REPORT : GLASS

AND WINDOWS

GROUP 2
ALISHA KHAN 18ARB554 SUBMITTED TO:
SANA BI 18ARB573 KHAN AMADUR RAHMAN SIR
HARSH AGGARWAL 18ARB64 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS II
SAQIB KALEEM 18ARB553 B.ARCH. 3RD SEMESTER
 Content

1. Glass
2. History of Glass
3. Types of Architectural Glass
4. Comparison of different types of glass
5. Types of Security Glass
6. Constituent Based Glass
7. Properties of glass as a building material
8. Sustainability and the environment
9. Glass recycling
10. Treatment of glass
11. Cost effective glass alternatives
12. Glazing of glass
13. Windows
14. Design of windows
15. Parts of a window
16. Types of windows
17. Market survey
18. References
 GLASS
• GLASS IS A NON-CRYSTALLINE, AMORPHOUS SOLID
THAT IS OFTEN TRANSPARENT AND HAS WIDESPREAD
PRACTICAL, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND DECORATIVE
USES.
• GLASS CONNECTS AND IMPROVES THE QUALITY OF
SPACES.
• IT TRANSMITS SUFFICIENT LIGHT AND CONTRIBUTES
TO ENERGY SAVING.
• IT REFLECTS, BENDS, TRANSMITS AND ABSORBS
LIGHT.
• GLASS CAN BE EASILY SHAPED AND INSTALLED.
• IT IS ONE OF THE MOST VERSATILE PANE IN LUXURY HOUSES OF POMPEII
TO SOPHISTICATED AND OLDEST MATERIALS IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY.
FROM ITS HUMBLE BEGINNINGS AS A WINDOW STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
IN NEW AGE BUILDINGS, ITS ROLE IN ARCHITECTURE HAS EVOLVED OVER
THE YEARS.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

THE GLASS IS NOT A SINGLE COMPOUND. IT IS THEREFORE

VERY DIFFICULT TO GIVE ANY PARTICULAR CHEMICAL
FORMULA FOR IT. BUT WITH REASONABLE ACCURACY, IT
MAY GENERALLY BE EXPRESSED AS FOLLOWS:
AX2O.BYO.6SIO2
WHERE A AND B ARE NUMBERS OF MOLECULES,
X= AN ATOM OF AN ATOM OF AN ALKALI METAL SUCH AS
NA, K, ETC.
Y= AN ATOM OF A BIVALENT METAL SUCH AS CA, PB ETC.
WITH THIS EXPRESSION, THE CHEMICAL FORMULA FOR
THREE GROUPS OF GLASS, AS CLASSIFIED FURTHER, ARE AS
FOLLOWS:
SODA-LIME GLASS : NA2O.CAO.6SIO2
POTASH-LIME GLASS : K2O.CAO.6SIO2
POTASH-LEAD GLASS : K2O.PBO.6SIO2
 HISTORY OF GLASS
• THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF NATURALLY OCCURRING
GLASS; OBSIDIAN, WHICH CAN BE FOUND AROUND
VOLCANOES WHERE THE MOLTEN LAVA COOLS TOO
QUICKLY TO CRYSTALLIZE, AND FULGURITE, WHICH IS
FORMED WHEN LIGHTNING STRIKES SAND.

• PEOPLE HAD USED NATURALLY OCCURRING GLASS,

ESPECIALLY OBSIDIAN (THE VOLCANIC GLASS)
BEFORE THEY LEARNED HOW TO MAKE GLASS.
OBSIDIAN WAS USED FOR PRODUCTION OF KNIVES,
ARROWHEADS, JEWELRY AND MONEY.

• THE ANCIENT ROMAN HISTORIAN PLINY SUGGESTED

THAT PHOENICIAN MERCHANTS HAD MADE THE
FIRST GLASS IN THE REGION OF SYRIA AROUND
5000BC. BUT ACCORDING TO THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE, THE FIRST MAN MADE GLASS WAS IN
EASTERN MESOPOTAMIA AND EGYPT AROUND
3500BC AND THE FIRST GLASS VESSELS WERE MADE
ABOUT 1500BC IN EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA.

GLASS IN ARCHITECTURE
FROM THE BEGINNING OF 20TH CENTURY
MODERN ARCHITECTURE HAS BEEN
INSTRUMENTAL IN MASS PRODUCTION OF
CONCRETE, GLASS AND STEEL BUILDINGS IN
THE FACTORIES WE CALL CITIES. THIS
IDEOLOGY HELPED ACCOMMODATE
HOUSING NEEDS OF THE BURGEONING
MIDDLE CLASS. GLASS AND STEEL
CONSTRUCTION HAVE BECOME THE
SYMBOL OF DEVELOPMENT IN MANY
COUNTRIES, WHERE PEOPLE TEND TO SEE
THESE BUILDINGS AS SYMBOLS OF
AFFLUENCE AND LUXURY.
 TYPES OF ARCHITECTURAL GLASS
ANNEALED GLASS
• ANNEALED GLASS (FLOAT GLASS)
IS GLASS PRODUCED WITHOUT INTERNAL
STRESSES IMPARTED BY HEAT TREATMENT,
I.E., RAPID COOLING, OR
BY TOUGHENING OR HEAT STRENGTHENING.
• IT IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED GLASS.
• IT POSSESSES A GOOD SURFACE FLATNESS.
• THIS GLASS IS PRODUCED WITHOUT RAPID
COOLING.
• A GLASS BECOMES ANNEALED IF IT IS
HEATED ABOVE A TRANSITION POINT THEN
ALLOWED TO COOL SLOWLY.

