficiency
Pre-combustion chamber:
-air velocity is very much high

Page 62
-single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used

-used in high speed engine due to rapid combustion
-external heating device for easy starting of the engine
(b) Open and closed type of nozzle,
Open type:
-consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
-cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type: pressure drop is minimized compared to open type
(c) Different types of nozzle for different combustion chamber
(i) Single hole nozzle:
-used in open combustion chamber
-size of hole larger than 0.2 mm
-very high injection pressure required
(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:
-no. of hole varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm
-injection rate is not uniform
(iii) Pintle nozzle:
-a projection or pintle is provided in the nozzle to avoid weak injection and
dribbling -pintle may be cylindrical or conical shape
-cone angle varied from 0 to 60ᵒ
-provide good atomization and reduced penetration
-fuel pressures are lower than single and multi-hole nozzle
(iv) Pintaux nozzle:

-injected fuel in upstream of air -development of pintle nozzle with auxiliary hole
drilled in the nozzle body -reduced delay period and increased thermal
efficiency]Q10
1. What are the functions of fuel supply system?

1.Storing of fuel
2. Filtering
3. Delivery of fuel to injection pump
4. Injecting the fuel into engine cylinders

Page 63
2. What are the types of Fuel Injection system?

1. Common rail fuel injection system
2. Individual pump fuel injection system
3. What are the Functions of Fuel Injection system?

The function of a fuel injection system is to inject proper quantity of fuel into
the engine cylinders at the correct time and at a predetermined rate
4. Draw the sketch of Common rail fuel injection system

Page 64
5.Draw the sketch of Individual pump fuel injection system
6. Draw the sketch of Distributor type fuel injection pump

Page 65
7. What is the function of fuel injector?

This is also known as nozzle, atomizer or fuel valve. Its function is to inject
the fuel in the cylinder in properly atomized form and in proper quantity
8. What are the types of Nozzle?
i) Hole type ii) Pintle type
9. Draw the Sketch of Electronic Control Common Rail Injection System
10. What is meant by Low pressure pump?

It is an electrical fuel pump for pre-supply to the high pressure pump. In the
more advanced systems, a gear pump integrated with the high-pressure pump takes
over pre-supply, making additional electrical fuel pump obsolete.
11. What is meant by High pressure pump?

This is a radial-piston pump which generates high pressure in the
accumulator, i.e., the rail, independent of engine speed and injected fuel quantity.
Engine drives the pump through coupling. Gear wheel, chain or toothed belt. The
maximum fuel pressure in this pump is 1350bar which has been raised to 1600bar
is the second generation systems

Page 66
12.What is the function of ECU?

1. Provides map-based control of pilot injection, secondary injection, timing
and delivery duration, providing thereby, minimal exhaust emissions and
maximum fuel economy in all engine load and speed ranges.
2. Controls the fuel pressures in the common rail.
3. Integrated diagnosis-sensor monitoring and malfunction recognition.
4. Supplementary functions,
13. Explain briefly Unit injector system

The unit injector comprises a pumping element, injection nozzle and solenoid
valve. Each such unit injector is mounted on each engine cylinder/head, thus
dispensing with a high pressure fuel line. The maximum injection pressures in
these systems are currently 2050 bar in passenger cars and 1800 bar in commercial
vehicles. The unit injector pumps are operated mechanically by means of over head
camshaft of the engine.
14. What is meant by Indirect injection system?

Indirect injection in an internal combustion engine is fuel injection where
fuel is not directly injected into the combustion chamber
15. What are the advantages of indirect injection?
 Smaller diesels can be produced.

 The injection pressure required is low, so the injector is cheaper to produce.
 The injection direction is of less importance.
 Indirect injection is much simpler to design and manufacture; less injector
development is required and the injection pressures are low (1500 psi/100
bar versus 5000 psi/345 bar and higher for direct injection)
16. What are the disadvantages of indirect injection?
1. Fuel efficiency is lower than with direct injection because of heat loss due to
large exposed areas and pressure loss due to air motion through the
throats. This is somewhat offset due to indirect injection having a much
higher compression ratio and typically having no emissions equipment.
2. Glow plugs are needed for a cold engine start on diesel engines.

Page 67
17. What is meant by direct injection?

In DI engines, injectors directly inject fuel into main combustion chamber
which is gap between cylinder and piston where it penetrates into hot mass of
compressed air.
18.What are the Requirements of diesel injection system?

Fuel Must Introduce Precisely Defined Period Of Cycle
-Amounts Metered Very Accurately
-Rate Of Injection Meet Desired Heat Release Pattern
-Quantities Of Fuel Meet Changing Speed And Load Condition
-Good Atomization Of Fuel
-Good Spray Pattern For Rapid Mixing Of Fuel And Air
-No Dribbling And After Injection Of Fuel I.E. Sharp Injection
-Injection Timing Suits The Speed And Load Requirements
-Distribution Of Fuel In Multi-Cylinder Should Uniform
-Weight, Size And Cost Of Fuel Injection System Should Be Less
19.What are the Types of diesel injection system?

(1) Air Injection System
(2) Solid Injection System
(3) Individual Pump And Injector Or Jerk Pump System:
(4) Distributor System:
20. What are the Different types of nozzle for different combustion
chamber?
(i) Single hole nozzle
(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:
(iii) Pintle nozzle:
(iv) Pintux nozzle
Q1.What are the functions of fuel injection system?

Q2.Explain the working principle of Common rail fuel injection system with
neat sketch (Answer: Ref. page no. 48-49)
Q3. Explain the working principle of Individual pump fuel injection system
with neat sketch(Answer: Ref. page no. 49-50)
Page 68
Q4. Explain the working principle of Distributor type fuel injection pump
system with neat sketch (Answer: Ref. page no. 50-51)
Q5. . Explain the working principle of Fuel injector with neat sketch
(Answer: Ref. page no.52-53)
Q6.What are the types of Nozzle explain with neat sketch

(Answer: Ref. page no. 53)
Q7.Explain with neat sketch of Electronic Control Common Rail Injection

System
Q8. Explain with neat sketch of Unit Injector System

Q9.Explain the details about Indirect injection system

Q10. Explain the types of fuel injectors


Page 69
UNIT III
COMBUSTION IN C.I. ENGINES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition or CI engine), named
after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel,
which is injected into the combustion chamber, is caused by the elevated
temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical compression (adiabatic
compression). Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the
air temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that atomized diesel fuel
injected into the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously. This contrasts with
spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas
engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to petrol), which use a spark plug to ignite
an air-fuel mixture. In diesel engines, glow plugs (combustion chamber pre-
warmers) may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a
lower compression-ratio, or both. The original diesel engine operates on the
"constant pressure" cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock.
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any
practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion
ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. A
small efficiency loss is also avoided compared to two-stroke non-direct-injection
gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present at valve overlap and therefore
no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel
engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is
relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.
Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. They
were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines.
Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives,
trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. In the
1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use
of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased.
According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders,
the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in
France and 38% in the UK.
3.2 STAGES OF COMBUSTION
Q1
[There are four stages of combustion in CI engine as follows:

Page 70
1. Ignition delay- During this stage there is a physical delay period which is
the time from beginning of injection to the attainment of chemical reaction
conditions. The fuel is atomized and mixed with air and its temperature is
raised. This period is followed by a chemical delay period in which preflame
reactions start and accelerate until local ignition takes place.
2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion- This is second stage in which pressure
rise is rapid since during delay period the fuel droplets have had time to
spread themselves over a wide area and have fresh air around them. This
phase extends from end of delay period to point of maximum pressure.
3. Controlled combustion- The very high temperature and pressure at end of
second stage cause the fuel droplets injected during last stage to burn
instantly and any further pressure rise can be controlled by purely
mechanical means that is injection rate. This period ends at maximum cycle
temperature. The heat evolved by end of this phase is 70 to 80 percent of
total heat of fuel supplied.
4. After burning- This fourth stage may not be present in all cases but due to
poor distribution of fuel particles combustion may continue in the expansion
stroke. Its duration may be 70 to 80 degrees of crank travel from TDC]Q1
Fig.3.1 stages of combustion

Page 71
3.3 SPRAY FORMATION

Q2
[The first step in the mixture formation process in the conventional, mixing
controlled diesel engine combustion is spray formation. Figure shows a spray
formed by injecting fuel from a single hole in stagnant air Upon leaving the nozzle
hole, the jet becomes completely turbulent a very short distance from the point of
discharge and mixes with the surrounding air. This entrained air is carried away by
the jet and increases the mass-flow in the x-direction and causes the jet to spread
out in the y-direction. Two factors lead to a decrease in the jet velocity: the
conservation of momentum when air is entrained into the jet and frictional drag of
the liquid droplets. Figure gives the velocity distribution at two cross sections. The
fuel velocity is highest at the centerline and decreases to zero at the interface
between the zone of disintegration (or the conical envelope of the spray) and
ambient air.]Q2
Fig. 3.2. Schematic of a spray from a single hole

nozzle
*Stages of combustion in CI engine
1. Ignition delay period: The period between the start of fuel injection into the
combustion chamber and the start of combustion is termed as ignition delay period.
The start of combustion is determined from the change in slope on p-θ diagram or
from heat release analysis of the p-θ data, or from luminosity detector in

Page 72
experimental conditions. Start of injection can be determined by a needle-lift

indicator to record the time when injector needle lifts off its seat. Start of
combustion is more difficult to determine precisely. It is best identified from the
change in slope of heat release rate, determined from cylinder pressure data. In DI
engines ignition is well defined, in IDI engines ignition point is harder to identify
Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant fraction
of the chemical energy of the injected liquid is released.
Physical processes are fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing of fuel
vapour with cylinder air
Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small injector hole,

optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle). Rate of
vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet diameter, velocity, fuel
volatility, pressure and temperature of the air. Chemical processes similar to that
described for auto ignition phenomenon in premixed fuelair, only more complex
since heterogeneous reactions (reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface)
also occur. Chemical delay is more effective for the duration of the ignition delay
period.
Ignition delay period is in the range of 0.6 to 3 ms for low-compression ratio DI

diesel engines, 0.4 to 1 ms for high-compression ratio, turbocharged DI diesel
engines, 0.6 to 1.5 ms for IDI diesel engines
2. Rapid or uncontrolled or pre-mixed combustion phase: Combustion of the

fuel which has mixed with air within flammability limits during ignition delay
period occurs rapidly in a few crank angle degrees - high heat release
characteristics in this phase. If the amount of fuel collected in the combustion
chamber during the ignition delay is much - high heat release rate results in a rapid
pressure rise which causes the diesel knock. . For fuels with low cetane number,
with long ignition delay, ignition occurs late in the expansion stroke - incomplete
combustion, reduced power output, poor fuel conversion efficiency. If the pressure
gradient is in the range 0.4 - 0.5 MPa/oCA, engine operation is not smooth and
diesels knock starts. This value should be in the range 0.2 to 0.3 MPa/oCA for
smooth operation (max allowable value is 1.0 MPa/oCA) of the engine.

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3. Controlled or diffusion combustion phase: Once the fuel and air which is pre-
mixed during the ignition delay is consumed, the burning rate (heat release rate) is
controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes available for burning. The rate of
burning in this phase is mainly controlled by the mixing process of fuel vapour and
air. Liquid fuel atomization, vaporization, pre flame chemical reactions also affect
the rate of heat release. Heat release rate sometimes reaches a second peak (which
is lower in magnitude) and then decreases as the phase progresses. Generally it is
desirable to have the combustion process near the TDC for low particulate (soot)
emissions and high performance (and efficiency).
4. After burning or late combustion phase: Heat release rate continues at a lower
rate into the expansion stroke -there are several reasons for this: a small fraction of
the fuel may not yet burn, a fraction of the energy is present in soot and fuel-rich
combustion products and can be released. The cylinder charge is non uniform and
mixing during this phase promotes more complete combustion and less dissociated
product gases. Kinetics is slower.
* Q3[Variables affecting delay period (i) Cetane number Both physical and
chemical properties of the fuel are important. Ignition quality of the fuel is defined
by its cetane number. Straight chain parafinic compounds (normal alkanes) have
highest ignition quality, which improves as the chain length increases. Aromatic
compounds, alcohols have poor ignition quality. -Cetane number can be increased
by ignition-accelerating additives like organic peroxides, nitrates, nitrites and
various sulphur compounds. Most important (commercially) is alkyl nitrates –
about 0.5% by vol in a distillate fuel increase CN by 10. -Normal diesel fuel has
CN of 40 to 55 (high speed 50 – 60, low speed 25 – 45
(ii) Injection timing -At normal operating conditions min ignition delay (ID)
occurs with start of injection at 10 to 15 OCA BTDC -Cylinder temperature and
pressure drops if injection is earlier or later (high at first but decrease as delay
proceeds)
(iii) Injection quantity (load) -Reducing engine load changes AFR, cools down
the engine, reduces wall temperatures, reduces residual gas temperatures and
increase ID -Droplet size, injection velocity and rate Ignition quality within
practical limits do not have significant effect on ID -Increase in injection pressure

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produces only modest decrease in ID Injector nozzle diameter -effects of droplet

size but has no significant effect on ID
(iv) Intake air temperature and pressure -Reducing intake air T and p increase
ID -Strong dependence of ID on charge temperature below 1000 K – above this
value effect of intake air conditions is not significant.
(v) Engine speed Increase in engine speed increases the air motion and turbulence,
reduces ID time slightly (in ms), in terms of CA degrees ID increases almost
linearly. -A change in engine speed, changes “temp~time” and “pressure~time”
relationships
(vi) Combustion chamber design -Spray impingement on the walls effect fuel
evaporation and ID increase in compression ratio, increase p and T and reduces ID
-Reducing stroke volume, increase surface area to volume ratio, increase engine
cooling and increase ID
(vii) Swirl rate -Change of evaporation rate and air-fuel mixing - under normal
operating conditions the effect is small. -At start-up (low engine speed and
temperature) more important, high rate of evaporation and mixing is obtained by
swirl
(viii) Oxygen concentration Residual gases reduce O2 concentration and reducing

oxygen concentration increases ID
*Diesel knock -CI engine detonation occurs in the beginning of combustion -In CI
engine the fuel and air are imperfectly mixed and hence the rate of pressure rise is
normally cause audible knock. Rate of pressure rise may reach as high as 10
bar/ᵒCA -High engine vibration is the symptoms of knocking -no pre-ignition or
premature ignition as like SI engine
*Combustion chamber (i) According to the swirl of air (a) Induction swirl or
open chamber or non-turbulent chamber (b) Compression swirl (c) Combustion
induced swirl (ii) According to speed of the engine (a) Low speed engine (n˂1500
rpm): - Shallow, swirl-less combustion chambers -Direct, multi-jet fuel injection
(b) Medium speed engine (n=1500-3000 rpm): -Deep combustion chambers with
intensive swirl of charge -Direct injection of atomized fuel (c) high speed engine

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(n=3000-5000 rpm): -Pre-chambers (sectional combustion chambers) -Indirect

injection of fuel into the pre-chamber]Q3
3.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS - CI Engines

Q4
[The most important function of CI engine combustion chamber is to provide
proper mixing of fuel and air in short time. In order to achieve this, an organized
air movement called swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and the air.
To study the combustion design in detail C I engine combustion chambers are
classifiedin
3.4.1 DIRECT INJECTION (DI) TYPE :This type of combustion chamber is
also called an Open combustion chamber. In this type the entire volume of
combustion chamber is located in the main cylinder and the fuel is injected into
this volume.
a)Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is generated
3.4.2. INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE: In this type of combustion
chambers, the combustion space is divided into two parts, one part in the main
cylinder and the other part in the cylinder head. The fuel –injection is effected
usually into the part of chamber located in the cylinder head. These chambers are
classified further into :a)Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is generated
b)Pre combustion chamber in which combustion swirl is induced) Air cell in which
both compression and combustion swirl are induced.
3.4.3.DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS – OPEN COMBUSTION
CHAMBERS
An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is
essentially a single cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to the
other and hence with no large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber
during the combustion process.
There are many designs of open chamber some of which are shown below :
In four-stroke engines with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is obtained
either by careful formation of the air intake passages or by masking a portion of the
circumference of the inlet valve whereas in two-stroke engines it is created by
suitable form for the inlet ports.
These chambers mainly consist of space formed between a flat cylinder head and a
cavity in the piston crown in different shapes. The fuel is injected directly into

