Ieee PC57.127 (2006)

IEEE PC57.127/D8.
0, June 26, 2006
Draft Guide for the Detection and Location of

Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in
Oil-Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society
Copyright © 2006 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Three Park Avenue
New York, New York 10016-5997, USA
All rights reserved.
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Abstract: This guide is applicable to the detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial
discharges and other sources in oil immersed power transformers and reactors. It is intended to provide a
means of associating the relative magnitude and position of partial discharges and other sources with the
acoustic signals obtained by strategically located transducers.
Keywords: acoustic emission (AE), attenuation, burst, gas-in-oil analysis, low-amplitude discharges,
partial discharge (PD), power transformers, reactors.
Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved.

This is an unapproved IEEE Standards Draft, subject to change. 1
IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE xxxxxx, Guide for the Detection and Location of Acoustic Emissions from
Partial Discharges in Oil - Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors. The Guide is an expansion of PC57.127
Trial Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in Oil-Immersed Power
Transformers. It has been expanded to include more theory and signal interpretation information, newer techniques
for detection and the concepts for location. Active workers in the field are constantly trying to improve their
methods. More effective methods may appear in the future.
Participants
At the time this guide was completed, the Working Group on Acoustic Partial Discharge Tests in Transformers had
the following membership:
John W. Harley, Chair
Donald Ayers Robert Ganser Tamyres Luiz Machado

Ron Barker Andreas Garnitschnig Jim McIver
Barry Beaster Richard Graham Martin Navarro
Jeff Benach William Griesacker Van Nhi Nguyen
Tord Bengtsson Sergio Guerrero Arturo Nunez
Paul Boman Ernst Hanique Mark Perkins
John Bosiger Tom Harbaugh Paul Pillitteri
Pierre Boss Peter Heinzig Bertrand Poulin
Carl Bush Keith Highton Gustav Preininger
Alvaro Cancino Thang Hochanh George Reitter
William Carter John Holland John Runski
Yunxiang Chen Anthony Jonatti Dirk Russwurm
Bill Chiu Steve Jordan Ewald Schweiger
Roy Colquitt Samer Khaled Hemchandra Shertukde
Jerry Corkran Vladimir Khalin James Smith
Ed Cromer Emil Kowal Brian Sparling
John Crouse John Lackey Ed Tenyenhuis
Alan Darwin Robert Langan Subhash Tuli
Ron Daubert Mike Lau Albert Walls
Fred Elliott Eberhard Lemke Barry Ward
Don Fallon Raymond Lortie Eduardo Garcia Wild
Norman Field Richard Lowe
Michael Franchek Andre Lux
Jim Fyvie
Others who were active in the writing of this guide are:
Michel Duval D avid Goodwin Stanley Lindgren

George Forrest Lars-Erik Juhlin Karen Weissman
The following persons were on the balloting committee:
(To be supplied by IEEE Standards Project Editor at time of publication)
Patents
Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 2

This is an unapproved IEEE Standard subject to change
IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may require use of subject matter covered
by patent rights. By publication of this standard, no position is taken with respect to the existence or validity of any
patent rights in connection therewith. The IEEE shall not be responsible for identifying patents or patent applications
for which a license may be required to implement an IEEE standard or for conducting inquiries into the legal validity
or scope of those patents that are brought to its attention. A patent holder or patent applicant has filed a statement of
assurance that it will grant licenses under these rights without compensation or under reasonable rates and
nondiscriminatory, reasonable terms and conditions to applicants desiring to obtain such licenses. The IEEE makes
no representation as to the reasonableness of rates, terms, and conditions of the license agreements offered by patent
holders or patent applicants. Further information may be obtained from the IEEE Standards Department.
A Patent Letter of Assurance has been filed with the IEEE by the patent holder of the material presented in Clause
6.7 Three sensor system.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Contents
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………... 2
1. Overview ………………………………………………………………………….. 6
1.1 Scope ………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.2 Purpose ……………………………………….………………………… 6
1.3 Safety warnings ………………………………………………………….. 6
2. Definitions…………………………………………………………………………… 7
3. Detection and measurement of partial discharge – background information 8
4. Introduction to acoustic partial discharge systems ………………………………... 9

4.1 The all-acoustic system ……………………………………………………. 9
4.2 The acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger ………………………… 9
4.3 The on-line (continuous) acoustic system …………………………………. 10
5. Acoustic signal transmission characteristics ………………………………………. 10

5.1 Acoustic signal ……………………………………………………………… 10
5.2 Acoustic signal propagation from source to tank wall ……………………… 12
5.3 Acoustic signal propagation within the tank wall …………………………. 12
5.4 Velocity of sound in oil ……………………………………………………. 13
6. AE systems: equipment specifications …………………………………………….. 14