MANUFACTURING
• THE CONSTITUENTS ARE HEATED TO 2700 DEG. F.
• THE MIXTURE IS FLOATED ON TOP OF MOLTEN TIN.
• THEN IT IS COOLED DOWN SLOWLY.
• FINALLY, IT IS CUT INTO SHEETS.

HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS

• HEAT STRENGTHENED GLASS IS COOLED DOWN WITH MUCH

LESS PRESSURE AND FASTER THAN ANNEALED GLASS.
• THIS TYPE OF GLASS HAS TWICE THE STRENGTH THAN
ANNEALED GLASS.
• IT IS RESISTANT TO WIND LOADS AND THERMAL STRESSES.
• HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS - WITH ITS FLATTER SURFACE -
ALSO RESULTS IN THE FACADE HAVING LESS OPTICAL
DISTORTIONS.
• WHILE ORDINARY ANNEALED GLASS CAN WITHSTAND UP TO
40°C, HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS CAN WITHSTAND A
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE OF UP TO 1500DEGC.
 MANUFACTURING
• ANNEALED GLASS IS LATER ON HEAT STRENGTHENED.
• UPTO 1100-1500 DEG. F.
• THEN IT IS COOLED RAPIDLY.
• THE COOLING PROCESS IS SLOW.

FULLY TEMPERED (TOUGHENED GLASS)

• TEMPERED OR TOUGHENED GLASS IS A TYPE OF SAFETY

GLASS PROCESSED BY CONTROLLED THERMAL OR CHEMICAL
TREATMENTS TO INCREASE ITS STRENGTH COMPARED WITH
NORMAL GLASS.
• IT HAS FOUR TIMES THE STRENGTH OF ANNEALED GLASS.
• IT POSSESSES SUPERIOR RESISTANCE TO GLASS BREAKAGE.
• USE: IN WINDOWS SUBJECTED TO HIGH WIND PRESSURE AND
EXTREME COLD OR HEAT.
• IT IS SUITABLE FOR SAFETY PURPOSES.

MANUFACTURING
• THE COOLING PROCESS IS ACCELERATED.
• IT CREATES HIGHER SURFACE TENSIONS AND
COMPRESSIONS.
• THIS MAKES IT FOUR TIMES STRONGER THAN HEAT-
STRENGTHENED GLASS.

LAMINATED GLASS
• IN THIS TYPE OF GLASS, A LAYER OF POLYMER POLYVINYL
BUTYRAL (PVB) OR ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE (EVA) IS SANDWICHED
BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF FLAT GLASS.
• IT IS DURABLE AND VERSATILE.
• IT PROVIDES PROTECTION FROM UV-RAYS AND VIBRATIONS.
• IT PROVIDES GOOD ACOUSTICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
• USE : SAFETY AND OVERHEAD GLAZING.
• IF LAMINATED GLASS IS BROKEN, THE VINYL INTERLAYER REMAINS
IN THE FRAME, WITH GLASS FRAGMENTS ADHERING TO THE
INTERLAYER. THIS PROVIDES A STRONG BARRIER AGAINST FORCED
ENTRY AND CANNOT BE CUT FROM ONE SIDE ONLY, WHICH
RENDERS GLASSCUTTERS USELESS.
 MANUFACTURING

• USING TWO OR MORE PIECES OF GLASS BONDED

BETWEEN ONE OR MORE PIECES OF ADHESIVES;
SUCH AS PVB OR EVA, USING HEAT AND
PRESSURE.

TINTED GLASS
• TINTED GLASS REFERS TO ANY GLASS THAT HAS BEEN
TREATED WITH A MATERIAL SUCH AS A FILM, DYE OR
COATING, WHICH REDUCES THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
THROUGH IT. GLASS CAN BE TINTED WITH VARIOUS TYPES
OF DYES OR COATING, WHICH BLOCK AND/OR REFLECT
DIFFERENT AMOUNTS AND TYPES OF LIGHT, ACCORDING
TO THE NEEDS AND PREFERENCES OF THE CONSUMER.
• GLASS IS AVAILABLE IN A NUMBER OF TINTS WHICH
ABSORB A PORTION OF THE SOLAR HEAT AND BLOCK
DAYLIGHT. TINTING CHANGES THE COLOR OF THE WINDOW
AND CAN INCREASE VISUAL PRIVACY.
• THE PRIMARY USES FOR TINTED GLASS ARE REDUCING
GLARE FROM THE BRIGHT OUTDOORS AND REDUCING THE
AMOUNT OF SOLAR ENERGY TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE
GLASS.
• AVAILABLE IN GREY , BRONZE, GREEN , BLUE AND
BLUE/GREEN COLOUR.