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space. The injection nozzles used for this chamber are generally of multi hole type
working at a relatively high pressure ( about 200 bar)
The main advantages of this type of chambers are:
Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume
ratio and hence, better efficiency. No cold starting problems. Fine atomization
because of multi hole nozzle.
The drawbacks of these combustion chambers are:
High fuel-injection pressure required and hence complex design of fuel injection
pump. Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system, particularly
for small engines Shallow
Shallow Depth Chamber:
In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in the piston is quite
small. This chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low speeds.
Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is negligible.
Hemispherical Chamber:
This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth to diameter ratio for a
cylindrical chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give better
performance.
Cylindrical Chamber: This design was attempted in recent diesel engines. This is
a modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form of a truncated cone with base
angle of 30°.The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly 180° of
circumference. Squish can also be varied by varying the depth.
Toroidal Chamber: The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish
along with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar smoke ring, within the
toroidal chamber. Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is small
and there is better utilization of oxygen. The cone angle of spray for this type of
chamber is 150° to 160°.
3.5.INDIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS
A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is
divided into two or more distinct compartments connected by restricted passages.
This creates considerable pressure differences between them during the
combustion process.
3.5.1 Ricardo’s Swirl Chamber
Swirl chamber consists of a spherical shaped chamber separated from the engine
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cylinder and located in the cylinder head. Into this chamber, about 50% of the air is
transferred during the compression stroke. A throat connects the chamber to the
cylinder which enters the chamber in a tangential direction so that the air coming
into this chamber is given a strong rotary movement inside the swirl chamber and
after combustion, the products rush back into the cylinder through same throat at
much higher velocity.
This causes considerable heat loss to walls of the passage which can be reduced by
employing a heat insulated passage. This type of combustion chamber finds it
application where fuel quality is difficult to control, where reliability under adverse
conditions is more important than fuel economy. The use of single hole of larger
diameter for the fuel spray nozzle is often important consideration for the choice of
swirl chamber engine.
3.6 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti chamber connected to the
main chamber through a number of small holes (compared to a relatively large
passage in the swirl chamber).The pre-combustion chamber is located in the
cylinder head and its volume accounts for about 40% of the total combustion,
space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air into the pre-
combustion chamber.
The fuel is injected into the pre-chamber and the combustion is initiated.
The resulting pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and
their combustion products to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity
through the small holes. Thus it creates both strong secondary turbulence and
distributes the flaming fuel droplets throughout the air in the main combustion
chamber where bulk of combustion takes place. About 80% of energy is released
in main combustion chamber.
The rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure is lower compared to
those in open type chamber.
The initial shock if combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only. The
pre-combustion chamber has multi fuel capability without any modification in the
injection system because the temperature of pre-chamber. The variation in the
optimum injection timing for petrol and diesel operations is only 2 deg. for this
chamber compared to 8 to 10 deg in other chamber design.
Advantages:(i) Due to short or practically no delay period for the fuel entering the
main combustion space, tendency to knock is minimum, and as such running is
smooth.(ii) The combustion in the third stage is rapid.(iii) The fuel injection
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system design need not be critical. Because the mixing of fuel and air takes place
in pre-chamber,
Disadvantages:(i) The velocity of burning mixture is too high during the passage
from pre-chambers, so the heat loss is very high. This causes reduction in the
thermal efficiency, which can be offset by increasing the compression ratio.(ii)
Cold starting will be difficult as the air loses heat to chamber walls during
compression.
Energy cell :The ‘energy cell’ is more complex than the precombustion chamber.
As the piston moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air is forced into
the major and minor chambers of the energy cell. When the fuel is injected through
the pintle type nozzle, part of the fuel passes across the main combustion chamber
and enters the minor cell, where it is mixed with the entering air.
Combustion first commences in the main combustion chamber where the
temperature is higher, but the rate of burning is slower in this location, due to
insufficient mixing of the fuel and air. The burning in the minor cell is slower at
the start, but due to better mixing, progresses at a more rapid rate. The pressure
built up in the minor cell , therefore , force the burning gases out into the main
chamber, thereby creating added turbulence and producing better combustion in
the this chamber.
In mean time, pressure is built up in the major cell which then prolongs the action
of the jet stream entering the main chamber, thus continuing to induce turbulence
in the main chamber. ]Q4
3.7 COMBUSTION PROCESS IN CI ENGINES
In SI engine, uniform A: F mixture is supplied, but in CI engine A: F mixture is
not homogeneous and fuel remains in liquid particles, therefore quantity of air
supplied is 50% to 70% more than stiochiometric mixture.
The combustion in SI engine starts at one point and generated flame at the point
of ignition propagates through the mixture for burning of the mixture, where as
in CI engine, the combustion takes place at number of points simultaneously and
number of flames generated are also many. To burn the liquid fuel is more
difficult as it is to be evaporated; it is to be elevated to ignition temperature and
then burn.

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STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE

The combustion in CI engine is considered to be taking place in four phases:
 Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion
 Uncontrolled combustion
 Controlled combustion
 After burning
Fig1 Stages of combustion Fig 2. Pressure Time diagram illustrating

Ignition delay
Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion

The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion chamber.
There is a definite period of inactivity between the time of injection and the actual
burning this period is known as the ignition delay period.
In Figure 2. the delay period is shown on pressure crank angle (or time)
diagram between points a and b. Point “a” represents the time of injection and
point “b” represents the time of combustion. The ignition delay period can be
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divided into two parts, the physical delay and the chemical delay.
The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on both engine
design and performance. It is of extreme importance because of its effect on
both the combustion rate and knocking and also its influence on engine starting
ability and the presence of smoke in the exhaust.
2 Period of Rapid Combustion

The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled combustion, is that phase
in which the pressure rise is rapid. During the delay period, a considerable amount of
fuel is accumulated in combustion chamber, these accumulated fuel droplets burns
very rapidly causing a steep rise in pressure. The period of rapid combustion is
counted from end of delay period or the beginning of the combustion to the point
of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. The rate of heat-release is
maximum during this period. This is also known as uncontrolled combustion
phase, because it is difficult to control the amount of burning / injection during the
process of burning.
It may be noted that the pressure reached during the period of rapid combustion
will depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay the more
rapid and higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have been present in
the cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control).
3 Period of Controlled Combustion

The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled
combustion. The temperature and pressure in the second stage are so high that
fuel droplets injected burn almost as they enter and find the necessary oxygen
and any further pressure rise can be controlled by injection rate. The period of
controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.
4 Period of After-Burning
Combustion does not stop with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt
and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon
as they come into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain
duration called the after-burning period. This burning may continue in expansion
stroke up to 70 to 80% of crank travel from TDC.
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3.7.1Combustion phenomenon in CI engine V/s combustion in SI engine.
SL Q5 COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE
[COMUSTION IN SI ENGINE
NO
1 Homogeneous mixture of petrol Air alone is compressed through
vapour and air is compressed ( CR large Compression ratio (12:1 to
6:1 to 11:1) at the end of 22:1)and fuel is injected at high
compression stroke and is ignited at pressure of 110 to 200 bar using
one place by fuel injector pump.
spark plug.
2 Single definite flame front Fuel is not injected at once, but
progresses through air fuel mixture spread over a period of time. Initial
and entire mixture will be in droplets meet air whose
combustible range temperature is above self ignition
temperature
and ignite after ignition delay.
3 For effective combustion, turbulence For effective combustion, swirl is
is required. Turbulence which is required. Swirl which is required in
required in SI engine implies CI engine implies an orderly
disordered air motion with no movement of whole body of air
general direction of flow to break up with a particular direction of flow,
the surface of flame front and to to bring a continuous supply of fresh
distribute the shreds of flame air to each burning droplets and
thought-out in externally prepared sweep away the products of
homogeneous combustible combustion which
mixture. otherwise suffocate it.
4 In SI Engine ignition occurs at one In the CI engine, the ignition
point with a slow rise in pressure occurs at many points
simultaneously with consequent
rapid rise in pressure. There is no
definite flame front.
5 In SI engine physical delay is almost In CI engine physical
zero and delaycontrols

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chemical delay controls combustion combustion.
6 In SI engine , A/F ratio remains close In CI engine , irrespective of load,

to stoichiometric value from no load at any speed, an approximately
to full load constant supply of air enters the
cylinder. With change in load,
quantity of fuel is changed to vary
A/F ratio. The overall A/F can
Range from 18:1 to 80:1.
7 Delay period must be as long as Delay period must be as short as
possible. High possible. High
octane fuel(low cetane) is required. cetane (low octane) fuel is
required]Q5
3.7.2 Q6[EFFECT OF VARIABLE ON DELAY PERIOD – SUMMARY

SL Increase in variables Effect on Delay Reason
No period
1 Cetane Number of fuel Reduce Reduces the self ignition
temperature
2 Injection pressure Reduce Reduces the physical delay
due
to greater surface to volume
ratio
3 Injection timing Increase Reduces the pressure and
advance temperature when the
injection begins
4 Compression ratio Reduce Increases air temperature
and
pressure and reduces auto
ignition temperature
5 Intake temperature Reduce Increase air temperature

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6 Jacket water Reduce Increase wall and hence air

temperature temperature
7 Fuel temperature Reduce Increases chemical reaction
due
to better vaporization
8 Intake pressure Reduce Increases the density and
also
reduces the auto
ignition temperature
9 Speed Increase in terms of Reduce loss of heat
crank
angle but reduces in
terms of milliseconds.
10 Load ( Fuel/air ratio) Decrease Increase the operating
temperature
11 Engine size Increase in terms of Larger engines operate at
crank normally slow speeds.
angle but little
effect in terms of
milliseconds.
12 Type of combustion Lower for engines Due to compactness of the
chamber with chamber.]Q6
pre-combustion
chamber
3.8 PHENOMENON OF DIESEL KNOCK

Q7
[Knocking is violet gas vibration and audible sound produced by extreme
pressure differentials leading to the very rapid rise during the early part of
uncontrolled second phase of combustion.
 A low compression ratio permitting only a marginal self ignition temperature
to be reached.
 A low combustion pressure due to worn out piston, rings and bad valves

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 Low cetane number of fuel
 Poorly atomized fuel spray preventing early combustion
 Coarse droplet formation due to malfunctioning of injector parts like spring
 Low intake temperature and pressure of air
3.8.1 Methods Of Controlling Diesel Knock
We have discussed the factors which are responsible for the detonation in the previous
sections. If these factors are controlled, then the detonation can be avoided.
 Using a better fuel. Higher CN fuel has lower delay period and reduces
knocking tendency.
 Controlling the Rate of Fuel Supply. By injecting less fuel in the beginning
and then more fuel amount in the combustion chamber detonation can be
controlled to a certain extent. Cam shape of suitable profile can be
designed for this purpose.
 Knock reducing fuel injector : This type of injector avoid the sudden
increase in pressure inside the combustion chamber because of accumulated
fuel. This can be done by arranging the injector so that only small amount of
fuel is injected first. This can be achieved by using two or more injectors
arranging in out of phase.
 By using Ignition accelerators : C N number can be increased by adding
chemical called dopes. The two chemical dopes are used are ethyl-nitrate
and amyle –nitrate in concentration of 8.8 gm/Litre and 7.7 gm/Litre. But
these two increase the NOx emissions
 Increasing Swirl : Knocking can be greatly reduced
by increasing swirl ( or reducing turbulence). Swirl.
helps in knock free combustion]Q7

Page 85
3.9 COMPARISON OF KNOCK IN SI AND C ENGINES
It may be interesting to note that knocking in spark-ignition engines and

compression- ignition engines is fundamentally due to the auto ignition of the fuel-air
mixture. In both the cases, the knocking depends on the auto ignition lag of the
fuel-air mixture. But careful examination of knocking phenomenon in SI and CI
engines reveals the following differences:
1. In spark ignition engines, auto ignition of end gas away from the spark plug,
most likely near the end of combustion causes knocking. But in compression
engines the auto ignition of charge causing knocking is at the start of
combustion.
2. In order to avoid knocking in SI engine, it is necessary to prevent auto ignition of
the end gas to take place at all. In CI engine, the earliest auto –ignition is
necessary to avoid knocking
3. The knocking in SI engine takes place in homogeneous mixture, therefore , the rate
of pressure rise and maximum pressure is considerably high. In case of CI
engine, the mixture is not homogenous and hence the rate of pressure is lower than
in SI engine.
4. In CI engine only air is compressed, therefore there is no question of Pre-ignition
in CI engines as in SI engines.
5. It is lot more easy to distinguish between knocking and non-knocking condition
in SI engines as human ear easily finds the difference. However in CI engines,
normal ignition itself is by auto-ignition and rate of pressure rise under the normal
conditions is considerably high (10 bar against 2.5 bar for SI engine) and causes
high noise. The noise level becomes excessive under detonation condition.
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Therefore there is no
definite distinction between normal and knocking combustion.
6.SI fuels should have long delay period to avoid knocking. CI fuels should have
short delay period to avoid knocking.
The following table gives a comparative statement of various characteristics that reduce
knocking in SI and CI engines
3.9.1Knock rating of CI fuels ( CETANE NUMBER)

The cetane number is a numerical measure of the influence the diesel fuel has
in determining the ignition delay. Higher the cetane rating of the fuel lesser is
the propensity for diesel knock. The cetane number of a diesel fuel is a measure
of its ignition quality.The cetane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume
of cetane in a mixture of cetane [C16H34] and -methylnapthalane [C10H7 CH3] that
has same performance in the standard test engine as that of the fuel. Cetane is
arbitrarily assigned a number 100 and originally -methylnapthalane was given a
number 0 but now reference fuels is heptamethylnonane (HMN) which is given
a value of 15. HMN is used because it is more stable compound and has slightly
better ignition
quality.
The relation between the cetane number and delay

period is shown in adjacent figure
Cetane number 40 means a mixture containing 40 %
cetane and 60 % of heptamethylnonane (HMN) by
volume
Page 87
which gives same ignition delay as tested fuel. For high sped engine, cetane number
of 50 is required, for medium speed engine about 30.
High octane number implies low cetane number . In other words good CI engine
fuel is bad CI engine fuel. An approximate relationship between Cetane (CN) and
octane (ON) number is given by
The following graph shows relationship of other properties of fuel with CN
Good SI engine fuel is a bad CI engine fuel
To reduce knocking Diesel oil should have low self ignition temperature and short
time lag, whereas petrol should have high self ignition temperature and a long
ignition lag.
In SI engine knocking occurs near the end of combustion, where as in CI engine
this occurs in the beginning of combustion. Because of this dissimilarity in the
time of starting of knock in SI and CI engines . The conditions which reduce the
knock tendency in SI engine will increase the knocking tendency in CI engine.
Diesel has a high cetane number (40-60) and low octane number(30) and petrol
has high Octane number (80-90) ad low cetane number(20).
Figure shows typical indicator diagram of a diesel engine with sharp pressure
oscillating during the combustion caused by shock waves when using petrol

Page 88
Weak mixture gives better efficiency in CI engine-
As the mixture is made lean (less fuel) the temperature rise due to combustion will be
lowered as a result of reduced energy input per
unit mass of mixture. This will result in
lower specific heat. Further, it will lower the
losses due to dissociation and variation in
specific heat. The efficiency is therefore,
higher and, in fact, approaches the air-cycle
efficiency as the fuel-air
ratio is reduced as shown in adjacent figure.

Thermodynamic analysis of the engine cycles has clearly established
that operating an engine with a leaner air-fuel ratio always gives a better thermal
efficiency but the mean effective pressure and the power output reduce. Therefore,
the engine size becomes bigger for a given output if it is operated near the stoichiometric
conditions, the A/F ratio in certain regions within the chamber is likely to be so rich
that some of the fuel molecules will not be able to find the necessary oxygen for
combustion and thus produce a noticeably black smoke. Hence the CT engine is
always designed to operate with an excess air, of 15 to 40% depending upon the
application. The power output curve for a typical CI engine operating at constant
speed is shown in Fig. given below. The approximate region of A/F ratios in which
visible black smoke occurs is indicated by the shaded area.

Page 89
1. What Are The Stages Of Combustion In CI Engine?

1. Ignition delay
2. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion
3. Controlled combustion
4. After burning
2. What are the variables affecting delay period?

(i) Cetane number
(ii) Injection timing
(iii) Injection quantity
(iv) Intake air temperature and pressure -
(v) Engine speed
(vi) Combustion chamber design
(vii) Swirl rate
(viii) Oxygen concentration
3.What is meant by Diesel knock?

CI engine detonation occurs in the beginning of combustion -In CI engine
the fuel and air are imperfectly mixed and hence the rate of pressure rise is
normally cause audible knock. Rate of pressure rise may reach as high as 10
bar/ᵒCA -High engine vibration is the symptoms of knocking -no pre-ignition or
premature ignition as like SI engine
4. What are the types of Combustion chamber in C.I Engine?
1. Direct Injection
2. Indirect Injection
5. What is Shallow Depth Chamber?
In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in the piston is
quite small. This chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speeds. Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is negligible

Page 90
6. Toroidal Chamber
The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish along with the air
movement, similar to that of the familiar smoke ring, within the toroidal chamber.
Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is small and there is better
utilization of oxygen. The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150° to
160°.
7.What is meant by Pre Combustion Chamber?
Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti chamber connected to

the main chamber through a number of small holes (compared to a relatively large
passage in the swirl chamber).The pre-combustion chamber is located in the
cylinder head and its volume accounts for about 40% of the total combustion,
space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air into the pre-
combustion chamber.
8.What are the Methods Of Controlling Diesel Knock?
 Using a better fuel. Higher CN fuel has lower delay period and reduces
knocking tendency.
 Controlling the Rate of Fuel Supply. By injecting less fuel in the
beginning and then more fuel amount in the combustion chamber detonation
can be controlled to a certain extent. Cam shape of suitable profile can be
designed for this purpose.
 Knock reducing fuel injector : This type of injector avoid the sudden
increase in pressure inside the combustion chamber because of accumulated
fuel. This can be done by arranging the injector so that only small amount of
fuel is injected first. This can be achieved by using two or more injectors
arranging in out of phase.
 By using Ignition accelerators : C N number can be increased by
adding chemical called dopes. The two chemical dopes are used are ethyl-
nitrate and amyle –nitrate in concentration of 8.8 gm/Litre and 7.7
gm/Litre. But these two increase the NOx emissions

Page 91
9.What is meant by Cetane Number?