6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………... 14
6.2 Acoustic systems that record single events ………………………………... 14
6.3 Digital signal processing (DSP) workstations that record acoustic data
over extended periods …………………………………………………….. 14
6.4 On-line (continuous) acoustic partial discharge monitoring systems …….. 14
6.5 External sensor ……………….……………………………………………. 15
6.6 Internal sensor …………………………... ………………………………... 15
6.7 Three sensor system .………………………………………………………. 16
6.8 Band-pass filter ………………………………………... …………………. 16
7. Acoustic emission testing ………………………………………………………….. 16

7.1 Field vs. factory test differences………….…………………………….….. 16
7.2 General considerations on the application of sensors……………………… 17
8. Acoustic emission field test procedure ……………………………………………. 18

8.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………... 18
8.2 Test setup ………………………………………………………………….. 18
8.3 Sensor placement and initial scan …………………………………………. 18
8.4 Monitoring techniques …………………………….……………………….. 19
8.5 Locating the source of the signal………………… ………………………... 20
8.6 Reporting and follow-up …………………………………………………… 20
9. Factory test procedure using an electrical trigger ……………………………….. 20

9.1 Introduction …………………..…………………………………………. 20
9.2 Initial sensor placement ……………………………………………………. 21
9.3 Measurements and changing of sensor placement ………………………… 24
10. Characterization of acoustic emission signals …………………………………….. 24

10.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 24
10.2 General – alternating current systems.…………………………………….. 25

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
10.3 Acoustic systems that record single events ……………………………….. 26

10.4 DSP workstations that record data over extended periods ……………... 28
10.5 On-line (continuous) acoustic partial discharge systems 29
…………...……... 29
10.6 HVDC transformers and reactors ..……………………………………….. 29
10.7 Characteristics of PD from static electrification ……………….…...……..
10.8 Acoustic activity from thermal faults, the core, mechanical noises and 30
other sources............................................................................................. 31
10.9 Comparison between electrical and acoustic signals ………………………
11. Integrating AE results with data from oil analysis ……………………………….. 32
12. Acoustic activity interpretation …………………………………………………….. 32
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ………………………………………………………… 34
Annex B (informative) Signal processing ……………………………………………………. 38
Annex C (informative) Wavelet signal processing theory …………………………………….. 39
Annex D (informative) Tutorial: detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial
discharge ……………………………………………………………………………. 41

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
IEEE Guide for the Detection and Location of

Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in
Oil-Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide is applicable to the detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial discharges and other sources
in oil immersed power transformers and reactors. Both electrical (partial discharge) and mechanical sources (such as
loose clamping, bolts or insulation parts) generate these emissions. There are descriptions of acoustic
instrumentation, test procedures, and interpretation of results. When this guide is used with oil-immersed reactors, it
must be understood that interpretation of signals may be different because of the construction of the reactor.
Accuracy of location depends on the type of fault, configuration of tank, type of instrumentation and experience.
1.2 Purpose
This guide is intended to provide information that may be helpful in planning, installing and operating acoustic
monitoring equipment and in meaningful interpretation of resulting data. Users are intended to be persons
knowledgeable in this field such as utility engineers, consultants, academics and manufacturers.
1.3 Safety warnings
The safety warnings in this subclause apply only to work done on transformers installed in the field, not to factory
testing. Refer to factory test codes for safety warnings for these situations.
PD location should only be attempted by those technicians and engineers trained in working on high-voltage
transformers.
WARNINGS
1. The transformer tank must be connected to a low resistance ground to limit the extremely high
voltages being induced into the ground circuit and the tank if a high voltage to ground failure
occurs. The personnel risk is very high if the transformer fails to ground. Even when grounded
properly, the voltage on the tank to a different ground source may be LETHAL at the instant the
failure occurs.
2. If the transformer is being energized or de-energized, or there is another type of power system
voltage, all personnel should maintain a reasonable distance from the transformer and
equipment electrically connected to the tank due to the possibility of a failure. It is recommended
that acoustic measurement equipment connected to the tank be electrically isolated from the