MANUFACTURING
• IT IS MANUFACTURED BY ADDING A DYE AT
THE MOLTEN GLASS STAGE.

WIRED GLASS
• WIRED GLASS IS A TYPE OF GLASS INTO WHICH A WIRE MESH IS EMBEDDED
DURING PRODUCTION.
• WIRED GLASS HAS AN IMPACT RESISTANCE SIMILAR TO THAT OF
NORMAL GLASS, BUT IN CASE OF BREAKAGE, THE MESH RETAINS THE s
PIECES OF GLASS.
• WIRE MESH INLAID IN THE GLASS PREVENTS IT FROM BREAKAGE UNDER
STRESS.
• USED IN ROOFS, SKYLIGHTS, FIRE RESISTING DOORS AND WINDOWS.
 MANUFACTURING
• A STEEL WIRE MESH IS SANDWICHED BETWEEN TWO
SEPARATE RIBBONS OF SEMI-MOLTEN GLASS, AND
THEN PASSED THROUGH A PAIR OF METAL ROLLERS
WHICH SQUEEZE THE "SANDWICH OF GLASS AND
WIRE" TOGETHER.
• WIRED GLASS MAY BE FURTHER PROCESSED BY
GRINDING AND POLISHING BOTH SURFACES,
PRODUCING "POLISHED WIRED GLASS”.

FROSTED GLASS
• IT MAINTAINS PRIVACY WHILE STILL ALLOWING
LIGHT TO PASS THROUGH.
• IT IS ALSO CALLED AS AN ETCHED GLASS.
• IT IS A PROCESSED GLASS PRODUCED BY
RENDERING ONE SURFACE OF FLOAT GLASS
TRANSLUCENT. IT SCATTERS THE LIGHT PASSING
THROUGH IT AND THUS BLURRING THE VISION
FROM IT.

MANUFACTURING
• PRODUCED BY THE SANDBLASTING OR ACID
ETCHING OF CLEAR SHEET GLASS
• THIS CREATES A PITTED SURFACE ON ONE
SIDE OF THE GLASS PANE AND HAS THE EFFECT
OF RENDERING THE GLASS TRANSLUCENT
BY SCATTERING THE LIGHT WHICH PASSES
THROUGH, THUS BLURRING IMAGES WHILE
STILL TRANSMITTING LIGHT.

REFLECTIVE GLASS
• BESIDES THE BASIC FUNCTIONALITY OF SUN CONTROL, IT CONTRIBUTES
TO ARCHITECTURAL AESTHETICS AND EVEN ENERGY CONSERVATION.
• REFLECTIVE GLASS HELPS A BUILDING ACHIEVE A HIGH STANDARD OF
VISUAL APPEAL BESIDES REFLECTING A GREATER AMOUNT OF HEAT
THAN NORMAL TINTED FLOAT GLASS, MAKING IT LESS PRONE TO
THERMAL BREAKAGE.
 • REFLECTIVE GLASS IS ESSENTIALLY ORDINARY FLOAT GLASS
WITH A METALLIC COATING THAT CUTS OFF SOLAR HEAT.
THIS SPECIAL METALLIC COATING ALSO PROVIDES A ONE-
WAY MIRROR EFFECT, PREVENTING VISIBILITY FROM THE
OUTSIDE AND THUS PRESERVING PRIVACY.
• REFLECTIVE GLASS IS USED PRIMARILY FOR STRUCTURAL
FAÇADE GLAZING.
• DISADVANTAGES : CAUSES LIGHT POLLUTION AND IS
HAZARDOUS TO TRAFFIC

MANUFACTURING
• COATING OF A METAL COMPOUND BY
CHEMICAL DEPOSITION

• APPLIED ON ANY TYPE OF GLASS AND

THICKNESS UP TO HALF AN INCH.

SMART GLASS
• SMART GLASS OR SWITCHABLE GLASS (ALSO SMART
WINDOWS OR SWITCHABLE WINDOWS IN THOSE
APPLICATIONS) IS A GLASS OR GLAZING WHOSE LIGHT
TRANSMISSION PROPERTIES ARE ALTERED WHEN
VOLTAGE, LIGHT, OR HEAT IS APPLIED. IN GENERAL,
THE GLASS CHANGES
FROM TRANSPARENT TO TRANSLUCENT AND VICE
VERSA, CHANGING FROM LETTING LIGHT PASS
THROUGH TO BLOCKING SOME (OR ALL)
WAVELENGTHS OF LIGHT AND VICE VERSA.
• SMART GLASS TECHNOLOGIES
INCLUDE ELECTROCHROMIC, PHOTOCHROMIC, THERM
OCHROMIC, SUSPENDED-PARTICLE, MICRO-BLIND,
AND POLYMER-DISPERSED LIQUID-CRYSTAL DEVICES.
WHEN INSTALLED IN THE ENVELOPE OF BUILDINGS,
SMART GLASS CREATES CLIMATE ADAPTIVE BUILDING
SHELLS.
 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF GLASS