The cetane number is a numerical measure of the influence the diesel fuel
has in determining the ignition delay. Higher the cetane rating of the fuel
lesser is the propensity for diesel knock. The cetane number of a diesel fuel
is a measure of its ignition quality.
10.What is meant by Energy cell ?
The ‘energy cell’ is more complex than the precombustion chamber. As
the piston moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air is forced
into the major and minor chambers of the energy cell. When the fuel is
injected through the pintle type nozzle, part of the fuel passes across the
main combustion chamber and enters the minor cell, where it is mixed with
the entering air.
Q1. Explain the stages of combustion in CI Engine with neat sketch.

Q2.Explain with schematic diagram of Spray formation

Q 3.What are the Variables affecting delay period? Explain each variable
Q4.Explain the various types of combustion chamber

Q5.Compare the Combustion phenomenon in CI engine V/s combustion in SI
engine (Answer: Ref. page no. 82-83)
Q6.What are Effect Of Variable On Delay Period ?

Q7.Explain the phenomenon of Diesel knock(Answer: Ref. page no.84-85)

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UNIT: IV
LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS FOR C.I. ENGINES
4.1 FUELS
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that
it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally
applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since
also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy
(via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).
The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical

energy via a heat engine. Other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking,
or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion.
Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular
respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable
energy. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most
common source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including
radioactive metals, are also utilized.
Fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential

energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy (such
as batteries and capacitors) or mechanical energy (such as flywheels, springs,
compressed air, or water in a reservoir).
In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted

into mechanical power by burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion
chamber of the engine. Fuels suitable for fast chemical reaction have to be used in
IC engines, they are following types
(a) Hydrocarbons fuels derived from the crude petroleum by proper refining
process such as thermal and catalytic cracking method, polymerisation,
alkylation, isomerisation, reforming and blending
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(b) Alternative fuels such as

Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Natural gas (methane)
LPG (propane, butane)
Hydrogen
Table: Typical properties of Liquid fuels
4.1.1 Classification of petroleum fuels used for IC engine

Q1
4.1.1.1 [Liquid hydrocarbons
Engine fuels are mainly mixtures of hydrocarbons, with bonds between

hydrogen and carbon atoms. During combustion these bonds are broken and new
bonds are formed with oxygen atoms, accompanied by the release of chemical
energy. Principal products are carbon dioxide and water vapour. Fuels also contain
small amounts of S, O , N , H O. The different constituents of crude petroleum
which are available in liquid hydrocarbons are

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paraffins, naphthenes, naphthenes, olefins, aromatics.
(i) Paraffin
A flammable, whitish, translucent, waxy solid consisting of a mixture of
saturated hydrocarbons, obtained by distillation from petroleum or shale and used
in candles, cosmetics, polishes, and sealing and waterproofing compounds.
Paraffin also known as liquid paraffin, paraffin oil or kerosene, is a
combustible hydrocarbon liquid that is burned as a fuel. It is a mixture of different
types of simple hydrocarbons, it is less volatile than gasoline and it boils at 302-
527 degrees. Paraffin can be extracted from coal, wood and oil shale, but it is
primarily obtained from the distillation of petroleum, which was first distilled in
1807 by geologist Abraham Gesner. The cost of producing paraffin was high,
however, when new sources of paraffin and cheaper methods of refining were later
discovered, it lead to lower prices of the fuel. Paraffin, when found in solid form, is
called paraffin wax, while the liquid form is referred to as paraffin oil. Liquid
paraffin oil is a mineral oil that comes in two forms, either heavy liquid paraffin oil
or light liquid paraffin oil. Paraffin is clean burning and maintains a high heat
output.
Paraffin Uses
Paraffin is a alkane hydrocarbon that has a variety of practical uses in

industries such as medicine, agriculture and cosmetics. Paraffin is widely used as
fuel for jet engines and rockets and as fuel or a fuel component for diesel and
tractor engines. In centuries past, before electricity was invented, paraffin was used
in lamps and lanterns as the main source of lighting. Today, paraffin is the most
widely used heating oil in home central heating systems in the UK and it is still
used in less developed countries as the main fuel for cooking. Paraffin is also used
as a fuel in portable stoves during outdoor activities and mountaineering. Liquid
paraffin can be used as a lubricant for machinery. Lubricants can help to extend the
life of expensive machinery and equipment by reducing friction, binding and wear.
Paraffin can also be used as a coolant for electrical systems, as hydraulic fluid and
as a solvent for greases and insecticides. Liquid paraffin also has medicinal

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properties. It is commonly used to treat dry skin, constipation, and eczema.

Paraffin wax is also used as a water-harvesting soil treatment to supply runoff
water to dry areas, as an adhesive and as a water-proofing agent.
(ii) Naphthene
Naphthenes are a class of cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained

from petroleum. Naphthenes have the general formula CnH2n. These compounds
are characterized by having one or more rings of saturated carbon atoms.
Naphthenes are an important component of liquid petroleum refinery products.
Most of the heavier boiling point complex residues are cycloalkanes. Naphthenic
crude oil is more readily converted into gasoline than paraffin-rich crudes are.
 Saturated hydrocarbons which are arranged in a circle have stable structure

and low tendency to auto ignite compared to alkanes (normal paraffins)
 Can be used both in SI-engines and CI-engines -Low heat content and high
density (740 – 790 kg / m3)
(iii) Olefins
Olefins belong to a family of organic compounds called hydrocarbons. They

consist of different molecular combinations of the two elements, carbon and
hydrogen. Another name for an olefin is an alkene. Alkenes contain one or more
double bonds between the carbon atoms of the molecule.
 Olefins or alkenes are represented as Mono olefins-CnH2n or Dio-olefins

CnH2n-2
 Olefins have the same C-to-H ratio and the same general formula as
naphthenes, Buttheir behaviour and characteristics are entirely different.
 They are straight or branch chain compounds with one or more double
bond. The position of the double bond is indicated by the number of first C
atom to which it is attached, i.e.,
CH2=CH.CH2.CH2.CH3 called pentene-1

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CH3.CH=CH3 called butene-2
 Olefinic compounds are easily oxidized, have poor oxidation stability, can
be used in SI-engines, obtained by cracking of large molecules low heat
content and density in the range 620 – 820 kg / m3.
 Alkenes are such as, Hexen (mono-olefin)
(iv) Aromatics
These are so called due to aromatics odour and represented as CnH2n-6
 They are based on a six membered ring having three conjugated double
bonds. Aromatic rings can be fused together to give polynuclear aromatics,
PAN, also called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH simplest member
is benzene (C6H6)
 Can be used in SI-engines, to increase the resistance to knock not suitable
for CI-engines due to low Cetane number
 Low heat content and high density in the range 800 – 850 kg / m3. ]Q1
4.1.2.REFINERY PROCESSES
4.1.2.1.Crude oil
Q2
[Crude oil is a multi component mixture consisting of more than 108
compounds. Petroleum refining refers to the separation as well as reactive
processes to yield various valuable products. Therefore, a key issue in the
petroleum refining is to deal with multi component feed streams and multi
component product streams. Usually, in chemical plants, we encounter streams not
possessing more than 10 components, which is not the case in petroleum refining.

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Therefore, characterization of both crude, intermediate product and final product

streams is very important to understand the processing operations effectively.
4.1.2.2.Overview of Refinery processes
Primary crude oil cuts in a typical refinery include gases, light/heavy

naphtha, kerosene, light gas oil, heavy gas oil and residue. From these intermediate
refinery product streams several final product streams such as fuel gas, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, auto diesel, lubricants, bunker
oil, asphalt and coke are obtained. The entire refinery technology involves careful
manipulation of various feed properties using both chemical and physical changes.
Conceptually, a process refinery can be viewed upon as a combination of both
physical and chemical processes or unit operations and unit processes respectively.
Typically, the dominant physical process in a refinery is the distillation process
that enables the removal of lighter components from the heavier components.
Other chemical processes such as alkylation and isomerisation are equally
important in the refinery engineering as these processes enable the reactive
transformation of various functional groups to desired functional groups in the
product streams.
4.1.2.3.Feed and Product characterization

The characterization of petroleum process streams is approached from both
chemistry and physical properties perspective. The chemistry perspective indicates
to characterize the crude oil in terms of the functional groups such as olefins,
paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics and resins. The dominance of one or more of the
functional groups in various petroleum processing streams is indicative of the
desired product quality and characterization. For instance, the lighter fractions of
the refinery consist of only olefins and paraffins. On the other hand, products such
as petrol should have high octane number which is a characteristic feature of
olefinic and aromatic functional groups present in the product stream.
The physical characterization of the crude oil in terms of viscosity, density,

boiling point curves is equally important. These properties are also indicative of
the quality of the product as well as the feed. Therefore, in petroleum processing,

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obtaining any intermediate or a product stream with a defined characterization of

several properties indicates whether it is diesel or petrol or any other product. This
is the most important characteristic feature of petroleum processing sector in
contrary to the chemical process sector. The product characterization is illustrated
now with an example. Aviation gasoline is characterized using ASTM distillation.
The specified temperatures for vol% distilled at 1 atm. Are 158 o F

maximum for 10 % volume, 221 o F maximum for 50 % volume and 275 o F
maximum for 90% volume. This is indicative of the fact that any product obtained
in the refinery process and meets these ASTM distillation characteristics is
anticipated to represent Aviation gasoline product. However, other important
properties such as viscosity, density, aniline product, sulphur density are as well
measured to fit within a specified range and to conclude that the produced stream
is indeed aviation gasoline.
Crude oil is the liquid part of the naturally occurring organic material
composed mostly of HCs that is trapped geologically in underground reservoirs.
But it is not uniform and varies in density, chemical composition, boiling range
etc. for different fields. The refinery processes involved in production of different
range of fuel is shown in Fig.

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Fig.4.1 Refinery processes
Fig.4.2 Products made from crude oil

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(i) Distillation process
This is the initial process used in all refineries. The aims to separate the crude
oil into different boiling range fractions, each of which may be a product in its own
right, a blend component or feed for further processing step. Crude oil contains
many thousands of different HCs, each has its own boiling point. Lightest are gases
at ambient temperature but can remain dissolved in heavier liquid HCs unless
temperature is raised, heaviest are solids at ambient temperature but stay in
solution unless temperature is lowered.
 Gasoline distillation temperature is 35 – 200 oC

 Jet fuel 35 - 150
 Diesel fuel 175 – 370
 Heavy fuels, oil 370 – 550
Generally distillation of crude oil produces
 30% gasoline,
 20-40 % diesel fuel,
 20 % heavy fuels,
 10-20 % heavy oils.
(ii) Cracking process
There are two types of cracking process for engine fuel productions are
thermal cracking and catalytic cracking
(a)Thermal cracking: It takes place through the creation of HC free radicals by C

to- C bond scission. The feed is heated to around 500 - 600 OC and 70 - 100 bars
and passed into a soaking chamber where cracking takes place. The cracked
products are fractionated. The product is relatively unstable and requires the use of

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antioxidants and other treatments to prevent gum formation in use. It has relatively
poor MON (motor octane number).
(b)Catalytic cracking: It is the most important and widely used process for
converting heavy refinery streams to lighter products, to increase the ratio of light
to heavy products from crude oil. Compared to thermal cracking, it has higher
yield, improved quality product for gasoline (not for diesel fuel) and superior
economics. A fluidized bed of catalyst is used for in this process.
Catalyst flows from one vessel to another through a pipe (between reactor
and regenerator). Cracked oil vapour pass to fractionating towers where smaller
molecules are separated from heavier products (gas, catalytic naphtha, cycle oils
and residue).Aluminium silicate known as zeolite is used as a catalyst. It has high
activity and suppress the formation of light olefins.
(ii) Alkylation
alkylation process is used in refineries to upgrade light olefins (produced from

catalytic crackers as well as from cokers viz breakers) and isobutene into a highly
branched paraffins. In petrochemical industry it is used to produce alkylate
benzenes and other petrochemical products.
The alkylation reaction involves the addition of photon H+( supplied by an

acid catalyst),to the double bond of an olefin to form carbonium ion. This ion then
adds to another olefin molecule to form a new carbonium ion which abstracts a
hydride ion, H-, and from isobutene to become a paraffin. At the same time new
carbonium ion is produced to continue the reaction.
It is a process for producing a high-octane gasoline component (alkylate) by

combining light olefins with isobutane in the presence of a strongly acidic catalyst
(sulfuric or hydrofluoric acid).

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(iii) Isomerization
It is a process for converting straight chain paraffins to branch chain. It is
used to provide isobutane feed for the alkylation process or to convert relatively
low-octane quality of straight paraffins to more valuable branch chain molecules.
Example- n-pentane with RON (research octane number) 62 can be

converted to isopentane with RON 92, Process involves contacting HCs with a
catalyst (platinum on a zeolite base) and separating any unchanged straight
paraffins for recycle through the unit. The product is clean burning and has better
RON quality.
(iv) Polymerization
It is a process where light olefins such as propene and butenes are reacted
together to give heavier olefins which have good octane quality and low vapour
pressure in gasoline.
Most commonly used catalyst is phosphoric acid. The product is almost 100
% olefinic and has relatively poor MON compared with RON.]Q2
4.1.3.ALTERNATIVE FUELS

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Q3
[The use of energy is a factor in all our lives, and that is why it is important, we
use now and the new forms of energy that are becoming available. Non-renewable
energy sources are diminishing everyday. The use of gasoline for transportation is
the most commonly used fuel. However, there are multiple alternative fuels that
are making their ways to the market. Alternative fuels known as non-conventional
and advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels, other
than conventional fuels like; fossil fuels (petroleum , coal, and natural gas), as well
as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as
artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors. Some well-known
alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol), refuse-
derived fuel, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-
fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane and
other biomass sources.
These Commonly using alternative fuels include such things as Alcohol,
Ethanol, Methanol, propane, natural gas, electric hybrids, hydrogen fuel cells, and
biodiesel.
(a) Alcohols:
These include methanol (methyl alcohol), ethanol (ethyl alcohol), propanol

(propyl alcohol), butanol (butyl alcohol) as compounds. The OH group which
replaces one of the H atoms in an alkane, gives these compounds their
characteristic properties. The specific heating value is lower than gasoline (42–43
MJ/kg) methanol (19.7 MJ/kg) and ethanol (26.8 MJ/kg).
For air-fuel mixture is comparable with gasoline (MJ/kg-mixture at
stoichiometric mixtures), other alcohol groups such as dihydric and trihydric
alcohols are not used as a fuel in IC engines
(i) Methanol
 Can be obtained from natural gas
 Has near and long-term potential
 Has high octane quality (130 RON, 95 MON)
 Can be used in low-concentration (5-15 %) in gasoline to increase octane
number of the mixture
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Problems
 Poor solubility in gasoline, toxicity, low energy content (about half of

gasoline), high latent heat of vaporization and oxygen content
 Contribute to poor driveability, incompatibility with some metals
(ii) Ethanol
 Produced from biomass

 It is made from the sugars found in grains, such as: Corn, Sorghum, and
Barley Other sources of sugars to produce ethanol include: Potato skins,
Rice, Sugar cane, Sugar beets, Yard clippings, Bark, Switch grass etc.
 Has high octane number
 can be used in low
 concentrations in gasoline
 Most of the ethanol used in the United States today is distilled from corn
 Scientists are working on cheaper ways to make ethanol by using all parts of
plants and trees rather than just the grain. -About 99% of the ethanol
produced in the United States is used to make "E10" or "gasohol," a mixture
of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline.
 Any gasoline powered engine can use E10, but only specially made vehicles
can run on E85, a fuel that is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline
(b) Biodiesel
Bio diesel is methyl or ethyl ester of a fatty acid produced from vegetable oil
of edible or non edible types or animal fat or algae, by transesterification process
using catalysts. It has better lubricating properties and much higher certain ratings
than today's low sulfur diesel fuels. Also its addition reduces the fuel system wear.
Bio diesel can be used in the pure form (B100), or may be blended with
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petroleum diesel in any concentration in most diesel engines for transportation

purpose. But, the engine may face problems, such as low temperature operation,
less durability and drop in power. New diesel fuel injection systems, such as
common rail systems are equipped with materials that are compatible with
biodiesel (B100).
Biodiesel offers a substantial reduction in particulate matter (25%-50%) and a

marginal increase of NOx (1%-6% when it is used as an alternative fuel in a CI
engine. The major problems associated with biodiesel are
(i) poor oxidation stability
(ii) higher viscosity and density,
(iii) lower calorific value,
(iv) cold flow property
Blends of 20% and lower biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with no, or
only minor modifications.
(c) Biogas
Bio gas produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials such as

cow dung and other waste such as cornhusks, leaves, straw, garbage, flesh of car
cusses, poultry droppings, pig dung, human excreta, sewage and the plants
specially grown for this purpose like water hyacinth, algae, certain types of
grasses. Also any cellulosic organic material of animal or plant origin which is
easily bio-degradable is a potential raw material for biogas production. Also
produced by pyrolysis and hydrogasification methods
It contains a mixture of methane (50-60% vol), CO2 (30-45%), hydrogen (5-