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
transformer tank, e.g., by optical means or by high-voltage electrical insulation, when measuring
during transient events to eliminate the danger to the equipment or operators.
3. It is preferable to make all connections to the tank with the transformer de-energized, but in no case
should the transformer voltage be above normal voltage while the sonic measuring devices are
installed. Personnel must not access areas where high voltages are within striking distance, such
as on top of energized transformers or in bushing compartments.
4. The transformer ground circuit must never be changed (connected or disconnected) while the
transformer is energized. Even with the transformer de-energized, it is possible to have circulating
currents in substation ground circuits; therefore, appropriate care should be exercised when
connecting or disconnecting ground circuits.
2. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE
Standards Terms [B31] may be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.
2.1 Acoustic couplant: A material used at the structure-to-sensor interface to improve the transmission of
acoustic energy across the interface during acoustic emission monitoring. Note: see Clause 6.5.
2.2 Acoustic emission: The phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of
energy from localized sources within a material, or the transient waves so generated. Note: see Clause 5.1.
2.3 Acoustic emission (AE) oscillation: An oscillation produced by a resonant piezo-electric crystal when
perturbed by a shock wave, which could be caused by a partial discharge.
2.4 Acoustic emission oscillation rate or count rate: The number of AE oscillations that exceed the counter
threshold level in a time interval, often one second, or a number of cycles, depending on the instrument being
used. Note: see Clause 5.1
2.5 Acoustic impedance: The decisive factor for determining reflection and transmission properties when
passing from one acoustic medium to another. The acoustic impedance is denoted Z and defined as density (γ)
x propagation velocity (v), Z = γ x v (or Z = γ.v).
2.6 Barkhausen effect and magnetostriction noise: Noise associated with the deformation of magnetic domains
in the core of a transformer. Note: see Clause 10.8a.
2.7 Critical angle: The largest incidence angle (from normal) for which a wave can enter a medium that has a
higher propagation velocity. Note: see Clause 5.1.
2.8 Direct acoustic (oil-borne) path: Path of propagation from the PD acoustic signal source directly (straight
line) to the sensor location on the tank wall, without obstruction such as windings, core, or major
blocking/bracing.
2.9 Pressure waves (also called longitudinal or extensional waves): These waves consist of alternate compression
and rarefaction forces in the direction of propagation. They occur in both liquids and solids.
2.10 Shear waves (also called transverse, flexural or bending waves): A shock or pressure wave in the oil
impinging at normal incidence on the tank will generate motion in the tank wall that is perpendicular to the
propagation direction similar to a vibrating string.
2.11 Speed of sound in steel: Longitudinal wave about 5200 m/s; transverse wave about 3200 m/s respectively.
2.12 Structure-borne path: Propagation of the PD acoustic signal through the transformer structure.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
3. Detection and measurement of partial discharge – background information

Since PD cannot be measured directly, its energy by-products such as electrical transients, chemical changes,
electromagnetic emissions, vibration, sound, light, and heat must be measured. Each of these energy by-products,
when measured, has advantages and disadvantages for identifying PD. The measurement methods are as follows:
a) Radio frequency (RF) - VHF: the VHF measurement of radio waves is in the frequency range of 30 MHz -
300 MHz. This VHF measurement is usually associated with aerial antennas, but not exclusively. Some
window type receiver devices may also monitor the VHF range. The signal attenuation and noise reduction
are similar but less compared to the UHF frequency.
b) Radio frequency (RF) - UHF: the UHF measurement of radio waves is in the frequency range of 300 MHz -
3 GHz. These measurements are often performed using a window style UHF receiver. UHF tests are less
affected by external noise. The Corona type of PD emits only up to a frequency of approximately 300MHz.
Signals are strongly attenuated when they pass through the bushings or travel longer distances within the
oil. Cell phone and TV stations operate in the UHF band and might introduce strong noise. Discharges
directly in the oil have an upper frequency limit of only a few hundred Kilohertz and can not be detected.
c) RF current transformers (RFCT): RFCTs are designed to measure up to several tens or hundred MHz. They
can be placed on ground returns and/or bushing taps. The RFCT by itself is generally considered non-
intrusive; however, the RFCT may require an outage to be installed. It can be used both for off-line and on-
line measurement states.
d) Coupling capacitor (CC): the CC sensor interfaces directly with the voltage terminal. This is the method
described in IEC 60270- Ed. 3.0 2000-12-21 High-voltage test techniques – partial discharge
measurements. This is a common factory test method. Results are measured in pC. This measurement
works well under a controlled noise-free environment, but may not work well in a field environment.
For field measurements, this method can utilize either a user-supplied capacitor or the leakage current from
a bushing tap, using the condenser layered bushing as the coupling capacitor. When the user supplies an
external reference capacitor for on-line measurements, the measurement is considered intrusive. However,
when a coupling capacitor is used, there is generally no limitation put on the frequency measurement range.
e) Acoustic emission (AE): consists of one or more ultrasonic transducers that are sensitive to the acoustic
emissions generated by a PD source. Acoustic sound sources are wide-banded (> 1MHz). Due to the
propagation characteristics of the insulation medium and apparatus structure, ultrasonic acoustic emissions
are measured in the 20 kHz to 500 kHz frequency range.
f) Ultra violet light (UV): detects UV light generated by corona, external PD on surfaces, and arcing. This
method generally detects external events within line of sight. With the help of daylight blocking filter and
very sensitive cameras, UV measurements can be obtained in direct sunlight.
g) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA): In the case of partial discharges of the corona-type in voids or gas bubbles,
the main gas formed is hydrogen together with significant amounts of methane (typically 10%) and minor
amounts of the other gases. Variable amounts of the carbon oxides may also result from partial discharges
in cellulose, although usually in lower quantities than the other gases. [B15, B16]
In the case of discharges of the sparking-type in oil or in paper, significant amounts of all the hydrocarbons
(including acetylene) are formed in addition to hydrogen.
h) Power factor tip-up: partial discharge produces a power loss, which is a function of applied voltage. If
partial discharge is present, losses increase and the power factor changes with applied voltage. The power
factor difference between applied voltage levels is known as "tip-up".
This guide focuses on the detection and location of PD using acoustic emission techniques. These techniques are
sometimes combined with one or more of the above PD detection and measurement methods.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
4. Introduction to acoustic partial discharge systems