BASED ON BASED ON DECORATIVE BASED ON

STRENGTH PURPOSES BREAKAGE

• ANNEALED • FROSTED GLASS IS • LAMINATED GLASS

GLASS(COMMONLY USED ONLY TO USES A POLYMERIC
USED) EVENLY DISTRIBUTE LAYER WHICH
THE LIGHT PREVENTS
• HEAT BREAKAGE OF
STRENGTHENED: 2 • AVAILABILITY OF GLASS.
TIMES STRONGER COLOUR CHOICES IS
THAN ANNEALED MORE IN TINTED • WIRED GLASS HAS
GLASS GLASS MORE STRENGTH
AS COMPARED TO
• TOUGHENED • BUT MOSTLY LAMINATED GLASS
GLASS: REFLECTIVE GLASS IS EXCEPT THAT IT
4 TIMES STRONGER USED IN BUILDING REDUCES ITS
THAN ANNEALED FACADES. AESTHETIC
GLASS APPEARANCE.
 TYPES OF SECURITY
GLASS

RESISTANT TO BULLET EXPLOSION-

MANUAL RESISTANT PRESSURE
ATTACKS GLASS RESISTANT

• DOUBLED GLAZING • DESIGNED TO CAPTURE • MINIMIZES

WINDOW. EXCEEDINGLY HIGH DAMAGE AND
• RANGE : 6.5MM TO VELOCITY PROJECTILES INJURY CAUSED
25MM. WITHOUT ALLOWING DUE TO
• SUPPLIED WITH PENETRATION ACCIDENTAL AND
INTEGRATED ALARM THROUGH THE CRIMINAL
SYSTEM. ARMOURED PANEL. EXPLOSIONS.
 CONSTITUTENT BASED GLASS

1. SODA LIME GLASS

 It is composed of 70% silica, 15% soda and 9% lime with much smaller
amount of various other compounds. The soda serves as flux to the lower
the temperature at which the silica melts and lime acts as a stabiliser for
the silica.
 It is classified into two types : float glass and container glass , they differ in
application, production method and chemical compound.
 soda lime glass is relatively inexpensive, available in clean and clear state,
chemically stable, reasonably hard and extremely workable because it can
be resoftened and remelted numerous times, it is ideal for glass recycling.
 Used in the manufacture of glass tubes and laboratory apparatus , plate
glass window glass .

MANUFACTURING

• Soda lime glass is prepared by melting of raw materials in

the glass furnace at temperature up to 1675 °c
• Moulding or shaping of glass :-
• Raw material are loaded in the lower side of moulding
tool.
• Oxygen removed by filling nitrogen.
• The tool system is nearly closed and the entire system of
mould, die and glass is heated up.
• After reaching the working temperature, which is
between the transition temperature and the softening
point of glass.
• The moulds close further and start preserving the glass in
travel-controlled process.
2. POTASH LIME GLASS

 It is also known as hard glass and composed of (

60-70 )% silica, ( 12-18 )% potash and ( 5-12 )%
lime.
 It has high melting point and hence can
withstand high thermal stress.
 It is a good resistance towards acids and alkalis.
 It is used for laboratory apparatus, window
glass, electric bulbs and glass wares.

MANUFACTURNG

 Melting of raw materials in the furnace :-

It is slightly denser than soda lime glass hence its solidifying process is faster as
compared to soda lime and it passes from the molten to the rigid state more quickly
and it is therefore more difficult to manipulate into elaborate forms.

3. POTASH LEAD GLASS

 In modern it is known as lead crystal while historically

also known as flint glass due to the original silica source.
 It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, lead
and potash with 18-40% lead content.
 The technique of adding lead oxide improves the
appearance of glass, made it more transparent, shiny and
easier to melt using sea coal as a furnace fuel.
 it is used for high quality glass ware , bulbs, lenses and
prisms..
 MANUFACTURING

 Melting of raw materials in a furnace:- the crystal is mixed and

made into molten crystal in a furnace heated to 1200 deg c.
 Its Shaping/ moulding into required forms for example wedge
cuts are made with the same equipment but are not as angled,
and a sandstone wheel is used to dress the rough cuts. Then
finally the finished vessel is polished by dipping it into a mixture
of sulphuric and hydrofluoric acid.

4. BOROSILICATE GLASS

 Borosilicate glasses are also known as pyrex glass and composed of (70-80)% silica, (7-13)%
boric oxide with smaller amounts of alkalis ( sodium and potassium oxide ) and aluminium
oxide.
 It is a good resistant to thermal and electric shock due to the low coefficient of thermal
expansion (Less thermal stress- reagent bottles) .
 It is used for making glass cookware, microwave and ovens, semiconductors, flashlights,
telescopes.

MANUFACTURING

 It melts at a higher temperature than ordinary silicate

glass.
 The manufacturing process depends upon product
geometry and can be differentiated between methods
like floating and moulding are used.
5. COMMON GLASS

 Also known as bottle glass.

 Prepared from cheap raw materials like sodium silicate,
iron silicate and calcium silicate.
 Available in different colours like green, yellow and
brown.
 Easily attacked by acids.
 Is mainly used to manufacture household bottles,
medicine bottles, glassware used for drinking,
packaging of drugs.