10%), nitrogen (0.5-7%) and small traces of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide
and oxygen. It is a clean, but slow burning gas and having value between 5000 to
5500 kcal/kg or 38131 kJ/m3. The octane rating of biogas is 130 and ignition
temperature is 650 °C .
Bio gas can be used to operate both compression ignition (diesel) and spark

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ignition (petrol) engines. CI engines can operate on dual-fuel (biogas+diesel)

operation and pilot injection operation in which small quantity of diesel is required
for igniting the mixture of air and biogas -80% saving of diesel oil can be achieved
Drawback of biogas is present of CO2. The engine performance can be

improved by reducing the CO2 content in biogas.
(d) Hydrogen
Clean burning fuel and has the highest energy content per unit mass of any
chemical fuels which can reduce the dependency on hydrocarbon based fuels.
Most common method of producing hydrogen involves splitting water (H2O)
into its component parts of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). There are different
methods to produce hydrogen. Biomass gasification uses selected microbes to
break down a variety of biomass feed stocks into hydrogen.]Q3
Q4
[Utilization of hydrogen gas
Hydrogen can be utilized for the following purpose:

 Residential use- hydrogen can be used in domestic cooking (stoves), radiant
space heaters, electricity for lighting and for operating domestic appliances
(e.g. refrigerator) which could be generated by means of fuel cells, with
hydrogen gas at one electrode and air at other.
 Industrial use- hydrogen can be used as a fuel or a chemical reducing (i.e.
oxygen removal) agent. It can also be used instead of coal or coal derived
gases, to reduce oxide ores (iron ore) to the material (iron).
 Air craft application- The earliest application of liquid hydrogen fuel is
expected to be in a jet air craft. Cold liquid hydrogen can be used directly or
indirectly to cool the engine and the air frame surfaces of a high speed air
craft.
 Electric power generation- It comprises the production of electricity by
using hydrogen in fuel cell system. Hydrogen could also be used as a means

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for storing and distributing electrical energy. The objective of developing

fuel cell power stations is to centralized and local generation of electricity.
 As an alternative transport fuel- Hydrogen is tried as an alternative fuel in
internal combustion engine. The stoichiometric hydrogen air mixture burns
seven times as fast as the corresponding gasoline air mixture which is a great
advantage in internal combustion engines, leading to higher engine speeds
and greater thermal efficiency. Hydrogen fuel used in IC engines is in
automobiles, buses, trucks and farm machinery.
Methods of using Hydrogen as a fuel in CI engines
 A mixture of fuel gas and air, with an approximately constant fuel to air ratio
is introduced into the cylinder intake manifold. The engine power is
controlled by varying the quantity of mixture entering the cylinder by means
of throttle valve. It is not safe because the mixture is formed in the manifold.
 The hydrogen is injected directly into the engine cylinder through a valve
under pressure and air is inducted through another intake valve. This method
is safer one, since hydrogen and air are supplied separately; an explosive
mixture is occurred inside the cylinder only. The engine power output is
controlled by varying the pressure of hydrogen gas from about 14 atm at low
power to 70 atm at high power.
 During the intake stroke, the hydrogen gas at normal or moderate pressure is
drawn through the throttle valve into the engine cylinder whereas un
throttled air is drawn in through the intake port. The variation of engine
power can be achieved with adjustment of hydrogen inlet throttle. The
changes in fuel proportion as well as power is developed due to supply of un
throttle air and power variation is possible because of the wide composition
range over which hydrogen-air mixture can be ignited .
Advantages of using Hydrogen fuelled engine
 It provides high efficiency because it utilizes a higher proportion of the

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energy in the fuel.
 The amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the exhaust is very

small since they are originating only from the cylinder lubricating oil.
 It can be easily available because it is produced by electrolysis of water.
 Fuel leakage to environment is not pollutant.
Disadvantages of using Hydrogen fuelled engine
 Due to high heat release the combustion temperature may be high and also a
level of nitrogen oxide is high. It can be reduced by reducing the combustion
temperature by injecting water vapour into the cylinder from the exhaust.
 It requires heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service
station.
 Difficulty in refuelling and possibility of detonation.
 Poor engine volumetric efficiency.
 Gaseous fuel will displace some of inlet air and poor volumetric efficiency
will result.
 Fuel cost would be high at present day technology.
(e) Natural Gas
Natural gas is present in the earth and is often produced in association with the
production of crude oil. Processing is required to separate the gas from petroleum
liquids and to remove contaminants. First, the gas is separated from free liquids
such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water and entrained solids. The
separated gas is further processed to meet certain pipelines quality specifications
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with respect to water content, hydrocarbon dew point, heating value and hydrogen
sulphide content. Generally, a gas sweetening plant removes hydrogen sulphide
and other sulphur compounds
Over 70% of the natural gas is formed by methane. It is Colourless, odourless
and mostly constitutes methane which is a relatively un reactive hydrocarbon.
Utilization
 Natural gas is widely used for different purposes such as space heating,
electricity generation, industrial processes, agricultural, raw material for
petrochemical industry, residential, commercial and utility markets.
 On a gallon equivalent basis, natural gas costs less than gasoline, diesel fuel
or any other alternative fuel. Natural gas currently supplies over 25% of the
energy demand because of its quality.
Can either be stored on board a vehicle in tanks as compressed natural gas

(CNG) at pressure of 16 to 25 bar or cryogenically cooled to a liquid state (-127
°C) as liquefied natural gas (LNG) at pressure of 70 to 120 bar.
As a fuel and with a single throttle body injector it works best in an engine
system. LNG is used in heavy duty vehicles where use of CNG would still entail
space and load carrying capacity penalties. The fuel storage system of natural gas
as LNG instead of CNG is less than half the weight and volume of CNG system.
So, it can be easily transportable than CNG.
(f) CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
Natural gas consists of elements of compressor, some sort of compressed gas

storage and dispensing unit of CNG into vehicles. Two types of CNG refuelling
system,
 Slow fill.
In slow fill system, several vehicles are connected to the output of the

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compressor at one time. These vehicles are then refilled over several hours
of compressor operation.
 Fast fill.
In fast fill systems, enough CNG is stored so that several vehicles can
be refuelled one after the other, just like refuelling from a single gasoline
dispenser.
The storage system of CNG is arranged as several tanks in cascade form. The
CNG pressure in cascade is higher than the maximum storage pressure of the
cylinder on the vehicle. The cascade attempts to deliver as much of its CNG to
vehicles as possible before the pressure difference decreases to where the flow rate
slows dramatically. A dryer should include in most CNG refuelling systems to
remove water vapour, impurities and hydrogen sulphide from natural gas before it
is compressed. If water vapour is present then it can condense in the vehicle fuel
system, causing corrosion especially if hydrogen sulphide is present. CNG driven
vehicles with catalytic converter have less CO and HC emission but NOx emission
is high.
(g) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
LPG is available in the market in two forms, one is propane and the other is
butane.
Propane is popular alternative fuel because of its infrastructure of pipe lines,
processing facilities and storage for its efficient distribution and also it produces
fewer emissions. Propane is produced as a by product of natural gas processing and
crude oil refining. Natural gas contains LPG, water vapour and other impurities
and about 55% of the LPG is compressed from natural gas purification. LPG is a
simple mixture of hydrocarbon mainly propane/propylene (C3S) and butane/
butylenes (C4S). Propane is an odourless, non-poisonous gas which has lowest
flammability range.
Utilization of LPG

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 LPG is used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. It is increasingly

used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing
chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer
 In Europe, LPG is used as an alternative to electricity and heating oil
(kerosene).It can also be used as power source for combined heat and power
technologies (CHP). CHP is the process of generating both electrical power
and useful heat from a single fuel source. This technology has allowed LPG
to be used not just as fuel for heating and cooking, but also for de-
centralized generation of electricity
 LPG has higher potential as an alternate fuel for IC engine.
Advantages of LPG
 Emission is much reduced by the use of LPG.

 LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.
 Uniform mixture can be supplied to all cylinders of multi-cylinder engine.
 Engine with high compression ratio (10:1) can use propane.
 There is cost saving of about 50% and longer life with LPG running engine.
Disadvantages of LPG
 A good cooling system is necessary because LPG vaporizer uses engine

coolant to provide the heat to convert the liquid LPG to gas.
 The weight of vehicle is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinder
for storing LPG.
 A special fuel feed system is required for LPG.
 Requirement of safety device to prevent accident due to explosion of gas
cylinders or leakage in the gas pipes.
(h) Producer Gas
Producer gas is a product of oxidation-reduction reactions of air with biomass.

Biomass is chemically composed of elements C, H, O and some N and hence the
oxidation results in products of combustion like CO2 and H2O. The molecules of
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O2 in the air oxidises C and H to produce these products. The gases which are at
high temperature due to partial oxidation pass through a bed of charcoal (which is
produced because of oxidation reaction itself) and the reduction reaction of these
gases with carbon leads to carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Volumetric composition of producer gas is CO (16-20%), H2 (16-18%), CO2
(8-10%) and some traces of higher hydrocarbons. Producer gas has a high
percentage of N2, since air is used. So it has a low heat value. Density of producer
gas is 0.9 to 1.2 kg/m3.
Producer gas is used in reciprocating engines and furnace. It needs little air to
burn stoichiometrically and raise the temperature to a value of 1500 K at normal
temperature and pressure. It is also used to power gas turbines (which are well-
suited to fuels of low calorific value), spark ignited engines (where 100% petrol
fuel replacement is possible) or diesel internal combustion engines (where 40% -
15% of the original diesel fuel) is still used to ignite the gas.
(i) Blast Furnace Gas
It is a by product of melting iron ore in steel plants. It principally consists of CO

and contains low heat value similar to producer gas. It consists of about 60%
nitrogen, 18-20% CO2 and some amount of oxygen which are not flammable. It
may be combined with natural gas or coke oven gas before combustion or a flame
support with richer gas or oil is provided to sustain combustion. The auto ignition
temperature of blast furnace gas is approximate 630 °C and it has Lower Explosive
Limit (LEL) of 27% &Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) of 75% in an air-gas mixture
at normal temperature and pressure. The gas is hazardous due to higher
concentration of carbon monoxide.
It should be cleaned properly because it contains lot of dust particles. Blast
furnace gas depends upon types of fuel used and method of operating the blast
furnace.
(j) Coke Oven Gas
It is produced during the making of coke. It is also resulting from oxidation-

reduction reactions of coal or coke with air and sometimes steams.

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It depends upon the type of coal used and operation method of oven. The
composition of coke oven gas is H2 (54% vol), CH4 (24%), CO (8%), CO2 (6%)
and some traces of higher hydrocarbon and nitrogen. With the application of heat
the heavier hydrocarbons are cracked and volatile portion of coal is driven off and
results in high composition of H2and CH4. Its heat value per cubic meter is only
about one half that of natural gas and density is 0.40 kg/m3.]Q4
4.1.4.General Fuel Specifications
Q5
[Different properties of fuels have,
Relative density (specific gravity)
Fuel composition
Specific heating value
Flash point
Viscosity
Surface tension
Freezing point
(a) Relative density (specific gravity)
It is related to the measurement of the ratio of the weight of a given volume of

fuel to the weight of the same volume of water, both at 20 OC and 101.325 kPa.
For gasoline, the relative density is around 0.72 to 0.78. which is equivalent to
an API (American petroleum institute) range of 65 to 50.
ρ = 700 −800 [kg/m3], for unleaded gasoline this value is higher due to the
aromatics.
For diesel fuel, ρ = 830 − 950 [kg/m3].
(b) Fuel composition
 C and H: carbon content of aromatics is around 89 %, and of paraffins and

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naphthenes is around 86 %.
 Benzene: max allowable concentration is specified because it is highly toxic

material, the level is 5 %.
 Sulphur content: HC fuels contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and other
sulphur compounds which are objectionable it is a corrosive element that can
corrode fuel lines, carburettor and injection pump. It will unite with oxygen to
form sulphur dioxide, which in presence of water at low T, forms sulphurous
acid. It has low ignition T, promote knock in SI engines. limited to approx
250 ppm (50 ppm is aimed for low pollutant emitting vehicles)
 Gum deposits: gasoline with unsaturated HCs forms gum in the engine,
paraffin, naphthene and aromatic HCs also form some gum. It causes
operating difficulties, sticking valves and piston rings, deposits in the
manifold etc.
 Water: both dissolved and free water can be present in gasoline, free water is
undesirable because it can freeze and cause problems. Dissolved water is
usually unavoidable during manufacture.
 Lead: for leaded and unleaded gasoline max lead content is specified, lead
causes pollution and destroys catalytic converters in the exhaust system.
 Manganese: used for antiknock in gasoline (MMT), max amount is specified,

0.00025 to 0.03 gMn/L
 Oxygenates: oxygenated compounds such as alcohols are used in gasoline to

improve octane rating. In USA gasohol (10% ethanol contains 3.5% oxygen),
TBA and methanol up to 3.5% oxygen methanol up to 5% volume, MTBE up
to 15% are used. In EC monoalcohols and ethers with atmospheric boiling
points lower than the final atmospheric boiling point of gasoline in the
standards can be used. Higher concentrations require modifications on the
vehicles.

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Carburettor or fuel injection system must be modified to compensate

for the oxygen content of the fuel. Blends with 15% methanol can be used.
(C) Specific heating value:
Specific heating value, Hu is a measure of the energy content of the fuel per
unit mass (kJ/kg or kcal/kg). Gaseous fuels sp heating value is given in terms of
energy content per unit volume (kJ/liter or kJ/m3, kcal/m3).
In IC engines lower heating value is given as the combustion products contain
water in vapour form.
For gasoline and diesel fuel Hu=42000-44000 kJ/kg or Hu=10200-10500
kcal/kg. Heating value of the combustible air-fuel mixture is a decisive factor for
engine performance.
(d) Flash point:
Flash point is the lowest temperature of a sample at which the fuel vapour
starts to ignite when in contact with a flame (ignition source). -Marcusson method
– fuel container is slowly heated, while the fuel vapour is in contact with an open
flame – T is measured -For gasoline it is 25 oC, diesel fuel 35 oC and heavy diesel
65 oC.
(e) Viscosity:
Viscosity is an important parameter for CI engines, also influences fuel

metering orifices since Re is an inverse function of fuel viscosity lower the
viscosity, smaller the diameter of the droplets in the spray. Below certain limits,
low viscosity increases the leaks in the fuel system. It is a strong function of T.
Must be given at certain T values at 50oC.
(f) Surface tension:
Surface tension is a parameter which effects the formation of fuel droplets in

sprays -increasing the surface tension will reduce mass flow and air-fuel ratio in

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gasoline engines.
lower the value, smaller the droplet diameter diesel fuel value is in the range
of 0.023 – 0.032 N/m and for gasoline it is 0.019 – 0.023 N/m.
(g) Freezing point:
The precipitation of paraffin crystals in winter can lead to clogged filters. It

can be prevented by either removing paraffins from the fuel or adding flow
improvers (additives). Anti-freezing properties are determined by its filterability.
For gasoline freezing point is –65 oC and for diesel fuel –10 oC]Q5
4.1.5 GASOLINE BLENDING
One of the most critical economic issues for a petroleumrefiner is selecting

the optimal combination of components to produce final gasoline products.
Gasoline blending is much more complicated than a simple mixing of
components. First, a typical refinery may have as many as 8 to 15 different
hydrocarbon streams to consider as blend stocks. These may range from butane,
the most volatile component, to a heavy naphtha and include several gasoline
naphthas from crude distillation, catalytic cracking, and thermal processing units in
addition to alkylate, polymer, and reformate.
Modern gasoline may be blended to meet simultaneously 10 to 15 different
quality specifications, such as vapour pressure; initial, intermediate, and final
boiling points; sulfur content; colour; stability; aromatics content; olefin content;
octane measurements for several different portions of the blend; and other local
governmental or market restrictions. Since each of the individual components
contributes uniquely in each of these quality areas and each bears a different cost
of manufacture, the proper allocation of each component into its
optimal disposition is of major economic importance.
In order to address this problem, most refiners employ linear programming,
a mathematical technique that permits the rapid selection of an optimal solution
from a multiplicity of feasible alternative solutions. Each component is
characterized by its specific properties and cost of manufacture, and each gasoline