Partial Discharge (PD) detection and location work is carried out in the factory and in the field, the latter being done
with the transformer either connected to the grid or supplied by a separate power source.
Acoustic PD systems are most often used when PD has been identified as a result of other diagnostic procedures,
such as dissolved gas analysis and electrical PD measurement.
There are two general categories of acoustic location systems: all-acoustic systems and acoustic systems with an
electrical PD trigger. In addition, on-line (continuous) acoustic monitoring systems are being used primarily to
detect and trend emissions. Typical implementations of each of these types of systems are given below along with
the respective advantages and limitations.
4.1 The all-acoustic system
The first category, the all-acoustic system, consists of one or more ultrasonic transducers that are sensitive to the
acoustic emissions generated by a PD event. The detection and coarse location of one or more sources can be
accomplished by moving one or more externally mounted sensors to different locations on the transformer tank. A
more precise location of a PD source may be determined by the relative arrival times of the acoustic signals at each
of the sensors. No voltage or current readings are required on the transformer. This makes the all-acoustic system a
suitable tool for source location on operating transformers in the field.
The acoustic transducers can be mounted on the exterior of the transformer tank to detect the acoustic signal as it hits
the tank wall, or inside the transformer to detect the signal in the oil.
Benefits of the externally mounted sensors include the ability to reconfigure the sensors as necessary to obtain a
clearer acoustic signal, the flexibility to move the system to another transformer, and the ease of retrofitting existing
transformers. The disadvantage of the external configuration is that it is more sensitive to external noise sources.
Benefits of the internally mounted sensors may include a clearer, louder measurement with a better signal-to-noise
ratio. Disadvantages are that installation of the sensors is invasive to the transformer and, once installed, the sensors
can not be moved around to achieve a clearer line of sight to the source, nor can they be easily removed and installed
on another transformer.
4.2 The acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger
The second category, the acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger, pairs the array of acoustic sensors described
above with a current or voltage measurement device that detects the PD signal electrically. The electric signal is
usually considered as detected instantaneously. When using this assumption, the arrival time of the electric signal is
used as time zero for the PD event. The difference in arrival times of the electric signal and an acoustic signal is the
propagation time between the PD source and that sensor location. PD location is based on the absolute arrival time
at each sensor, as opposed to the all-acoustic system described above which uses the difference in arrival time
between sensors.
The assumption of instantaneous detection of the electric signal is correct when it appears e.g. at the bushing tap of
the transformer. At the most this delay is in the range of a few micro-seconds and therefore can be neglected.
However, an acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger is processing the electrical signal first. Here the
processing time may be taken into account in order to decrease location error. Table 1 shows the time lags due to the
analog processing time measured in three different electrical PD detector types.
Table 1 - Time lag in electrical PD detectors
Type of detector Time-lag to t0 Signal rise time Approximate location

(10-90%) error in oil
Wide-band with active 0.2 µs 1.2 µs Negligible (< 2 mm)

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Integrator (100-400 kHz)