MANUFACTURING

 Raw materials are mixed to make a batch

 Then melted in a furnace at 1500°c
 Then it is moulded or shaped according to the
specific requirements.

HARDNESS AND BRITTLENESS

 It is a hard material as it has greater impact resistance

against applied load but at the same time it breaks
immediately when subjected to loads.
TRANSPARENCY
The transparency is one such property of glass which
creates a visual connect with outside world. With
the advent technology, clear glass can also be
altered and making it opaque.

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE

It can withstand the effect of the chemical reaction

under different environment conditions or acidic
effects. It has excellent resistance to most chemicals
including solutions of inorganic alkalis and acids, such
as ammonia and sulphuric acid .

COLOUR AND SHAPE VARIETY

 It can be blown, drawn and pressed to any colour,

shape, and variety and is available in the market
depending upon their use, dimensional
requirements, and safety requirement.

WEATHER RESISTANCE
 It is weather resistant as it can withstand the backlash
of rain, sun and wind.
 It can absorb, reflect and refract light as it enables us
to control and manipulate natural light to influence
our daily activities and regulate our mental and
physical health.
 SUSTAINABILITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

GLASS IS SUSTAINABLE , FULLY RECYCLABLE MATERIAL –

PROVIDES BENEFITS SUCH AS CONTRIBUTING TO –

MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

 In many of its applications glass can help to save
energy. It is most obvious in the case for insulating
glass for windows and facades. But also for less
known products such as weight- lightening
reinforcement glass fiber used in automotive,
aviation and other transport modes to reduce the
weight of vehicle and their fuel consumption.

 Also used to generate renewable energy through

solar-thermal and photovoltaic applications and
wind turbine.

SAVES NATURAL RESOURCES

• Glass is fully recyclable material that can be recycled

in close loop over and over again.
• This is particularly true for glass bottles which have
an average recycling rate varying from 50% to 80%.
• Significant amounts of raw materials are saved and
natural resources are preserved due to recycling.
• And also helps in saving energy as cullet melts at a
lower temp than row materials.
SAFEGUARD PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL BEING

• As an inert material it preserves taste and vitamins.

• Medical sector –
• Pharmaceutical industry: to preserve properties of medicine.
• Optical glass : to improve vision.
• Construction sector –
• large glazed areas for their energy-saving properties.
• Provide natural light into buildings.

GLASS RECYCLING

COLLECTION
 Rag pickers
 Waste collectors
 Waste dealers
 Recycling enterprises
SORTING
 Prepared by the addition of different
chemicals.

CULLET PRODUCTION
 Sorted pieces turned into cullet by means of
 Crushing and grinding.

DE-CONTAMINATION PROCESS

 Metallic contaminates are passed through a magnet.

 Paper and plastic contaminates are picked manually or
through automated process.
 Ceramic contaminates are removed by sieving.

DE-COLORIZATION AND DYEING

• To produce the desired colour,
decolourization is done
Followed by dyeing.
• Process involves oxidizing the melted glass
cullet.

COMMON COLORING AGENTS FOR DYEING

• BORAX • COBOLT CARBONATE
• POTASSIUM • NEODYMIUM OXIDE
PERMANGANATE • TITANIUM DIOXIDE
• ZINC OXIDE
• ERBUIM OXIDE

MAKING RECYCLED GLASS PRODUCTS

Melting of glass cullet and moulded into
Desired
Glass products.
MULTIPLE USES OF RECYCLED GLASS IN
CONSTRUCTON
1. IN AGGREGATE
2. BACKFILL FOR TRENCHES
AND PIPES
3. BACKFILL FOR FOUNDATIONS

4. ROAD SURFACES
5. MIXING CONCRETE
6. THE PRODUCTION OF
INSULATION MATERIALS

• GLASS AGGREGATE CAN EVEN BE USED TO PRODUCE

CONCRETE THAT LITERALLY GLOWS.
• GLASS AGGREGATE IS TYPICALLY GRADED BY COLOR
AND SIZE.
• POLISHING, GRINDING OR OTHER EXPOSED
AGGREGATE TECHNIQUES ARE EMPLOYED
TO REVEAL THE GLASS.
• MIXING LIGHT AND DARK COLORS OF GLASS
WILL GIVE YOU A TERRAZZO EFFECT.
• GLASS MANUFACTURERS MELT DOWN BOTTLES AND
WINDOW GLASS TO PRODUCE GLASS AGGREGATE FOR
TERRAZZO FLOOR CONTRACTORS, LANDSCAPERS AND
DECORATIVE CONCRETE ARTISANS.
• WHEN MAXIMUM SPARKLE IS DESIRED, HERITAGE
GLASS HAS A SILVER-COATED GLASS AGGREGATE
THAT REFLECTS LIGHT LIKE A JEWEL.
 TREATMENT OF GLASS
01 BENDING:
Glass bending is one kind of process in which, rods,
sheets or tubes of glasses are bent into the desired
shape by placing them in temperature controlled
special ovens. They are heated to suitable
temperature then they are taken out and bent into
the desired shape.