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grade requirement is similarly defined by quality requirements and relative market

value. The linear programming solution specifies the unique disposition of each
component to achieve maximum operating profit. The next step is to measure
carefully the rate of addition of each component to the blend and collect it in
storage tanks for final inspection before delivering it for sale. Frequently, last-
minute changes in shipping schedules or production qualities require the
reblending of finished gasolines or the substitution of a high-quality (and therefore
costlier) grade for one of more immediate demand even though it may generate
less income for the refinery.
4.1.5.1. Kerosene
Though its use as an illuminant has greatly diminished, kerosene is still used
extensively throughout the world in cooking and space heating and is the primary
fuel for modern jet engines. When burned as a domestic fuel, kerosene must
produce a flame free of smoke and odour. Standard laboratory procedures test
these properties by burning the oil in special lamps. All kerosene fuels must satisfy
minimum flash-point specifications (49 °C, or 120 °F) to limit fire hazards in
storage and handling.
Jet fuels must burn cleanly and remain fluid and free from wax particles at
the low temperatures experienced in high-altitude flight. The conventional freeze-
point specification for commercial jet fuel is −50 °C (−58 °F). The fuel must also
be free of any suspended water particles that might cause blockage of the fuel
system with ice particles. Special-purpose military jet fuels have even more
stringent specifications.
4.1.5.2. Diesel oils
The principal end use of gas oil is as diesel fuel for

powering automobile, truck, bus, and railway engines. In a diesel engine,
combustion is induced by the heat of compression of the air in the cylinder under
compression. Detonation, which leads to harmful knocking in a gasoline engine, is
a necessity for the diesel engine. A good diesel fuel starts to burn at several
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locations within the cylinder after the fuel is injected. Once the flame has initiated,
any more fuel entering the cylinder ignites at once.
Straight-chain hydrocarbons make the best diesel fuels. In order to have a
standard reference scale, the oil is matched against blends of cetane (normal
hexadecane) and alpha methylnaphthalene, the latter of which gives very poor
engine performance. High-quality diesel fuels have cetane ratings of about 50,
giving the same combustion characteristics as a 50-50 mixture of the standard
fuels. The large, slower engines in ships and stationary power plants can tolerate
even heavier diesel oils. The more viscous marine diesel oils are heated to permit
easy pumping and to give the correct viscosity at the fuel injectors for good
combustion.
Until the early 1990s, standards for diesel fuel quality were not particularly
stringent. A minimum cetane number was critical for transportation uses,
but sulfur levels of 5,000 parts per million (ppm) were common in most markets.
With the advent of more stringent exhaust emission controls, however, diesel fuel
qualities came under increased scrutiny. In the European Union and the United
States, diesel fuel is now generally restricted to maximum sulfur levels of 10 to 15
ppm, and regulations have restricted aromatic content as well. The limitation
of aromatic compounds requires a much more demanding scheme of processing
individual gas oil components than was necessary for earlier highway diesel fuels.
4.1.5.3. Fuel oils
Furnace oil consists largely of residues from crude oil refining. These are
blended with other suitable gas oil fractions in order to achieve the viscosity
required for convenient handling. As a residue product, fuel oil is the only refined
product of significant quantity that commands a market price lower than the cost of
crude oil.
Because the sulfur contained in the crude oil is concentrated in the residue
material, fuel oil sulfur levels are naturally high. The sulfur level is not critical to
the combustion process as long as the flue gases do not impinge on cool surfaces
(which could lead to corrosion by the condensation of acidic sulfur trioxide).
However, in order to reduce air pollution, most industrialized countries now
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restrict the sulfur content of fuel oils. Such regulation has led to the construction of
residual desulfurization units or cokers in refineries that produce these fuels.
Residual fuels may contain large quantities of heavy metals such
as nickel and vanadium; these produce ash upon burning and can foul burner
systems. Such contaminants are not easily removed and usually lead to lower
market prices for fuel oils with high metal contents.
4.2 STORAGE AND SAFETY

Petroleum is a dangerous substance; it is an extremely flammable
liquid and can give off vapour at room temperature which can easily be
ignited, even at low concentrations (e.g. 1.4% mixture with air). If not
handled safely it has the potential to cause a serious fire and/or explosion. It is
presents risks to human health and to the environment.
All are must follow the instructions and guidance in this Safety Note when
they transport, store or use petrol on campus or any other location in connection
with their work activities.
\4.2.1 Container
Petrol may only be stored in a container designed for the sole purpose for
the storage of petrol. The general principles for the design and manufacture of
portable petrol storage containers require that they must:
 have a nominal capacity:
o no greater than 10 litres if made of plastic.
o no greater than 20 litres if made of metal.
 have a total capacity between 10% and 15% more than the nominal
capacity.
 be a UN approved container (these will be labelled as UN 1203, this
means they will be made of either metal or plastic that is suitable and
safe for the purpose and will not significantly degrade due to exposure to
petrol or naturally occurring ultraviolet radiation.
 be designed and constructed so that:
o they are reasonably robust and not liable to break under the
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normal conditions of use.

o the escape of liquid or vapour is prevented.
o petrol can be poured safely from them.
o they are not unsteady when placed on a flat surface.
 all containers must be clearly and correctly labelled so people are
aware of their contents and hazards. All containers must be marked
or labelled in a legible and indelible form with:
o the words ‘PETROL’ and ‘EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE
o the appropriate hazard warning signs for both Chemical
Labelling and Packaging (white diamond with red border) and
transport (coloured diamond) and - see below;

o the nominal capacity in litres.
o the manufacturer’s name and the date and month of
manufacture of the container.
4.2.2. Container colour
There are NO restrictions on the colour for plastic or metal containers but
general custom and practice is that green is used for unleaded petrol and black
for diesel.
4.2.3 Filling up at the petrol station

Petrol filling stations may have their own company policy on the
types and numbers of containers they allow to be filled – commonly this is
one or two 5 litre plastic and/or one or two 10 litre metal containers. This is a
decision made by the filling station operator and is not a legal requirement.
However University staff/students must comply with the filling station
requirements.
The risk assessment for work with petrol should include the filling
activity at the petrol filling station. All users must follow petrol station safety
instructions when filling the petrol tank or portable container. Containers must

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be placed on the ground when filling. The limit on container size set out in
section 2 must be followed. Also note the limit on how much petrol can be
carried in a vehicle.
4.2.4. Transportation of Petrol

The Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure
Equipment Regulations 2009 require that petrol should be carried in UN
approved containers (see above), which are properly stored on the vehicle.
The containers should be marked as detailed above.
The University limits the amount of petrol that may be carried in a
University vehicle at any time to not more than 20 litres.
Petrol cans must be stowed correctly to avoid spillage, damage or loss
from the vehicle, for example secured in the boot of a car or the load carrying
area of a van or pick up. Petrol stored in an open vehicle such as a pick up must
not be left un attended in order to prevent theft.
The vehicle being used to transport petrol must carry 1 x 2kg Dry
powder fire extinguisher. Arrangements must be made so that the fire
extinguishers are visually inspected weekly and serviced annually by the
Estates & Facilities contracted fire extinguisher servicing company. A spill kit
must also be carried.
The driver of the vehicle must have received general training to include:
 What to do in an emergency.
 How to use the fire extinguisher.
 Fire precautions to be taken when carrying or handling petrol.
Guidance:
Training may be provided by someone who is competent such as a manager or
Health and Safety Co-ordinator.
4.2.5. Sstorage of petrol

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Health and safety legislation require risks from the indoor storage of
petrol to be controlled by elimination or by reducing the quantities in the
workplace to a minimum and providing mitigation to protect against
foreseeable incidents.
It is recognized that for practical purposes where petrol is used, there is
likely to be a need for a limited quantity to be stored in the vehicle and/or working
area. It is the responsibility of the manager when carrying out their risk
assessment required under health and safety legislation to justify the need to store
quantities of petrol within a vehicle/working area.
Guidance:
The guiding principle is that only the minimum quantity needed for frequently
occurring activities should be present in the vehicle/working area. Clearly actual
quantities will depend on the work activity and also the organisational
arrangements for controlling the fire risks in the vehicle / working area.
4.2.6. Internal storage cabinets

Petrol must not be brought inside a building unless it is absolutely necessary.
If it is brought inside a building then an appropriate storage solution must be put in
place.
There are various types of approved storage cabinets for dangerous
substances and flammable liquids including petrol. In general terms they
should be of fire-resisting construction, offer a secure latched door, lipped
shelving to contain any leaks or spillages and be clearly identified.
It is dangerous to mix storage i.e. energetic substances, oxidizing agents,
corrosive materials, halogenated solvents (non-flammable) with flammable
liquids. A regular assessment of the contents of the storage cabinets is needed.
Inappropriate storage should be removed and re- located to a suitable store.

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Guidance:
Storage of petrol, oils and lubricants should be separate from other substances and
materials. Petrol and oil vapours can react to other materials to form an explosive
mixture and can cause materials to degrade e.g. nylon and polypropylene are degraded
by fuel vapour and the damage is not visible.
Storage cabinets must conform to:
 BS EN 14470-1:2004 Part 1; Safety storage cabinets for

flammable liquids rated for 30 minutes, or
 A cabinet that meets the nominal construction principles as
detailed in HSE Publication L138 ACOP for Dangerous
Substances and Explosive Atmospheres, namely that:
o the materials used to form the sides, top, bottom, door(s) and lid
are capable of providing the required fire resistance (i.e. 30
minutes integrity) and reaction to fire (i.e. minimal risk)
o the joints between the sides, top and bottom of cupboards and
bins should be free from openings and gaps
o the lid/doors should be close-fitting against the frame of the
bin/cupboard such that there is nominal overlap between the
frame and lid/doors in their closed position
o the supports and fastenings should be of a material with a
melting point greater than 750 OC.
Cabinets should be clearly labeled with a sign such as:
A maximum of 50 litres of Dangerous Substances/Flammable Liquids is

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permitted in an individual area/workplace.

Location of storage cabinets is strictly forbidden in circulation
corridors or adjacent to fire exit routes.
4.2.7. External storage

Petrol may be stored outside in either:
 a steel, lockable cabinet or chest; or
 an external storeroom that is secure, well ventilated and with
“No Smoking” -“Highly Flammable” signs (the yellow triangle
black pictogram warning sign) displayed in a prominent position
on the outside of the access door.
 a fire extinguisher normally dry powder and a sand bucket should be
provided. It should be secure (padlocked and not able to be
accessed except by authorised persons - consider arson risks also)
Guidance:
No more than 50 litres of petrol should be stored in any single external store.
4.2.8. Using Petrol Safely
The use of petrol is subject to the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health Regulations known as COSHH. Petrol vapour can
be harmful if inhaled. It must not be swallowed and contact with the skin
should be avoided as it may cause cancer, harm to an unborn child and
heritable genetic defects.

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Training
Users should receive training on the correct safety procedures for the
following tasks for including but not limited to:
 Dealing with potential emergencies, including the use of
firefighting equipment, and spillage procedures
 The use of protective clothing, such as footwear, gloves and
goggles, and when to wear them
 The need to know not to smoke, eat or drink when handling petrol
 The need to wash properly with plenty of soap and water after
finishing work, or at any time when skin becomes contaminated

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with petrol
 The correct methods of handling and lifting.
General safety precautions
The following general fire precautions must be followed when

using petrol.
 No smoking in the vicinity (within 10m) of petroleum being decanted.

 No use of portable electric/electronic equipment in the vicinity of
petrol being decanted (e.g. mobile phone).
 Always use/decant petrol in a well ventilated area outside of a building.
 Always switch engines off and allow the engine exhausts to cool
down before commencing refuelling operations.
 Always use a pourer and/or funnel to avoid spills.
 Do make sure that the containers cannot easily be knocked over during
filling.
 Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use.
 Never use petrol as an accelerant to light fires or BBQs.
Emergency response and clean up of small spills
What damage can small spills create?

 All types of petrol can create traffic hazards by making roads and
pathways slippery.
 All types of petrol are mixtures of toxic chemicals that, if not
recovered, pose health threats in drinking water wells if they
percolate into the ground water.
 Petrol can kill aquatic life and wildlife if it reaches surface water through a
water sewer.
 Petrol can create severe fire hazards near traffic, in buildings, or in sewers.
 Petrol in a sanitary sewer can present explosion threats.

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4.3 DUAL FUELLING

Q6
[There are an increasing number of dual fuel, natural gas/diesel engines in
operation worldwide. They provide a relatively easy and inexpensive option to
higher polluting diesel engines in a wide range of vehicles. The degree of
sophistication of these engines varies depending upon fuel control strategies,
however, they have proven reliable in many parts of the world and continue to
expand their market share, particularly in regions where diesel pollution is a major
concern and health hazard.
4.3.1 Operating Characteristics And Advantages
Most natural gas engines are either bi-fuel or dedicated. Bi-fuel engines are Otto
cycle (spark ignited) that run on either natural gas or gasoline. The bi-fuel natural
gas engine maintains two fuelling systems on board a vehicle: a natural gas system
as well as a petrol system. While not necessarily optimised for natural gas
operation, they tend to be more ‘environmentally friendly’ than petrol engines and
have the advantage of running on petrol in the event that a natural gas fuelling
station is not readily available. Dedicated natural gas engines are Otto cycle (spark
ignited) that are operated only on natural gas. They tend to be optimised, that is
they have a compression ratio designed to take advantage of the 130 octane of
natural gas, and have been designed to take into consideration the combustion
characteristics of the fuel so that the engine is very low polluting. Dual fuel natural
gas engines are based upon diesel technology. The primary fuel is natural gas but
they are designed to operate interchangeably with diesel as a ‘pilot’ ignition source
(functioning on heat of compression and not with a spark plug). These engines also
can operate on 100% diesel fuel. When idling these engines tend to operate on
100% diesel. As the vehicle begins to move to full load performance, an increasing
amount of natural gas replaces the diesel fuel to 80% or more. This makes them
especially valuable in circumstances where the use of natural gas is desired for
environmental or economic reasons but where the natural gas supply is not
available in all locations. It also is relatively easy to convert a diesel engine to dual
fuel operation. Some of the dual fuel engines are throttle controlled using a
fumigation system that adds natural gas to the engine as higher speed is required.
Other dual fuel systems are computer controlled to ensure that the optimal ratio of
natural gas and diesel fuel is delivered to the engine depending upon load and
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performance requirements. These systems’ performance and emissions vary

depending upon operating conditions and the sophistication of the control system,
but generally they can achieve much lower emissions diesel engines, especially of
NOx and particulate matter.
4.3.2 Applications Of Dual Fuel Engines
Dual fuel natural gas/diesel engines are becoming popular in many parts of the
world. The more expensive, sophisticated computer control systems are being
introduced successfully in North America and Australia, and are being tested in
European in anticipation of market entry. But their use in other parts of the world
is expanding, particularly in Latin America, India, Pakistan, China and other parts
of Asia. They tend to be used in large vehicles such as buses and refuse trucks, but
also have applications in smaller commercial diesel engine vehicles.
4.3.3 Importance Of Dual Fuel Engines Availability
Diesel engines can be converted as dual fuel natural gas engines relatively easily
because typically there are no changes in the engine compression ratio, cylinder
heads, or basic operation as a diesel cycle engine. Even the sophisticated computer
controlled dual fuel systems are being developed as ‘bolt on’ technologies that can
be removed if necessary, to resell the vehicle as a normal diesel engine. These
conversions are easy to install and easy to maintain. This flexibility makes these
engines very useful in many global markets. Some cities in various parts of the
world are reaching epidemically poor air quality limits and need an immediate
remedy to pollution caused by urban diesel vehicles. Natural gas provides both an
environmental benefit and, in most markets, a cheaper fuel than refined petroleum
products. This compensates economically over the vehicle’s lifetime for the
additional cost of the natural gas equipment Furthermore, the companies now
developing and supplying these engines and dual fuel systems account for
increased economic and employment opportunities in the countries they are
located. Currently there are companies in Italy, the United Kingdom, United States,
Canada and Australia, to name some, that are supplying a variety of dual fuel
engines and technologies. Caterpillar Engine currently offers four different models
of dual fuel capable engines that meet U.S. Federal and California emission
standards. Detroit Diesel currently is developing a dual fuel, natural gas/diesel

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engine as well. Regulations that impede these engines and engine systems from
market entry should not be brought into force. Rather, regulations that foster
market entry of such dual fuel systems, subject to them meeting national, regional,
or worldwide homologation requirements, should be encouraged. ]Q6
1. What is meant by Fuel?