Narrow-band at 1 MHz 16 µs 35 µs 22 mm-70 mm (1 in. ~3 in.)
With 9 kHz bandwidth
Narrow-band at 1 MHz 16 µs 50 µs 22 mm-95 mm (1 in. ~4 in.)
With 4.5 kHz bandwidth
The numbers are provided only as an example. Other detectors from different manufacturers may have different time
lags since this property is not specified in the standards. It can be seen that a narrow-band detector may introduce a
time lag that may be taken into account if very accurate location measurements are desired.
One advantage of the combined system is that the electrical measurement provides confirmation that the acoustic
sensors are locating a PD event as opposed to another acoustic noise source. Furthermore, the electrical signal is a
convenient trigger that can be used to start the data acquisition at the acoustic sensors.
The major disadvantage of the combined system is that it may be difficult to obtain a clean electric PD measurement
due to electrical noise in the field. Hence, the combined acoustic-electrical PD locator system is more suitable for
use in the factory or plant than in the field.
4.3 The on-line (continuous) acoustic monitoring system
The main purpose of permanently installed on-line acoustic monitoring systems is to provide an early indication of
an incipient fault to a remote location. These systems usually consist of multiple sensors, amplifier and data
acquisition/processing modules. The sensors are placed at locations where faults may be anticipated based on past
experience or highest probability of problems occurrence. The data acquisition/processing systems are able to
transmit collected data and/or warning alerts to locations outside the substation.
The data is often limited to activity levels rather than specific waveforms. Location information is often limited to
knowledge of which sensor is most active.
Some continuous monitoring systems use the signal from a split CT around the transformer case ground or an RF
signal from a sensor inside the transformer to identify the AE signal as an internal PD.
Warning alerts caused by level of activity above a baseline or trend of activity are usually reason to take gas samples
and perhaps perform more extensive acoustic or other testing.
5. Acoustic signal and transmission characteristics
5.1 Acoustic signal
The energy creating the acoustic signal is from partial discharges and mechanical and thermal sources inside and
outside transformers and reactors.
Figure 1a shows a waveform from an acoustic sensor mounted on a transformer tank. It is typical of one burst of PD.
The sharp rise of the wave front indicates that it is a direct wave that has impinged on the tank wall within the
critical angle for a pressure wave. This angle is given by sin (φ) =Vin/Vout; for an oil-steel interface it is about 25
degrees for transverse waves in steel.
The horizontal axis shows time in microseconds. The burst had a length of 144 microseconds from the first threshold
crossing to the last threshold crossing. The vertical axis is a dimensionless indication of amplitude.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Figure 1a - Typical acoustic emission burst
Figure 1b is a detail of the waveform in Figure 1a. There are 16 oscillations (also called counts) at or above
the indicated threshold of ± 100. The oscillations are shown below.
Oscillations: 1 2 3 4 5 6789-10 11-12-13-14 15-16
Figure 1b – Oscillations in an acoustic emission burst
5.2 Acoustic signal propagation from source to tank wall
Active PD sources in oil-filled transformers produce acoustic emission signals that propagate away from the source
in all directions. The acoustic signals travel through the intervening material to eventually arrive at the transformer

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
tank wall. The distance traveled in a particular medium is dependent on the time that it takes for an acoustic signal
to complete this journey as shown in the equation below:
distance traveled = acoustic wave speed x travel time
Consequently, sensors placed at different locations on the tank wall, i.e. at different distances from the source, will
experience different signal arrival times. For the case of the all-acoustic system, it is possible to detect the difference
in signal arrival time at one sensor relative to another. This in turn allows for the estimation of the difference in the
two propagation path distances. For the case of the combined acoustic-electric system, the time delay between the
source and the sensor can be detected, and the absolute path length between the source and a given sensor can be
determined. Each of these system types requires a slightly different procedure to locate the source, as described in
the sections on Operating Procedures, Clauses 8 and 9.
Acoustic PD source location commonly assumes that the acoustic signal travels a direct, straight-line route from the
source to the sensor. Unfortunately, this is not always the case as the acoustic field inside the tank is very complex
due to wave reflection, diffraction in different materials and other parameters. For example, if there is an obstruction
blocking the line of sight between the source and the sensor location, the sound may travel around the obstruction.
This results in a longer propagation time that would imply a greater distance between the source and the sensor than
actually exists. Alternately, the sound may travel directly through the obstruction at a wave speed that is greater than
in the oil. The resulting arrival time would be earlier, which would imply a shorter distance between the source and
the sensor than actually exists. To help avoid these misinterpretations, it is important to confirm the estimated
source location by repeating the distance calculations with several sensor locations.
5.3 Acoustic signal propagation within the tank wall
Structure-borne propagation paths within the tank wall present a further technical challenge. As the acoustic wave
hits the tank wall, its frequency characteristics remain the same, but its mode of propagation and propagation speed
change. In the example in Figure 2, the sensor is located on the far side of the tank, away from the source.
Structure-borne path
Acoustic
sensor
Direct acoustic path
Primary
reflection wave
PD Source
Transformer
tank
Figure 2 - Illustration of typical propagation paths for the acoustic PD signal.
Primary reflection wave propagation can take place within the confines of the tank as shown. The speed of sound for
this wave depends on the media encountered by the sound wave.
Acoustic waves hitting the nearby tank wall will create an alternate propagation path via the tank wall to the sensor on
the other side. The wave speed in metal is greater than in oil. Therefore the wave traveling this structure-borne path
may arrive at the sensor earlier than the wave traveling the direct acoustic path. If the distance calculations were
based on the arrival time of the structure-borne wave using the wave speed in oil, this would imply an incorrect
distance between the source and the sensor. It is crucial that distance calculations are based on the direct acoustic
path. It is critical to confirm the estimated source location by using a variety of sensor locations.
Another way to distinguish the structure-borne waves from the oil-borne waves is to analyze the mode of vibration.
Fluids, such as oil, will only support pressure waves. Solids, such as steel, can support many types of wave motion.
Waves in the oil give rise to both pressure waves and shear waves in the tank wall.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Source
Critica l a ngle for:

pressure wa ve
she ar wave
Dire ct wave
Tank wall
Struc ture -bo rne waves
Dete ctor
Pressure (Longitudinal) Waves
Shear (Transversal) Waves
Figure 3 - Illustration of the longitudinal and transversal waves in the enclosure and how they are
created from direct waves.
NOTE: the wavelengths in Figure 3 are not to scale.
Two wave fronts will be seen in these cases, as illustrated in Figure 3. The shear wave has the largest amplitude and
can be identified in this way. The pressure wave is faster and may arrive at the detector first.
The problem of structure-borne waves is reduced significantly if the acoustic sensor is located inside the tank.
5.4 Velocity of sound in oil
For the calculation of distance of the PD source from the sensor, 1413 m/s at 20 C is typically used. Corrections to
the speed of sound for temperature and moisture content are not generally made to increase accuracy because the
uncertainties due to material propagation are usually much larger.
Table 2 shows estimates of the velocity of sound in oil at other temperatures. The velocity will be different if there
are other materials in the wave path and may change depending on the properties of the oil.
Table 2 - Velocity of sound in transformer oil vs. temperature
Temperature of oil - °C Velocity – m/s

50 1300
80 1200
110 1100
6. AE systems: equipment specifications
6.1 Introduction
Many different types of instrumentation are available for detection and location of acoustic emissions. Several types
of typical AE systems and sensors are described here that have been shown effective in certain transformer

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
arrangements; however, other systems may be equally or more effective, depending on the transformer physical
parameters and the location of the partial discharge.
6.2 Acoustic systems that record single events
A typical system consists of the following components.
a) A digital detection system. This may consist of one or more standard 4-channel digital oscilloscopes with
sampling rate for each channel greater than 1 mega-sample/second and memory depth greater than 5000
samples. Data acquisition units available for computers could be used if they fulfill these requirements.
Features such as averaging, peak detection, zoom, measurements and storage are very useful.
b) Sensors: As discussed in Clauses 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 below.
c) Cabling and power supply units for the sensors.
6.3 Digital signal processing (DSP) workstations that record acoustic data over extended
periods
Transportable DSP workstation systems are used to automate the acquisition and interpretation process. These
systems identify, qualify and locate PD sources using the signals from sensors in Clauses 6.5 and 6.6 below. The
systems combine the acquisition and saving of multiple AE signals with the capability to
a) Qualify the signal as PD by determining the fit of the AE waveform to parameters such as rise time,
duration time, and asynchronicity with the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz.
b) Provide a relative measure of activity level by determining the energy level at the transducer face. This is
done by counting the number of bursts and the area beneath the burst envelope that is above the threshold
setting. Note this does not provide the actual level of PD energy.
c) Calculate the location of signal source(s).
Results of tests can be displayed as graphs such as point plots, line graphs, bar graphs or cluster graphs with multiple
parameters or waveforms or the results of summations of data. This same data is used to generate reports that give
the hardware and software setup information, acquisition activity and location of the source(s) of the PD.
6.4 On-line (continuous) acoustic partial discharge monitoring systems
There are two general types of systems for continuously monitoring PD.
a) Permanently installed on-line acoustic monitoring systems to detect and trend PD signals and send that
information to a remote location. Data gathering personnel are not usually present during normal
operation. These systems typically consist of multiple sensors, which are placed at locations where faults
may be anticipated based on past experience or highest probability of problems occurring, and amplifier
and data acquisition/processing systems that are able to transmit collected data and/or warning alerts to
locations outside the substation. They usually do not perform remote location analysis of the PD. Supply
of power from the station DC source or another uninterruptible supply may be specified. For long-term
robustness, the systems require protection of inputs, outputs and grounds similar to electronic relays.
A test to establish the baseline data of acoustic activity on the transformer is performed during the
installation process. This test provides information to establish the best hardware and software settings for
permanent monitoring. It is helpful for gain settings to be the same as adjacent transformers in order to
compare readings if signals are thought to be the result of network disturbances.
Permanent mounting of sensors is desirable for long term installations. This may be accomplished with a
thin coating of suitable epoxy and a mechanical holder. The epoxy should be chosen to avoid broken
bonds due to differential thermal expansion between the sensor and the wall. The bonding agent is usually