02 CUTTING AND GRINDING

The glass is cut in required size and shape with the
help of either a diamond cutter or rough glass or
small wheels of hardened steel. Glass Cutting is
done mechanically or manually. The glass cutting is
also done by laser based technology. There are
many other technologies like water jet and
diamond dicing, etc

03 OPAQUE MAKING

Normally, glass is transparent. Glass can be made opaque or impervious to light by grinding the
glass surface or by application of chemicals like hydrofluoric . is also known as glass etching.

04 SILVERING
Glass silvering consists of applying a very thin coat of tin on the
surface of the glass. The silver is deposited on this layer of tin.
The silvered surface is protected against the atmospheric
effects by applying a suitable paint over it.
Fire polishing is also a way to glass treatment. It is called as
hydro pox flame treatment. To achieve a speed and quality,
there are two more technology premixed and post mixed based
on oxygen and hydrogen.
 POLYCARBONATE:
Polycarbonate is currently experiencing a resurgence in
popularity in the building industry. Polycarbonate
is virtually indestructible; not even bricks can break it.
It’s an excellent choice for high traffic and high wind
areas. Also, testing is complete for Florida Impact ratings
. There are several different colors available including:
clear, blue, green, opal, and bronze. It also comes in a
variety of thicknesses. 8mm is comparable to single pane
glass, 25mm is comparable to insulated glass, and 60mm
is comparable to triple pane glass
 200X STRONGER THAN GLASS (TRANSLUCENT)
 LONGER SHEET SIZES AVAILABLE(24 FT-36FT)
 AVAILABLE IN WIDE RANGE OF COLOURS
 TYPICAL PRICES ARE:RS.64-RS.256,DEPENDING
UPON THICKNESS AND COATING
 VISIBLE LIGHT TRANSMISSION
 REDUCES SOLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENT
 100% RECYCLABLE
 BLOCKS UV LIGHT
 EXCELLENT ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES

ACRYLIC OR PLEXIGLASS:
Acrylic sheets are an excellent alternative to glass. Acrylic sheet steals
the show with its performance as it beats glass in the following
characteristics:
Impact resistance.
Weathering.
Strength.
Resistance to mould growth.
Acrylic sheets are often chosen as a replacement material to mineral
glass. Both of them are transparent materials, but they differ in
properties and characteristics. Both of these materials serve same
purpose. We have listed down a few reasons how can acrylic sheets be
used as an alternative to glass.
 LIGHTWEIGHT AND CHEAPER.
 UV RESISTANCE.
 ENVIRONMRNT FRIENDLY.
 17X THE IMPACT STRENGTH OF TRADITIONAL
GLASS.
 SAFER:DOES NOT BREAK INTO THOUSAND
PIECES OF SHARDS.
 MADE OF FLEXIBLE POLYMERS:MAKING IT
EASY TO MOVE,CUT AND INSTALL.
 BETTER LIGHT TRANSMISSION: MORE
TRANSPARENT THAN GLASS.
 EASILY FABRICATED AND SHAPED.

FIBREGLASS (GFRP):
• LIGHTWEIGHT,STRONG AND LESS BRITTLE
• CAN BE MOLDED INTO VARIOUS COMPLEX SHAPES
• HIGH MECHANICAL STRENGTH
• CAN BE MADE SCRATCH AND STAIN RESISTANT
• INSTALLED WITH GLUE OR FASTENERS
• SUPERIOR FLEXIBILITY
• SIZES: 4FT WIDE,(8-12)FT LONG AND 0.09 IN. THICK
PANELS
• USED IN WALLS AND CEILINGS

Why GFRP?
High Strength GFRP has a very high strength to weight ratio
Light weight Low weights of 2 to 4 lbs. per square foot means
faster installation, less structural framing, and lower shipping
costs Resistance Resists salt water, chemicals, and the
environment - unaffected by acid rain, salts, and most
Construction Domes and cupolas are resined together to
form a one-piece, watertight structure Able to Mold Complex
Shapes Virtually any shape or form can be molded Low
Maintenance Research shows no loss of laminate properties
after 30 years Durability Stromberg GFRP stood up to
category 5 hurricane Floyd with no damage, while nearby
structures were destroyed
 GLAZING OF GLASS
Glazing is mounted in the window with the assistance of glazing putty and a
frame that supports the glass and holds it in place. The act of replacing glass is
known as “reglazing".

 SINGLE GLAZING
 DOUBLE GLAZING
 TRIPLE GLAZING

Single glass
A single pane of glass provides very poor insulation
because glass is a good conductor of heat. Much of
the heat in your room literally goes out the window.

Double glazing
Install double glazing and you have a layer of
air trapped between two panes of glass.
Because air is a poor conductor of heat, much
less heat is lost through the window.

Double glazing – Low E costing

If the inside of one pane has Low E coating,
even less heat is lost, because the coating
reflects heat back into the room
How double and triple glazing works
A single pane of glass offers very poor insulation, leading to a
lot of heat lost through the glass in winter. Double – or triple –
glazing traps air between two (or three) panes of glass, which
by comparison to single glazing has twice the heat loss of
double glazing.
Heat loss can be further reduced by coating one or more panes
with transparent Low Emissivity (Low E) coating, which reflects
the heat back into the room.
Thermally efficient window frames also help prevent heat loss
and are ideally teamed with double or triple glazing. Other
special glass treatments can be used in double or triple glazing
for safety, security or fire resistance, or to match your decor.
WINDOWS
An aperture in the wall of a building
for a purpose of providing light ,
vision and ventilation , usually having
a fixed frame and one or more sashes
that may move in a variety of ways.