A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that
it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally
applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since
also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy
(via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).
2. What are Alternate fuels?
1. Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
2. Natural gas (methane)
3. LPG (propane, butane)
4. Hydrogen
3. What is the Classification of petroleum fuels used for IC engine?
(i)Paraffin
(ii) Naphthene
(iii) Olefins
(iv) Aromatics
4.What is meant by Distillation process?
This is the initial process used in all refineries. The aims to separate the
crude oil into different boiling range fractions, each of which may be a product in
its own right, a blend component or feed for further processing step.
5. Define Thermal cracking

It takes place through the creation of HC free radicals by C to- C bond
scission. The feed is heated to around 500 - 600 OC and 70 - 100 bars and passed
into a soaking chamber where cracking takes place. The cracked products are
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fractionated. The product is relatively unstable and requires the use of antioxidants
and other treatments to prevent gum formation in use. It has relatively poor MON
(motor octane number).
6. Define Catalytic cracking

It is the most important and widely used process for converting heavy
refinery streams to lighter products, to increase the ratio of light to heavy products
from crude oil. Compared to thermal cracking, it has higher yield, improved
quality product for gasoline (not for diesel fuel) and superior economics. A
fluidized bed of catalyst is used for in this process.
7. Define Alkylation
alkylation process is used in refineries to upgrade light olefins (produced from
catalytic crackers as well as from cokers viz breakers) and isobutene into a highly
branched paraffins. In petrochemical industry it is used to produce alkylate
benzenes and other petrochemical products.
8.Define Isomerisation
It is a process for converting straight chain paraffins to branch chain. It is
used to provide isobutene feed for the alkylation process or to convert relatively
low-octane quality of straight paraffins to more valuable branch chain molecules
9. Define Polymerization
It is a process where light olefins such as propene and butenes are reacted together
to give heavier olefins which have good octane quality and low vapour pressure in
gasoline
10. What are the Utilization of hydrogen gas?

i. Residential use
ii. Industrial use
iii Air craft application
iv Electric power generation
v As an alternative transport fuel
11.What are the Advantages of using Hydrogen fuelled engine?

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1. It provides high efficiency because it utilizes a higher proportion of the

energy in the fuel.
2.The amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the exhaust is very
3.small since they are originating only from the cylinder lubricating oil.
4.It can be easily available because it is produced by electrolysis of water.
5.Fuel leakage to environment is not pollutant.
12. What are the Disadvantages of using Hydrogen fuelled engine?

 Due to high heat release the combustion temperature may be high and also a
level of nitrogen oxide is high. It can be reduced by reducing the combustion
temperature by injecting water vapour into the cylinder from the exhaust.
 It requires heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service
station.
 Difficulty in refuelling and possibility of detonation.
 Poor engine volumetric efficiency.
 Gaseous fuel will displace some of inlet air and poor volumetric efficiency
will result.
Fuel cost would be high at present day technology.
13. What are the Utilization of Natural Gas?

 Natural gas is widely used for different purposes such as space heating,
electricity generation, industrial processes, agricultural, raw material for
petrochemical industry, residential, commercial and utility markets.
 On a gallon equivalent basis, natural gas costs less than gasoline, diesel fuel
or any other alternative fuel. Natural gas currently supplies over 25% of the
energy demand because of its quality.
Can either be stored on board a vehicle in tanks as compressed natural gas

(CNG) at pressure of 16 to 25 bar or cryogenically cooled to a liquid state (-127
°C) as liquefied natural gas (LNG) at pressure of 70 to 120 bar.
As a fuel and with a single throttle body injector it works best in an engine
system. LNG is used in heavy duty vehicles where use of CNG would still entail
space and load carrying capacity penalties. The fuel storage system of natural gas
as LNG instead of CNG is less than half the weight and volume of CNG system.
So, it can be easily transportable than CNG.
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14. What are the Utilization of LPG?

 LPG is used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. It is increasingly
used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing
chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer
 In Europe, LPG is used as an alternative to electricity and heating oil
(kerosene).It can also be used as power source for combined heat and power
technologies (CHP). CHP is the process of generating both electrical power
and useful heat from a single fuel source. This technology has allowed LPG
to be used not just as fuel for heating and cooking, but also for de-
centralized generation of electricity
LPG has higher potential as an alternate fuel for IC engine
15. What are the Advantages of LPG?
 Emission is much reduced by the use of LPG.
 LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.
 Uniform mixture can be supplied to all cylinders of multi-cylinder engine.
 Engine with high compression ratio (10:1) can use propane.
 There is cost saving of about 50% and longer life with LPG running engine.
16. What are the Disadvantages of LPG?

 A good cooling system is necessary because LPG vaporizer uses engine
coolant to provide the heat to convert the liquid LPG to gas.
 The weight of vehicle is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinder
for storing LPG.
 A special fuel feed system is required for LPG.
 Requirement of safety device to prevent accident due to explosion of gas
cylinders or leakage in the gas pipes.

17. What is meant by Dual Fuelling?

There are an increasing number of dual fuel, natural gas/diesel engines in
operation worldwide. They provide a relatively easy and inexpensive option to
higher polluting diesel engines in a wide range of vehicles. The degree of
sophistication of these engines varies depending upon fuel control strategies,
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however, they have proven reliable in many parts of the world and continue to
expand their market share, particularly in regions where diesel pollution is a major
concern and health hazard.
Q1.Explain the Classification of petroleum fuels used for IC engine

Q2.Explain the refinery process of Petroleum

Q3.Briefly explain about Alternative fuels(Answer: Ref. page no.95-99)
Q4.Explain the Utilization of different fuels(Answer: Ref. page no.99-104)
Q5. Explain the General specifications of fuel (Answer: Ref. page no.105-107)
Q6.Explain about Dual fuelling(Answer: Ref. page no.117-119)

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UNIT V
EMISSIONS FORMATION AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES
5.1 POLLUTION:
The mixing of unwanted and undesirable substances into our surroundings
that cause undesirable effects on both living and non living things is known as
pollution.
5.2 Emittant as a Pollutant:
An emittant is said to be a pollutant when it has some harmful effect upon
our surroundings.
The primary source of energy for our automotive vehicles is crude oil from
underground which typically contains varying amounts of sulphur. Much of the
sulphur is removed during refining of automotive fuels. Thus the final fuel is
hydrocarbon with only a small amount of sulphur. If we neglect sulphur and
consider complete combustion, only water and carbon dioxide would appear in
the exhaust.
Water is not generally considered undesirable and therefore it is not
considered as a pollutant. Likewise carbon dioxide is also not considered as
pollutant in earlier days. But due to increase in global warming due to CO2 which
is a green house gas, now a days CO2 is also considered as unwanted one.
Then apart from this we get sulphur dioxide a pollutant which is a product
of complete combustion. Apart from this all the compounds currently considered
as pollutants are the result of imperfect or incomplete combustion.
Smoke combines with fog and forms a dense invisible layer in the
atmosphere which is known as Smog. The effect of Smog is that it reduces
visibility.
5.3 MECHANISM OF POLLUTANTS FORMATION (MAINPOLLUTANTS

EMITTEDBY PETROL ENGINE)
Q1
[Pollutants are produced by the incomplete burning of the air-fuel mixture in
the combustion chamber. The major pollutants emitted from the exhaust due to
incomplete combustion are:
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Oxides of nitrogen (NO).
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Other products produced are acetylene, aldehydes etc. If, however,

combustion is complete- - the only products being expelled from the exhaust
would
be water vapour which is harmless, and carbon dioxide, which is an inert gas and,
as such it is not directly harmful to humans.
5.3.1 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) :
It is a colour less gas of about the same density as air. It is a poisonous gas
which, when inhaled, replaces the oxygen in the blood stream so that the body‘s
metabolism can not function correctly. Small amounts of CO concentrations, when
breathed in, slow down physical and mental activity and produces headaches,
while large concentration will kill.
Mechanism of formation of CO
CO is intermediate product of combustion remains in exhaust if the
oxidation of CO to C02 is not complete. Theoretically , it can be said that petrol
engine exhaust is free of CO if the air fuel ratio is 15. However, some CO is
always present in the exhaust even at lean mixture and can be as high as 1%. CO
is generally formed when the mixture is rich in fuel. The amount of CO formed
increases the mixture becomes more and more rich in fuel. A small amount of CO
will come out of the exhaust even when the mixture is slightly lean in fuel. This is
due to the fact that equilibrium is not established when the products pass to the
exhaust. At the high temperature developed during the combustion, the products
formed are unstable, and the following reactions take place before the equilibrium
is established.
2H2O+ O2 → 2(1-y) H20 + 2yH2 + yO2
where, y is the fraction of H20 dissociated.
C+02 → C02 → + (1-x)CO2 +x CO + x/2 O2
As the products cool down to exhaust temperature, major part of CO reacts
with oxygen form CO2 However, a relatively small amount of CO will remain in
exhaust, its concentration creasing with rich mixtures.
5.3.2 HYDROCARBONS (HC):

The unburnt hydrocarbons emission is the direct result of incomplete
combustion. The emission amount of hydrocarbon is closely related to design
variables and combustion chamber design and operating variables such as A:F

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ratio, speed, load and mode of operation as idling, running or accelerating. Surface
to volume ratio and wall quenching greatly affects in formation of HC.
Hydrocarbons, derived from unburnt fuel emitted, by exhausts, engine crankcase
fumes and vapour escaping from the carburetor are also harmful to health.
Mechanism of formation of HC
Due to existence of local very rich mixture pockets at much lower
temperatures than combustion chambers, unburnt hydrocarbons may appear in the
exhaust.The hydrocarbons also appear due to flame quenching near the metallic
walls.
A significant portion of this unburnt hydrocarbon may burn during expansion and
exhaust strokes if the oxygen concentration and exhaust temperature is suitable for
complete oxidation Otherwise a large amount of hydrocarbon will go out with the
exhaust gases.
5.3.3 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO):

Oxides of N2 generally occur mainly in the form of NO and N02 . These are
generally formed at high temperature. Hence high temperature and availability of
02 are the main reason for the formation of N0 and NO2 .Many other oxides like
N2O4, N2O, N2O3 ,N2O5 are also formed in low concentration but they
decompose spontaneously at ambient conditions of NO2. The maximum NOx
levels are observed with A:F ratios of about 10% above stoichiometric. Oxides of
nitrogen and other obnoxious substances are produced in very small quantities and,
in certain environments, can cause pollution, while prolonged exposure is
dangerous to health.
Mechanism of formation of nitric oxide (NO)
At high combustion temperatures, the following chemical reactions take
place behind the flame:
N2+ O2 → 2NO
N2+ 2H2 O → 2NO+2H2
Chemical equilibrium calculations show that a significant amount of NO will
be formed the end of combustion. The majority of NO formed will however
decompose at the low temperature of exhaust. But due to very low reaction rate at
the exhaust temperature a part of NO formed remains in exhaust. It is far in excess
of the equilibrium composition at that temperature as t formation of NO freezes at

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low exhaust temperatures. The NO formation will be less in rich mixtures than in
lean mixtures.
5.3.4 SMOKE OR PARTICULATE

Solid particles are usually formed by dehydrogenation, polymerisation and
agglomeration. In the combustion process of different hydrocarbons, acetylene
(C2H2) is formed as intermediate product. These acetylene molecules after
simultaneous
polymerisation dehydration produce carbon particles, which are the main
constituent of the particulate
Smoke
It is visible carbon particles. It causes irritation in eyes and lungs, and
visibility reduction. It also, causes other respiratory diseases.
Generally speaking, Susceptibility to the effects of exhaust emissions is
greatest amongst infants and the elderly. Those with chronic diseases of lungs or
heart are thought to be at great risk.]Q1
5.4 DIESEL ENGINE SMOKE EMISSION:

Q2
[Engine exhaust smoke is a visible indicator of the combustion process in
the engine. Smoke is due to incomplete combustion. Smoke in diesel engine can
be divided into three categories: blue, white and black.
Blue smoke:
It results from the burning of engine lubricating oil that reaches combustion
chamber due to worn piston rings, cylinder liners and valve guides.
White or cold smoke:
It is made up of droplets of unburnt or partially burnt fuel droplets and is
usually associated with the engine running at less than normal operating
temperature after starting, long period of idling, operating under very light load,
operating with leaking injectors and water leakage in combustion chamber. This
smoke normally fades away as engine is warmed up and brought to normal stage.
Black or hot smoke:
It consists of unburnt carbon particles ( 0.5 – 1 microns in diameter) and
other solid products of combustion. This smoke appears after engine is warmed
up and is accelerating or pulling under load.

Page 138
5.4.1Formation of smoke in Diesel engines:

The main cause of smoke formation is known to be inadequate mixing of
fuel and air. Smoke is formed when the local temperature is high enough to
decompose fuel in a region where there is insufficient oxygen to burn the carbon
that is formed. The formation of over-rich fuel air mixtures either generally or in
localized regions will result in smoke. Large amounts of carbons will be formed
during the early stage of combustion. This carbon appears as smoke if there is
insufficient air, if there is insufficient mixing or if local temperatures fall below the
carbon reaction temperatures (approximately 1000C) before the mixing occurs.
Acceptable performance of diesel engine is critically influenced by exhaust
some emissions. Failure of engine to meet smoke legislation requirement
prevents sale and particularly for military use, possible visibility by smoke is
useful to enemy force. Diesel emissions gives information on effectiveness of
combustion, general performance and condition of engine.]Q2
5.4.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SMOKE FORMATION:

Q3
[The smoke intensity in the diesel exhaust is generally affected by many
parameters. By controlling them, smoke intensity may be reduced.
1. Injection timing:
Advancing the injection timing in diesel engines with all other parameters
kept constant results in longer delay periods, more fuel injected before ignition,
higher temperatures in the cycle and earlier ending of the combustion process.
The residence time is therefore increased. All these factors have been fond to
reduce the smoke intensity in the exhaust. However earlier injection results in
more combustion noise, higher mechanical and thermal stresses, and high NO
concentration.
In a recent study, khan reported that a very late injection reduces the
smoke. The timing after which this reduction occurs is that at which the minimum
ignition delay occurs. He suggested that one of the factor that contributes to the
reduction in smoke at the retarded timing is the reduced rat of formation due to
decrease in the temperature of the diffusion flames as most of these flames occur
during the expansion stroke.

Page 139
2. Rate of Injection:
Higher initial rates of injection have been found to be effective in reducing
the exhaust smoke.
3. Injection nozzle:
The size of the nozzle holes and the ratio of the hole length to its diameter
have an effect on smoke concentration. A larger hole diameter results in less
atomization and increased smoke. An increase in the length/diameter ratio
beyond a certain limit also results in increased smoke.
4. Maintenance:
The engine condition plays a very important role in deciding the smoke
levels. The maintenance affects the injection characteristics and the quantity of
lubricating oil which passes across the piston rings and thus a profound effect on
smoke generation tendency of the engine. Good maintenance is a must for lower
smoke levels.
5. Fuel:
Higher cetane number fuels have a tendency to produce more smoke. It is
believed to be due to lower stability of these fuels. For a given cetane number less
smoke is produced with more volatile fuels.
6. Load:
A rich fuel-air mixture results in higher smoke because the amount of
oxygen available is less. Hence any over loading of the engine will result in a
very black smoke.
The smoke level rises from no load to full load. During the first part, the smoke
level is more or less constant as there is always excess air present. However in the
higher load range there is an abrupt rise in smoke level due to less available
oxygen.
7.Enginetypeandspeed:
Naturally aspirated engines have higher smoke levels at higher loads than
turbo charged engines, because the later have sufficient oxygen even at full loads.
The smoke is worse at low as well as at high speeds. This follows the volumetric
efficiency curve of the engine in some measure as it drops at the extremes of
speed.
8.Fuel air ratio:
The smoke increases with richening the mixture. The increase in smoke

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occurs even with as much as 25% excess air in cylinder, cleanly indicating that the
diesel engine has a mixing problem.]Q3
5.4.3CONTROL OF DIESEL ENGINE SMOKE:

Q4
[Smoke can be reduced by some of the following methods:
1. Derating:
Derating is nothing but making the engine to run at lower loads. At lower
loads more excess air is present in the combustion chamber and hence the smoke
developed is less as already discussed. However this means a loss of output.
2. Proper maintenance of the engine:
Maintaining the engine properly, especially the injection system, will not
only result in reducing smoke but also keep the performance of the engine at its
best.
3. Proper choice of combustion chamber design and operating conditions:

A proper choice of combustion chamber design results in better mixing of
fuel and air in the chamber and hence reduces the smoke level to a considerable
level.
4. Use of smoke suppression additives:
Some barium compounds if used in fuel reduce the temperature of
combustion, thus avoiding the soot formation. Even if formed they break it into
fine particles, thus appreciably reducing smoke. However, the use of barium salts
increases the deposit formation tendencies of engine and reduces the fuel filter
life]Q4
5.5. CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCTION OF EMISSION
5.5.1. Design changes:
Q5
[The effects of engine design and operating variables on exhaust emission
were discussed in a detailed manner already. Based on the discussions made
already the engine design modifications approaches to control the pollutants are
discussed below.