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
a suitable couplant.
b) Systems that include acoustic sensors and a high frequency current transformer installed on the case
ground connection or a special radio frequency transducer mounted inside the transformer. These systems
utilize the concurrence of an acoustic event and an electrical or radio frequency signal to confirm that the
acoustic signal is PD. In some systems, the time difference is used to give a measure of location.
6.5 External sensor
The sensor mounted on the external surface of the transformer tank is a piezo-electric displacement transducer
operating in its compression mode. Different investigators are using sensors with a sensitive region ranging from
about 20 kHz to 500 kHz.
It has been shown [B7] that the main frequency of a partial discharge of about 150 pC magnitude is 100 kHz. Users
typically choose sensors with resonant frequency (for longitudinal waves) of either 60 kHz or 150 kHz. For larger
discharges, frequencies should decrease. Also, attenuation affects high frequencies more than low. These factors
favor the sensor with the 60 kHz resonant frequency for factory and laboratory use. In the field, however, numerous
noises or harmonics of noises are encountered in the 20 kHz to 60 kHz frequency range. Since the sensor is sensitive
to pressure waves in its frequency range that may not be from a PD source, these noises may lead to false readings.
A number of users favor the 150 kHz resonant frequency sensor for field applications for this reason.
Being a piezo-electric device, the sensor will also respond to varying electromagnetic fields such as those found in
substations. To minimize this effect, the transducer can be either a "differential" type utilizing two crystals (mounted
out of phase for noise reduction) or a shielded single crystal transducer with an integral pre-amplifier circuit. The
latter is the preferred and most common configuration because its comparatively high amplitude, low impedance
output is less susceptible to degradation due to noise pick-up in the connecting cables.
Acoustic couplant gel or grease should be applied to the face of the transducer or matching piece just prior to test.
Gels or solids that retain high viscosity at the transformer wall at operating temperature are preferred because low
viscosity couplants will not transfer shear stresses. Couplants produced for ultrasonic non-destructive testing
purposes are generally suitable. Gelled glycerin and silicone grease are particularly efficient and are recommended.
Silicone grease can be difficult to remove from the tank surface.
6.6 Internal sensor
The internal acoustic emission sensor or waveguide is a device immersed in the oil that couples acoustic energy from
the oil to an externally mounted sensor. An example of a waveguide would be a solid fiberglass rod inserted through
a seal into the transformer tank with a sensor mounted on the external end of the rod. Careful attention must be
given to maintaining dielectric properties and dimensions. The waveguide is less directional than external tank wall-
mounted sensors because the impedance of the steel tank wall is not a factor and is less sensitive to external noise
such as storms or loose fittings.
A new technique under development uses an optical interferometric technique. A laser light source is coupled to the
sensing head through an optical fiber. The sensing head consists of an air gap and a thin silica glass diaphragm. The
optical signal is a function of the air gap length. Variations in the length, caused by an acoustical pressure wave, are
proportional to the intensity of the acoustic signal.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
6.7 Three sensor system
A transducer system has been developed to aid optimization of sensitivity and rejection of non-PD signals [B7]. It
consists of three relatively closely placed acoustic sensors mounted in a rigid movable frame. An electric detector
may be used to sense the time of origin of the PD, which allows determination of the total transit time of the wave
front. This system is intended to be operated by an experienced person. In searching for possible PD signals and their
origin, the detector frame is moved to selected positions on the transformer tank. At each position, a set of different
trigger and time frame settings are studied on the evaluation unit, which may be a digital oscilloscope. Suitable
algorithms in the evaluation unit determine the direction and possibly the distance to the discharge source.
6.8 Band-pass filter
The use of a band-pass filter is optional. Its purpose is to negate as many of the effects as possible of signals that are
not associated with PDs. These include vibrations caused by the magnetostrictive action of the core (Barkhausen
noise), pumps and fans. Most of these fall below 30 kHz; however, the Barkhausen noise emanating from the core
has sometimes been found to be in the 50 kHz range. Hence, a 100 kHz high-pass section with a rapid, roll-off
response characteristic is needed. The reasonably generous band-pass (200 kHz) allows for variations between
different transducers, in so far as their resonant frequencies are concerned.
The filter is a band-pass type with lower and upper cutoff frequencies of FL and FH. These are frequencies at which
the response to a constant sinusoidal input voltage has fallen by 3 dB from the maximum value. When used with a
150 kHz sensor, FL should be about 100 kHz and FH should be about 300 kHz. The roll-off characteristics of the
filter should be a minimum of 48 dB/octave (240 dB/decade) for the high-pass section. This means that, relative to
the signal of interest (150 kHz), a 50 kHz signal would be attenuated by 48 dB. The low-pass filter should roll off at
not less than 24 dB/octave (120 dB/decade) so that a 600 kHz signal would be attenuated by 24 dB.
7. Acoustic emission testing
7.1 Field vs. factory test differences
Acoustic emission testing in factories or field situations has many differences. Some of the specific ones are shown
in Table 3:
Table 3 - Acoustic emission testing: field vs. factory differences
Field Factory
Ambient Noise sources Limited control; e.g. noise from rain or Controllable
hail. Signal processing or post test
analysis can reduce or eliminate noise
in some cases.
Cooling Pumps May be required by system operating Can be shut off
requirements.
Weather Limited control, e.g. noise from rain. Testing done indoors
Signal processing or post test analysis
can reduce or eliminate noise in some
cases.
Power Supply Isolation, Filtering, and/or UPS Clean power available
required
Grounding Single point grounding for test object Appropriate grounding provisions
and equipment needs to be established. built into test bay.
Equipment Access Precautions needed for working near Precautions needed for working near
energized facilities. energized facilities.
Transformer Design Generally limited knowledge of what is Full design information available.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
inside the tank.