Some thumb rules have been

framed to determine the area
requirements for windows in
room.

Total area of
window
opening
Normally 10 -20 % of the floor
area of the room

Hot & arid regions 10-15 % of the floor

area

in hot and humid regions 15-20 % of the floor area

In public buildings Be 20% of the floor area

(schools, hospitals)

Adequate natural light Glass panes area at least

8 % of the floor area
 Considerations for windows
to be provided in a room depends
upon
•Size of the room to be lit.
Buildings in humid region need
special attention for adequate
ventilation in the room . The
area of the window opening here
should be max .

•Location of the room and its utility.
•Architectural treatment is to be given
to the building
•Climatic consideration of the site such
as humidity,
temperature variation, wind direction
and speed .
Design of the windows
The size & no. of windows should be
sufficient to provide adequate light and
ventilation in the room.
The shutter of the windows in the
external walls should open outside
.this checks entry of rain water inside
the room. Windows in external wall
should be provided with chajja
projection to prevent the entry of
the rainwater in the room
All external windows ,esp. the one
on ground floor should be provided
with mild steel round or square bars
or steel grills to safeguard against
theft.

Windows should be located opposite to

each other. Windows provided on northern
side permit maximum day light without
glare .

The window sill should be placed at 75-

100 cm above the floor level. In case of bath
and W.C and the other situation where
privacy is desired, window sill should be
kept at 175 cm above the floor level.
These are some important parts of window:

•Frame •Shutter
•Head •Mullion
•Horn •Transom
•Sill •louver
•Sash •Jamb / hold fast
•Rails • Jamb anchor
•Frieze rail •Reveal
•Stile/style •Rebate
•Apron •Panel
•Muntin •Architrave
•Pane •Drip molding

Frame and shutter

Frame :- The main

structure that is permanently
fixed to the wall of the
building, carrying the window
sashes,
and all other subsidiary parts
.

Shutter :-the
entire assembly
of styles, panels &
rails .
Head, horn, sill & apron
Head :-the top or uppermost horizontal part of a
frame .

Horn:- a horizontal projection of head or sill

beyond the face of frame .

Sill:-the lower horizontal structural

member of a window or door
frame.

Apron:-a flat board ,placed as

part of the finish ,immediately
underneath a window sill .

Sash, pane, panel

Sash :- the part of a window that ,by turning on hinges

,swinging ,or sliding, serves to open and close the opening.

Pane :- each of the glazed segments into which a window

sash is divided.

Panel :- the area of shutter enclose between the adjacent

rails.
 Rails
{ Top, bottom, cross, frieze and lock rails }

•Top rail :- the topmost horizontal

member of the shutter.

•Frieze rail :- the rail which is fixed

between the top rail and lock rail

Bottom rail :- the lowermost

horizontal member of the shutter.

Cross or intermediate rail :-the additional horizontal rails fixed between top and
bottom rails of a shutter.

** Lock rail :-the middle horizontal member of the shutter where the lock
arrangement is provided.

Holdfast or jamb anchor

This is generally in the form of a mild steel flat bar of section

30 mm X 6mm & of length 200 mm.

A metal anchoring device fixed to the back of a window to assure its
attachment to the wall.
Jamb and louvers
Jamb :- the vertical wall face of an opening which supports the frame
of window.

Louver :- a piece of timber or metal which is fixed in an inclined position

within a frame .

Mullion, Muntin & Transom

Mullion:- the vertical element that forms a Muntin :-the usually slender, vertical or
division between units of a window. its primary horizontal ,secondary members of a
purpose is a rigid support to the glazing of the glazed window that hold the panes of glass .
window Also called division bar.

Transom :-A horizontal member which is employed to sub-divide a window

opening horizontally

Reveal & rebate

Rebate :-the depression or recess made
inside the window frame to receive the
window shutter.
Reveal :- the external jamb of
window opening at right angles to
the wall face
Architrave and drip molding

Drip molding :- a groove on the under side of the bottom rail of the window, to shed drops
of water outside of the frame.

Architrave:- a strip of wood ,usually molded or splayed,

which is fixed around the sides and head of opening.
 Classification of Windows
Depending upon type of materials used, nature of operational movements
of the shutters, location and the manner in which they are fixed, windows
can be broadly classified as under:

1. Fixed windows 9. Clerestory windows

2. Pivoted windows 10. Corner windows
3. Double hung windows 11. Gable windows
4. Sliding windows 12. Dormer windows
5. Casement windows 13. Metal windows
6. Sash or glazed windows 14. Sky lights windows
7. Louvered or venetianed windows 15. Fan light windows
8. Bay windows 16. Ventilators

1. Fixed windows:
• In this type of window, the glass panel is permanently fixed in
the frame.
• This type of window is used in situations where light or vision
alone is needed as no ventilation is possible through fixed
windows.