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1. By decreasing NOx
Decreasing the combustion chamber temperature, The combustion

chamber temperature can be decreased by
 Decreasing compression ratio
 Retarding spark timing
 Decreasing charge temperature
 Decreasing engine speed
 Decreasing inlet charge pressure
 Exhaust gas recirculation
 Increasing humidity
 Water injection
 Operating the engine with very lean or very rich air fuel ratio
 Decreasing the coolant temperature
 Decreasing the deposits
 Increasing S/V ratio
2. By decreasingSOx
The amount of oxygen available in the chamber can be controlled by

 Rich mixture
 Stratified charge engine
 Divided combustion chamber
3. Hydrocarbon emission can be decreased by
 Decreasing the compression ratio

 Retarding the spark
 Increasing charge temperature
 Increasing coolant temperature
 Insulating exhaust manifold
 Increasing engine speed
 Lean mixture

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 Adding oxygen in the exhaust

 Decreasing S/V ratio
 Increasing turbulence
 Decreasing the deposits
 Increasing exhaust manifold volume
 Increasing exhaust back pressure
4. CO can be decreased by
 Lean air fuel ratio
 Adding oxygen in the exhaust
 Increasing coolant temperature. ]Q5
5.5.2. CONTROL TECHNIQUES
5.5.3. Exhaust Gas Recirculation:
Q6
[In exhaust gas recirculation a portion of the exhaust gas is recirculated to
the cylinder intake charge. This reduces the peak combustion temperature, since
the inert gas serves as a heat sink. This also reduces the quantity of oxygen
available for combustion.
The exhaust gas for recirculation is passed through the control valve for
regulation of the rate and inducted down to the intake p[ort, The recycle rate
control valve is connected to the throttle shaft by means of appropriated linkage
and the amount of valve opening is regulated by throttle position. The link is
designed so that recycled exhaust is normally shut off during idle to prevent
rough engine operation. This is also shut off during full throttle, acceleration to
prevent loss of power when maximum performance is needed.
Fig.5.1. Exhaust gas Recirculation

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The NOx concentration will vary with the amount of recycling of gas
at various air fuel ratios. About 15% recycle will reduce NOx emission by about
80%. The maximum percentage which can be circulated is limited by rough
engine operation and loss of power.
The above figure shows a vacuum controlled EGR valve used to control the
recycle rate. A special passage connects the exhaust manifold with the intake
manifold. This passage is opened or closed by a vacuum controlled EGR valve.
The upper part of the valve is sealed. It is connected by a vacuum line to a
vacuum port in the carburettor. When there is no vacuum the port, there is no
vacuum applied to the diaphragm in the EGR valve. Therefore, the spring holds
the valve closed. No exhaust gas recirculates. This is the situation during engine
idling when little NOx is formed.
As the throttle valve opens it passes the vacuum port in the carburettor. This
allows intake manifold vacuum to operate the EGR valve. Then vacuum raises
the diaphragm, which lifts the attached valve off its seat. Now exhaust gas flows
into the intake manifold. There the exhaust gas mixes with the air fuel mixture
and enter the engine cylinders.
At wide open throttle, there is little vacuum in the intake manifold. This
produces a denser mixture which burns cooler during the combustion process.
Therefore at wide open throttle there is less need for exhaust gas recirculation.
Due to low vacuum, the EGR valve is nearly closed.

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Fig.5.2.Exhaust gas recirculation valve system

A thermal vacuum switch on many cars prevents exhaust gas
recirculation until the engine temperature reaches about 100 F 0r 37.8C. The
thermal vacuum switch is also called a coolant temperature override switch (CTO
switch). It is mounted in a cooling system water jacket, so it senses coolant
temperature. If this temperature is below 100F, the switch remains closed. This
prevents the vacuum from reaching the EGR valve, so the exhaust gas does not
recirculate. Cold engine performance immediately after starting is improved. After
the engine warms up it can tolerate exhaust gas recirculation. Then the CTO valve
opens. Now vacuum can get to the EGR valve, so that exhaust gas can recirculate.
EGR invariably results in drop in power, increased fuel consumption and

rough combustion. In addition excessive intake system deposit buildup and
increased oil sludging occur. ]Q6
5.5.2. Fumigation Technique:

Q7
[This method consists of introducing a small amount of fuel into the intake
manifold. This starts pre combustion reactions before and during the compression
stroke resulting in reduced chemical delay, because the intermediate products such
as peroxides and aldehydes react more rapidly with oxygen than original

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hydrocarbons. The shortening of delay period curbs thermal cracking which is

responsible for soot formation.
Fig.5.3 Alcohol fumigation system
Fumigation rate of about 15% gives best smoke improvement. However this
improvement varies greatly with engine speed. At low engine speeds 50 to 80%
smoke reduction is obtained. This decrease as speed increases until a speed at
which there is no effect of fumigation.]Q7
5.5.3.Crank case Emission and Control
Q8
[During the compression and combustion strokes, highly corrosive blow
by gases are forced past the piston rings into the crankcase. The amount of blow
by entering the crankcase generally increases with engine speed. The amount of
blow by also depends on other conditions including piston, ring and cylinder wear.
The actual amount of wear may be small, perhaps only a few thousands of an inch.
But almost any wear is enough to weaker the sealing effect of the rings and permit
blow by to increase. Blow by gases contain burned and unburned fuel, carbon and
water vapour from the combustion chamber. When the engine is cold, some of the

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water vapour of the blow by condenses on the cylinder walls and crankcase. It
forms into droplets and runs down into the oil pan. Gasoline vapour also
condenses on cold engine parts and drips down into the oil pan. This gasoline
dilutes and thins the oil, reducing its lubricating ability.
The churning action of the rotating crank shaft can whip the water and
engine oil into thick, gummy substance called sludge. The acid compounds from
the blow by can get into the sludge and cause corrosion and faster wear of engine
parts. Sludge can also clog oil passages and prevent normal engine lubrication,
thereby leading to early engine failure.
Fig.5.4. Crank Case Emission Control System
Blow by causes pressure in the crankcase. If this pressure is allowed to

build up, engine oil is forced past the oil seals and gaskets and out of the engine.
To help to control the effect of blow by, there must be a way to relieve the
crankcase pressure caused by blow by gases. ]Q8
5.5.4.Ccrankcase Ventilation

Page 147
Q9
[To avoid the above said problems, the unburned and partly burned
gasoline and the combustion gases and water vapour must be cleared out of the
crankcase by providing crankcase ventilation systems.
Fig.5.5. Crank Case ventilation system

In early engines, the crankcase ventilation system was very simple. It
provided crankcase breathing by passing fresh oil through the crankcase. On
almost all American made automobile engines built prior to 1961, the fresh air
entered through an air inlet at the top front of the engine. The fresh air is mixed
with the blow by fumes and other vapours in the crankcase. These vapours were
routed out of the crankcase through a large hollow tube called the road draft tube,
which discharged under the car into the atmosphere.

Page 148
The fresh air inlet was usually the crankcase breather cap. On most engines
it also served as the cap for the crankcase oil filler tube. The cap was open, or
vented with holes on both sides to let fresh air to pass through. The cap was filled
with oil soaked steel wool or similar material to serve as an air filter. The filter
prevented dust particle in the air from getting into the crankcase oil and causing
engine wear.
5.5.5. Road Draft Tube Emissions
Fig.5.6.Road draft emission tube system
The road draft tube system worked well to keep the crankcase free of fumes
and pressure build up. However it discharged all the crankcase pollutants into the
atmosphere. This discharge through the road draft tube represented about 20% of
the total HC emissions from an automobile. Therefore controlling blow by was the
first step in eliminating atmospheric pollution from the automobile. Non
technically it was named as “Engine Breather Tube”.
5.5.6.Open PCV System:

An early system that partially controlled crankcase emission was installed on cars
built for sale in California beginning in 1961. The system was called open positive
crankcase ventilation system.

Page 149
In this system a tube is connected between a crank case vent and the intake
manifold. While the engine is running, intake manifold vacuum is used to pull
vapour from the crankcase through the tube into the intake manifold. Fresh
ventilating air is drawn into the crankcase through an open oil filler cap. In the
intake manifold, the crankcase vapours are mixed with the incoming air-fuel
mixture and sent to the cylinders for burning.
Fig.5.7. Open Positive Crank Case Ventilation
For the engine to operate properly under all conditions of speed and load, a
flow control valve is required. Without a flow control valve, excessive ventilation
air passes from the crankcase into the intake manifold during idling and low speed.
This upsets the engine air fuel ratio and results in poor idling with frequent stalling.
The PCV valve is installed in a tube from the crankcase vent to the intake
manifold. The PCV valve is a variable orifice valve. A variable orifice is a hole
that acts as a valve by changing the size to vary the flow rate through it. This valve
is also called a metering valve, a modulator valve and a regulator valve.
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A typical PCV valve consists of a coil spring, a valve and a two piece outer
body which is usually crimped together. At idle or low speed, high intake manifold
vacuum tends to pull the valve closed or into its minimum flow condition. As the
valve tries to close it compresses the valve spring. The smaller opening now allows
a much smaller volume of blow by gas to pass through. At high engine speeds, the
compressed spring overcomes the pull of the vacuum on the valve. The spring
begins to force the valve open towards the maximum flow condition. As the valve
moves open, the flow capacity increases. This is to handle the greater volume of
blow by that results from an increase in engine load and speed.
5.5.7. Closed PCV:
The crankcase emission control system described above is not completely
effective in controlling crankcase emissions. In open type system, blowby in
excess of the PCV valve flow rate escapes to the atmosphere through the open oil
filler cap. To overcome this problem, a closed positive crankcase ventilation
system was developed. All cars manufactured in California in 1963 and later used
a closed type of positive crankcase ventilation system.
Fig.5.8 Closed Positive Crank Case Ventilation
The blow by gases are turned to the engine cylinder through the intake
manifold and under appropriate conditions, through the carburettor air cleaner.
The PCV valve described earlier is generally used as the flow control valve. A

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closed oil filler cap is used. Other possible outlets for blow by gases, such as
dipstick tube are sealed.
All cars are now being equipped with such closed PCV system wherever
there are air pollution regulations. These systems have completely eliminated the
crankcase as a source of atmospheric contamination and no additional control in
future is required in this direction. ]Q9
5.6 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:
Fig.5.9 Catalytic Converter
Q10
[Catalytic converters provide another way to treat the exhaust gas. These
devices located in the exhaust system, convert the harmful pollutants into
harmless gases.In contrast to thermal reactors efficient catalytic oxidation catalysts
cancontrol CO and HC emissions almost completely at temperature equivalent to
normal exhaust gas temperatures. Thus the fuel economy loss necessary to
increase the exhaust temperature is avoided. Inside the catalytic converter the
exhaust gases pass over a large surface area coated with a catalyst. A catalyst is a
material that causes a chemical
reaction without actually becoming a part of the reaction process.
Catalytic reaction of NO can be represented as follows:
NO + CO CO2 + ½ N2
NO + H2 H2O + ½ N2

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10 NO + 4HC 2H2O + 4CO2 + 5 N2

HC / CO oxidation is represented by
CO + ½ O2 CO2
4HC + 5 O2 2H2O + 4CO2
The figure shows a single bed catalytic converter. The exhaust gas and air
are passed through a bed of platinum coated pellets or honeycomb core. HC and
CO react with the oxygen in the air. Harmless ware and carbon dioxide are
formed. The catalyst platinum act on the exhaust gas in two ways, converting HC
and CO to carbon dioxide and water. So it is called a two way catalyst.
Figure show a dual bed catalytic converter. The exhaust gas first passes
through the upper bed. The upper bed contains a reducing catalyst ( example
rhodium). NOx is reduced to nitrogen and oxygen in the upper bed. Then
secondary air is mixed with the exhaust gas. The mixture of exhaust gas and
secondary air flows to the lower bed. The lower bed contains an oxidizing
catalyst ( example platinum). HC and CO are oxidized to water vapour and
carbon dioxide in the lower bed. Here the catalyst rhodium is a one way catalyst
since it acts o NOx only. Platinum is a two way catalyst since it acts on HC and
CO.
A three way catalyst is a mixture of platinum and rhodium. It acts on all
three of the regulated pollutants ( HC, CO and NOx) but only when the air-fuel
ratio is precisely controlled. If the engine is operated with the ideal or
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of 14.7:1. The three way catalyst is very effective. It
strips oxygen away from the NOx to form harmless water, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. However the air-fuel ratio must be precisely controlled, otherwise the
three way catalyst does not work. Figure shows a three way catalytic converter.
The front section( in the direction of gas flow)handles NOxand partlyhandles HC
and CO. The partly treated exhaust gas is mixed with secondary air. The mixture
of partly treated exhaust gas and secondary air flows into the rear section of the
chamber. The two way catalyst present in the rear section takes care of HC and
CO.
Generally catalysts are classified as:
1. Supported catalysts based on
a. Noble metals b. Transition metals
2. Unsupported metallic alloys

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NO-Reduction Catalysts:
From the literature, it is seen that the following materials have been tried
successfully as reduction catalysts in the vehicle emission control
1. Copper oxide-chromia
2. Copper oxide – Vanadia
3. Iron oxide – Chromia
4. Nickel oxide pelleted on monolithic ceramic and metallic supports
5. Monel metal
6. Rare earth oxides
HC/CO oxidation catalysts:
1. Noble metal catalysts such as activated carbon, palladium or platinum
2. Transition metal oxide catalysts such as copper, cobalt, nickel and
iron chromate as well as vanadium or manganese promoted versions of these
metals.
3. Copper chromate-alumina and platinum oxide –alumina catalysts
were developed with sufficient activity, stability and mechanical strength.
The catalysts chosen for vehicle emission control should satisfy the following:
1. High conversion efficiency under transient conditions
2. Effective for wide range of temperature ( for ambient to 1600 F)
3. Must withstand the poisoning action of additives in the gasoline that are
emitted in the
exhaust
4. Must be able to withstand thermal shock
5. Be attrition resistant to highly turbulent flows through the converter
6. Vehicle operation for 50,000 miles
7. Convert into harmless products
8. Cheap and readily available.]Q10
5.7 Effect of Pollutants on Environment:

Q11
[a. Unburned Hydro Carbons ( UBHC ):
The major sources of UBHC in an automobile are the engine exhaust,
evaporative losses from fuel system, blow by loss and scavenging in case of 2-

Page 154
stroke petrol engines.Unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons in gaseous form

combine withoxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical
smog.
UBHC + NOx Photochemical smog
The products of photochemical smog cause watering and burning of the
eyes and affect the respiratory system, especially when the respiratory system is
marginal for other reasons.
Some of the high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons have been
shown to be carcinogenic in animals. Some of the unburned hydrocarbons also
serve as particulate matter in atmosphere.
b. Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine only when there
is insufficient supply of air. The main source is the engine exhaust.
The toxicity of carbon monoxide is well known. The hemoglobin the
human blood which carries oxygen to various parts of the body has great affinity
towards carbon monoxide than for oxygen. When a human is exposed to an
atmosphere containing carbon monoxide, the oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood is reduced and results in the formation of carboxy hemoglobin. Due to this
the human is subjected to various ill effects and ultimately leads to death.
The toxic effects of carbon monoxide are dependent both on time and
concentration as shown in the diagram.
c. Oxides of Nitrogen ( NOx ) :
Oxides of nitrogen ( NO, NO2 , N2O2 etc) are formed at higher combustion
temperature present in engines and the engine exhaust is the major source.
Like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen also tend to settle on the hemoglobin in
blood. Their most undesirable effect is their tendency to join with moisture in the
lungs to form dilute nitric acid. Because the amounts formed are minute and dilute,
their effect is very small but over a long period of time cam be cumulatively
undesirable, especially when the respiratory problems for other reasons are found.
Another effect is that, the oxides of nitrogen are also one of the essential
component for the formation of photochemical smog.
d. Sulphur dioxide:
Sulphur dioxide from automotive vehicle is very less when compared to
that emitted by burning coal. Sulphur dioxide combines with moisture in

Page 155
atmosphere and forms sulphuric acid at higher temperatures. This comes to the
earth as acid rain. Much of the sulphur dioxide combines with other materials in
theatmosphere and forms sulphates which ultimately form particulate matter.
e. Particulates:
Particulate matter comes from hydrocarbons, lead additives and sulphur
dioxide. If lead is used with the fuel to control combustion almost 70% of the lead
is airborne with the exhaust gasses. In that 30% of the particulates rapidly settle to
the ground while remaining remains in the atmosphere. Lead is well known toxic
compound. Particulates when inhaled or taken along with food leads to respiratory
problems and other infections. Particulates when settle on the ground they spoil the
nature of the object on which they are settling. Lead, a particulate is a slow poison
and ultimately leads to death.
5.8 EFFECT OF ENGINE EMISSION ON HUMAN HEALTH

The effects of different engine emissions on human health are discussed below:
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

It is an irritant gas and affects the mucous membrane when inhaled. In the
presence of water vapour it forms sulphurous and sulphuric acids These
acids cause severe bronchospasma at very low levels of concentration.
Diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high concentration

of SO2
Carbon-monoxide (CO):
It has a strong affinity (200 times) for combining with the hemoglobin of the blood
to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the hemoglobin to carry
oxygen to the blood tissues.
CO affects the central nervous system.

It is also responsible for heart attacks and a high mortality rate.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx):
These are known to cause occupational diseases. It is estimated that eye and
nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15 p.p.m. of nitrogen

Page 156
oxide, and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposure to 25 p.p.m. of

nitrogen oxide.
It also aggravates diseases like bronchitis and asthma.

Hydrocarbon vapours:
They are primarily irritating. They are major contributors to eye and
respiratory irritation caused by photochemical smog
Compounds of Incomplete combustion
Exhaust discharge from IC engines carry compounds of incomplete
combustion (polycyclic organic compounds and aliphatic hydrocarbons),
which act as carcinogenic agents and are responsible for lungs cancer.
Lead
Inorganic lead compounds (discharged from vehicles using leaded petrol)
cause a variety of human health disorders.
The effects include gastrointestinal damage, liver and kidney damage,

abnormality in fertility and pregnancy etc.
Smoke
visibility reduction. It also, causes other respiratory diseases.]Q11
Generally speaking, Susceptibility to the effects of exhaust emissions is greatest
amongst infants and the elderly. Those with chronic diseases of lungs or heart are
thought to be at great risk.

Page 157
5.9 FLAME IONISATION DETECTOR ( FID ):

Q12
[The unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust consist of about 200 different
compounds, each with different composition and different number of carbon and
Fig.5.10 Flame Ionisation Detector

hydrogen atoms. It is impossible to detect each of these hydrocarbons separately.
The over all concentration of the unburned hydrocarbons may be found by
measuring the equivalent concentration of n-hexane ( C6H14). An accurate method
of measuring the unburned hydrocarbon emissions is to use the Flame Ionisation
Detector ( FID ).
The working principle of FID is as follows: A hydrogen-air flame contains a
negligible amount of ions but if few hydrocarbon molecules are introduced into the
flame a larger number of ions are produced. The ion yield is proportional to the
amount of hydrocarbon introduced into the flame. The basic elements of a Flame
Ionisation Detector are as shown in the figure, a burner and ion collector assembly.
In practice, a sample of gas is mixed with hydrogen inthe burner assembly and the
mixture burned in a diffusion flame. Ions that are produced in the flame move to
the negatively polarized collector under the influence of an electrical potential
applied between the collector plates. At the negative collector, the ions receive, via
a current network, electrons that are collected from the flame zone at the positive
collector. Thus a small current proportional to the amount of hydrocarbon entering
the flame flows between the collector plates. This small current is amplified using
a high impedance direct current amplifier, the output of which becomes an
indication of hydrocarbon present.
The detector responds to carbon that is linked with hydrogen as in equation 1 and
the response is largely independent of the molecular configuration, i.e hydrocarbon
species. Thus the detector is essentially a carbon atom counter.
The output of the FID depends on the number of carbon atoms passing through the
flame in a unit time. Doubling the flow velocity would also double the output.
Hexane ( C6H14) would give double the output of propane ( C3H8). Therefore FID
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output is usually referred to a standard hydrocarbon usually as PPM of normal

hexane.
Characteristics of the FID are improved with most burned designs if instead of
using pure hydrogen fuel, the hydrogen is mixed with inert gas to decrease flame
temperature. This mixture of hydrogen and inert gas is referred to as fuel gas or
fuelThe FID responds directly to the amount of hydrocarbon entering the flame.
Therefore close control of sample flow is required. In general, the sample flow rate
is specified at the minimum amount that will give the required sensitivity in any
given instrument. Fuel and air flow rates also influence the response characteristics
of the detector. Response typically first rises and then fall with increased fuel rate,
as shown in the figure. Typical volume rates of instrument gases are sample 3-5
ml/min and fuel gas mixture 75ml/min and air 200ml/min.
Presence of CO, CO2, NOx, water and nitrogen in the exhaust have no effect on
the FID reading.
FID analyzer is rapid, continuous and accurate method of measuring HC in the
exhaust gas concentrations as low as 1ppmcan be measured]Q12
5.10 NDIR ANALYZER
Fig.5.11 NDIR analyzer

Q13
[For NDIR Gas analyzer, the main components are an infrared source (lamp), a
sample chamber or light tube, a wavelength filter, and the infrared detector. The
gas is pumped (or diffuses) into the sample chamber, and gas concentration is
measured electro-optically by its absorption of a specific wavelength in the
infrared (IR). The IR light is directed through the sample chamber towards the
detector. The detector has an optical filter in front of it that eliminates all light
Page 159
except the wavelength that the selected gas molecules can absorb. Ideally other gas
molecules do not absorb light at this wavelength, and do not affect the amount of
light reaching the detector. The detector measures the attenuated signal depending
amount of gas absorption and it is proportional to the measured gas concentration.
The Non Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) detection method is based upon the
absorption of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths as it passes through a
volume of sample. Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) techniques for the
measurement of various gases rely on the energy absorption characteristics of a
particular gas in the infrared region. In a simple NDIR instrument, Infrared energy
passes through two identical tubes and falls on a detector. The first tube is the
reference cell and is filled with a non-absorbing gas such as nitrogen. The second
tube is the measurement cell and contains the gas sample to be analyzed. The IR
Source continuously sends an IR waves through the gas tubes and detector
measures the intensity of two different wavelengths, one at the sample gas
absorption wavelength and the other is at reference gas absorption wavelength. As
the reference gas generally contains nitrogen so the detector receives 100% signal.
If the CO2 gas is present in sample gas means the received signal will be
attenuated at the detector side. The detector measures these two signals and their
difference is proportional to the amount of absorbing gas in the sample cell .i.e.
CO2 gas. So Finally the CO2 gas concentration is measured with the difference in
absorption of IR radiation in the sample and reference cells. CO2 gas concentration
measuring unit is ppm]Q13.
5.11 CHEMILUMINESCENCE ANALYZER (CLA)

Page 160
Q14
[1.When NO and ozone (O 3 ) react a small fraction (about 10% at 26.7° C) of
excited NO2* molecules is produced as per the following reactions:
As the excited molecules of NO2 * decay to ground state, light in the wavelength
region 0.6-3.0 μm is emitted. The quantity of excited NO2 produced is fixed at a
given reaction temperature and the intensity of light produced during decay of
excited NO2 is proportional to the concentration of NO in the sample
The sample containing NO flows to a reactor where it reacts with ozone produced
from oxygen in‘ozonator' .In the reactor NO is converted to NO2 .
A photomultiplier tube detects the light emitted by the excited NO2 . The signal is
then amplified and fed to recorder or indicating equipment.
For the measurement of nitrogen oxides (NOx ), NO2in the sample is first
converted to NO by heating in a NO2- to-NO converter prior to its introduction
into the reactor. At 315º C, about 90percent of NO2 is converted to NO2. The total
concentration of NOx in the sample is thus, measured as NO. When the sample is
introduced in the reactor bypassing the NO2 - to- NO converter, concentration of
NO alone is determined. The difference between the two measurements provides
the concentration of NO2in the sample. The response of the instrument is linear
with NO concentration. The technique is very sensitive and can detect up to 10-3
ppm of NOx.The output signal is proportional to the product of sample flow rate
and NO concentration. As the method is flow sensitive an accurate flow control is
necessary. The calibration and operation are done at the same flow rate and reactor
temperature.]Q14
5.12 Emission standards.

Q15
[The vehicle emission standards were implemented for the first time in
1965 when control of crankcase hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline passenger
cars was required as per the law. Use of positive crankcase ventilation (PCV)
system on the gasoline passenger cars became necessary to prevent emission of
hydrocarbon rich crankcase blow by gases in to atmosphere. At the same time, the
exhaust gas emission standards for new cars were also established in the state of
California and in 1968, US enacted legislation to implement nationwide vehicle
emission regulations. In Europe , vehicle emission standards were Implemented
beginning from the year 1970. Over the years, the emission standards have become
Page 161
more and more stringent and have driven the development of advanced engine
designs and emission control technology. Now, nearly all the countries all over the
world have enforced vehicle emission regulations of varying severity following
largely either the US or the European regulations. The emission limits that are in
force in the US and Europe and the trends thereof over the years are discussed
below.
Light Duty Vehicles
US Standards
The US emission standards for passenger cars are given in Table 4.1 since the
limits were set for the first time under the Clean Air Act of 1968. The standards set
for 1975 were rather stringent such that the oxidation catalytic converters were
required on most cars. Amendments to Clean Air Act in 1977 resulted in the
standards that required in 1980/1981reduction of 90% in HC and CO, and 75% in
NOx . The 1980-81 standards resulted in widespread use of 3-way catalyst
technology.
European Standards
European emission standards for the light duty vehicles are given in the Table 4.3.
Before1992 i.e. prior to Euro 1 standards, emission limits were based on ECE-15
cycled varied with vehicle reference weight, the higher emissions were permitted
for the heavier passenger cars. From 1992 however, the same limits for all the
passenger cars irrespective of vehicle weight as in the US were introduced. EU
standards up to Euro 3stage require durability demonstration for 80,000 km or 5
years, whichever occurs first. In lieu of actual durability test, the manufacturers
may use the following deterioration factors:
Gasoline cars: 1.2 for CO, HC and NO x
Diesel cars: 1.1 for CO, NO x and HC+ NO x , 1.2 for PM
Euro 5 stage requires durability of 160,000 km or 5 years, whichever occurs first.

The emission standards for the light duty trucks and medium duty vehicles also,
have been laid down and can be found in the European regulations
During 1990s, the 1977 amendments were found inadequate as 9 US cities had
higher ozone levels and 41 cities higher CO levels than the air quality standards.
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) followed resulting in further
tightening of the emission standards besides other measures like introduction of
better quality fuels such as the reformulated gasoline. The new emission
regulations known as Tier 1 were implemented from 1994 and Tier 2 standards
from 2004 through to 2009. It is seen that the current production vehicles emit less
Page 162
than 1% of emissions of pre-control era vehicles. In the mean time California

introduced a new set of emission regulations (Table 4.4) and called the vehicles
meeting these regulations by the name of different grades of low emission vehicles
(LEV) such as TLEV ( Transitional), LEV, ULEV (Ultra), SULEV (Super Ultra)
andPZEV ( Partial zero emission vehicles)]Q15
1. Define Pollution
The mixing of unwanted and undesirable substances into our surroundings

that cause undesirable effects on both living and non living things is known as
pollution.
2.Give short note on Carbon Monoxide (CO)
It is a colour less gas of about the same density as air. It is a poisonous gas
which, when inhaled, replaces the oxygen in the blood stream so that the body‘s
metabolism can not function correctly. Small amounts of CO concentrations, when
breathed in, slow down physical and mental activity and produces headaches,
while large concentration will kill.
3. Give short note on Hydrocarbons (HC)

The unburnt hydrocarbons emission is the direct result of incomplete
combustion. The emission amount of hydrocarbon is closely related to design
variables and combustion chamber design and operating variables such as A:F
ratio, speed, load and mode of operation as idling, running or accelerating. Surface
to volume ratio and wall quenching greatly affects in formation of HC.
Hydrocarbons, derived from unburnt fuel emitted, by exhausts, engine crankcase
fumes and vapour escaping from the carburetor are also harmful to health
4. Give short note on Oxides Of Nitrogen (NO)
Oxides of N2 generally occur mainly in the form of NO and N02 . These are
generally formed at high temperature. Hence high temperature and availability of
02 are the main reason for the formation of N0 and NO2 .Many other oxides like

Page 163
N2O4, N2O, N2O3 ,N2O5 are also formed in low concentration but they
decompose spontaneously at ambient conditions of NO2. The maximum NOx
levels are observed with A:F ratios of about 10% above stoichiometric. Oxides of
nitrogen and other obnoxious substances are produced in very small quantities and,
in certain environments, can cause pollution, while prolonged exposure is
dangerous to health.
5. What is meant by Particulate?
Solid particles are usually formed by dehydrogenation, polymerisation and
Agglomeration. In the combustion process of different hydrocarbons, acetylene
(C2H2) is formed as intermediate product. These acetylene molecules after
Simultaneouspolymerisation dehydration produce carbon particles, which are the
main constituent of the particulate
6. Define Smoke
visibility reduction. It also, causes other respiratory diseases.
Generally speaking, Susceptibility to the effects of exhaust emissions is
greatest amongst infants and the elderly. Those with chronic diseases of lungs or
heart are thought to be at great risk.
7.What are the types of smoke?
1.Blue smoke
2.White or cold smoke
3.Black or hot smoke
8. What are the Factors Affecting Smoke Formation?

1. Injection timing
2. Rate of Injection
3. Injection nozzle
4. Maintenance
5. Fuel
6. Load:

Page 164
7.Enginetypeandspeed:
8.Fuel air ratio
9.What are the methods to Control Of Diesel Engine Smoke?

1. Derating
2. Proper maintenance of the engine
3. Proper choice of combustion chamber design and operating conditions
4. Use of smoke suppression additives
10.What Are The Control Techniques For Reduction Of Emission?

Design changes
5. By decreasing NOx
6. By decreasingSOx
7. Hydrocarbon emission can be decreased by
8. CO can be decreased by
11. Define Fumigation Technique

This method consists of introducing a small amount of fuel into the intake
manifold. This starts pre combustion reactions before and during the compression
stroke resulting in reduced chemical delay, because the intermediate products such
as peroxides and aldehydes react more rapidly with oxygen than original
hydrocarbons. The shortening of delay period curbs thermal cracking which is
responsible for soot formation.
12.What is the effect of Unburned Hydro Carbons on Environment?

The major sources of UBHC in an automobile are the engine exhaust,
evaporative losses from fuel system, blow by loss and scavenging in case of 2-
stroke petrol engines. Unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons in gaseous form
combine with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical
smog.
12.What is the effect of Carbon monoxide on Human health?
Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine only when there
is insufficient supply of air. The main source is the engine exhaust.
The toxicity of carbon monoxide is well known. The hemoglobin the

Page 165
human blood which carries oxygen to various parts of the body has great affinity
towards carbon monoxide than for oxygen. When a human is exposed to an
atmosphere containing carbon monoxide, the oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood is reduced and results in the formation of carboxy hemoglobin.
13. Write short note on Emission standards.

The vehicle emission standards were implemented for the first time in 1965
when control of crankcase hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline passenger cars
was required as per the law. Use of positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system on
the gasoline passenger cars became necessary to prevent emission of hydrocarbon
rich crankcase blow by gases in to atmosphere
Q1. Discuss the formation of various pollution and its effects on human health
and environment (Answer: Ref. page no.135-138)
Q2.Explain about the Types of Smoke and its formation

Q3.Explain the Factors Affecting Smoke Formation

Q4.What Are the Methods to control of diesel engine smoke

(Answer: Ref. page no.141)
Q5. What are the control techniques for reduction of emission?

Q6.Explain the working principle of Exhaust Gas Recirculation system with

neat sketch(Answer: Ref. page no.143-145)
Q7.Explain the Fumigation technique(Answer: Ref. page no.146)
Q8.Explain the Crankcase emission control with neat sketch

Page 166
Q9.Explain the crankcase ventilation system and its types with neat sketch
Q10.Explain the three way Catalytic converter with neat sketch

Q11. Explain the Effect of Pollutants on Environment and Human Health.

Q12.Explain the working principle of FID used to measure Hydrocarbons

(Answer: Ref. page no158-159)
Q13. Explain the working principle of NDIR Analyzer used to measure CO

and CO2
Q14. Explain the working principle Chemiluminescence Analyzer used to

measure NOX(Answer: Ref. page no.160-161)
Q15.Explain about Emission standards for Light duty vehicle and Heavy duty
vehicle(Answer: Ref. page no.161-163)

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AT8401 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

1.1.1 Heat engine:

A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical

It is classified into two types-

(a) External combustion engine (b) Internal combustion engine

1.1.1.1 External combustion engine:

External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place

1.1.1.2Internal combustion engine:

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

In internal combustion engines combustion takes place within the engine.

1. According to the basic engine design

 Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),

 Four stroke and

 Spark ignition engine,

 Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine,

 Carbureted type (fuel supplied through the carburetor),

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Table:1 Comparison between external combustion engine and internal

External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

and silently due to outside combustion

1.1.2 Major components of reciprocating IC engines

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Fig: 1.1 Combustion Chamber

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer

It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the

11. Inlet Manifold

12. Exhaust Manifold

Table: 2 Materials used for engine parts:

Sl. Name of the Parts Materials of Construction

12. Timing gears Cast iron, Fiber, Steel forging.

1.1.3 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES

 Piston area (A):

The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.

 Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) :

 Bottom dead Center ( B.D.C.) :

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 Displacement volume or Swept Volume(Vs):

1.1.4 Four Stroke SI Engine

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Fig. 1.2 Cycle of events in a 4-stroke SI engine.

1.1.4.1 Suction or Intake Stroke:

Fig. 1.3 Suction or intake stroke.

 Piston moves from TDC to BDC

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

1.1.4.2 Compression Stroke:

Fig. 1.4. Compression stroke.

 Piston moves from BDC to TDC

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

1.1.4.3 Power Stroke:

Fig. 1.5. Power stroke.

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

1.1.4.4 Exhaust Stroke:

Fig. 1.6. Exhaust stroke

 Piston moves from DBC to TDC.

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

1.1.5 TWO-STROKE ENGINE