2. Pivoted windows:
• In this type of window, the shutter is capable of rotating
about a pivot fixed to window frame. The window frame has no
rebate.
• The shutter can rotate horizontally or vertically depending
upon the position of pivot.

3. Double hung windows:

This type of window consists of a pair of shutters arranged

one above the other which can slide vertically within the
groovesprovided in the frame.
4. Sliding windows:
These windows are similar to sliding doors and the shutter move on the
rollers, either horizontally or vertically.

5. Casement windows:
• These are the windows the shutter of which open like doors.
• This type of window has frame and shutter composed of style, top
rails, bottom rails, vertical and horizontal sash bars with glass panels.
• Depending upon the design, it includes vertical and horizontal
members known as mullion and transom respectively.

6. Sash or glazed windows:

• These are fully glazed casement windows. the sash are rebated to
receive glass panels.
• The width and depth of rebates are about 15mm and 5mm
respectively.

7. Louvered or venetianed windows:

• In this type of windows, the louvers are provided.
• The shutter consists of top rail, bottom rail and two styles which are
grooved to receive the louvers.
• The economical angle of inclination of the louvers is 45*.

8. Bay windows:

• These windows are projecting outward from

the walls of a room.
• Projection of a Bay windows may start from
floor level or sill level.
• They may be circular, square, rectangular,
polygon or any shape.
9. Clerestory windows:
• These windows are provided near the top of main roof. The pivoted windows are used for this
purpose.
• This type of window is used to achieve better ventilation and cooling effect in the living or main
rooms of a building.

10. Corner windows:

• As the name suggest this type of window is

essentially located in the corner of a room.
• By the use of this window it is possible to ensure
light and ventilation from two directions at right angles.

11. Gable windows:

The window provided in the gable end of a pitched
roof if known as Gable
window.

12. Dormer windows:

• It is a vertical window built in the sloping side of a pitched roof.
• It is a form of roof window.
• Dormer are commonly used to achieve proper ventilation and lighting of the
enclosed space below the roof.
 13.Metal window:

• These windows are widely used especially for public

buildings.
• Windows are made of metals like mild steel, galvanized mild
steel, Al, Bronze, stainless steel etc.
• In this, the metal frame may be fixed direct to the wall or it
may be fixed on a wooden frame.
• The lungs and plugs are provided to keep the frame in
position whereas screws are used to fix the metal frame with
the wooden frame.

Advantages of the steel window over

the wooden window:

• The steel windows are easy to maintain and their

cost of maintenance
is almost negligible.
• The steel windows are more durable and stronger as
compared to the
wooden windows.
• The steel windows are highly fire-proof and termite-
proof.
• The members of steel windows are narrow.
• The steel windows grant better facilities for
providing different types
of openable parts.

14- Aluminum windows:

The aluminium is a non-ferrous metal and Al windows are used in relatively in

posh buildings in big cities. These may be casement type or horizontal slide
type.
Following precautions should be taken when the Al windows are used:
• IT is to be seen that, Al members do not come in contact with the cement
plaster, especially the freshly prepared cement plaster.
• The frame should be given a coat of mastic on the outside before they are
fixed in the masonry opening.
The Disadvantages of Al windows:
• They are costly.
• They are not very strong.
• The cannot be used for industrial buildings.
14. Sky light windows:

• This is a type of fixed window provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof, the window
being parallel to the sloping surface.
• It use to allow direct or indirect sunlight, provides a visual connection to the outdoor
environment.

15. Fan light windows:

• A fan light is a window often semi circular, semi

elliptical, rectangular.
• It is placed over another window or a door-way.
• It allows additional light to enter the home when
placed above an exterior window.

16. Ventilators:

A ventilator may be defined as a narrow

window of small height provided near the
roof of a room for providing ventilation in
the rooms.
MARKET SURVEY OF GLASSES
FIGURED GLASS a)Pin/Bajri (approx.38/sqft;
3.5mm also available in 4.5mm)

b)Sparkle(approx.60/sqft; 5mm
also available in 3.5mm)

c)Karigma(approx.40/sqft; 3.5mm
also available in 4.5mm )

TINTED GLASS a)Brown copper

tinted(approx.58/sqft; 5mm)

b)Grey/Black
tinted(approx.55/sqft; 5mm)

c)Brown tinted(approx.130 to
140/sqft; 10mm)

REFLECTOR GLASS a)Blue(approx.65 to 75/sqft; 5mm)

b)Sunshield Royal Gold(approx.100/sqft; 5mm )

c) Sphayer Blue(approx.75 to 85/sqft; 5mm)

FROSTED GLASS approx.75/sqft

LOOKING GLASS approx.75 to 89/sqft; 5mm

PLANE MIRROR Approx.50/sqft; 5mm

 References

• http://www.understandconstruction.com/glass.html
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/history-uses-of-glass-in-
architecture.html
• Building construction – R.C. Rangwala
• Building Construction – Sushil Kumar
• https://www.thenbs.com/knowledge/windows-glass-glazing-a-brief-
history
• https://en.wikipedia.org/