Test Voltage Limited adjustment range unless a test Full control of voltage levels
power supply is taken to the
transformer location
Gas blanket (air or nitrogen) Use care that sensors are mounted Use care that sensors are mounted
below oil level. Also, bubbles may be below oil level.
present during certain operating
conditions.
More information appropriate to the two environments is included in Clauses 8 and 9.
7.2 General considerations on the application of sensors
Transducer placement and mounting are critical to avoid attenuated or misleading signals [B5]. Some things to
consider include the following:
a) The contact between the transducer and the transformer tank is critical. Simply placing a transducer on
the transformer tank surface often produces a very weak signal. It is advisable to wipe the area free of
dirt, oil, bugs, etc. and polish it with a mild abrasive or abrasive cloth before placing the transducer.
b) An acoustic couplant is essential for enhancing the mechanical and acoustical coupling between the
transducer and the tank surface. It should be evenly applied to the clean mounting surface of the
transducer before placement.
c) A sound transmitting epoxy may have to be used if the mounting location is non-magnetic.
d) Transducers mounted on the tank walls may detect both direct and wall-borne signals. Those mounted on
a bolted cover or other gasketed surface may receive the direct signal more clearly, but the wall-borne
signals may be distorted or dissipated because of the gasket.
e) If possible, avoid locations where there is magnetic or non-magnetic tank shielding, which will cause extra
signal attenuation
f) On transformers built with double wall construction, transducers should be located on the welded ribs that
span between the two tank walls to provide a strong signal. The air in the cavity between the walls
attenuates acoustic signals.
g) If possible avoid locations above gas spaces. This adds extra impedance in the transmission path, which
produces additional attenuation. Signals may be difficult to resolve.
h) Avoid mounting sensors on tank stiffeners unless the tank has a double-skin wall
i) For safety reasons, do not locate sensors in areas of high voltage
j) Provide sufficient spacing between sensors to insure independent signals. Distance depends on sensor
model
k) Verify sensor operation, either the entire system or each sensor. Amplifiers should be set for similar
sensitivity for all sensors.
l) An acoustic verification rod may be helpful in determining an initial location for a sensor
m) Avoid the ends of transformers that have cores with unwound return limbs.
n) Aluminum or stainless steel walls are non-magnetic. Sensors may have to be placed using epoxy.
o) Do not mount sensors on control boxes

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
p) LTC operation contains a high electromechanical energy that usually propagates through the entire
transformer. Actions should be taken in order to identify operations during the test and distinguish them in
post-test analysis to identify the source of acoustic emissions.
q) Shell-form transformers: locate the sensors on top (above the core) or bottom (below the core).
r) Transient voltage protection must be applied to the input of test instruments/devices.
s) Extraneous electrostatic and magnetic signals may cause false indications and damage equipment.
8. Acoustic emission field test procedure
8.1 Introduction
Acoustic emission testing is usually done in response to gas-in-oil test results or noises that may indicate partial
discharge activity.
In most cases, the transformers are monitored while carrying load. This requires safety precautions when placing the
transducers, assuring that minimum approach distances are not compromised.
8.2 Test setup
Approximately two to three hours are usually required to prepare for monitoring after arrival at a site. This will
depend on number of sensors to be installed and accessibility to the unit, power source, etc. If a test power supply is
being used, extra time will be needed to setup and check out the power supply.
Set up the test equipment at a convenient location for access to the transformer and the station service source.
Establish a common point ground for all of the test equipment and the transformer.
The transducers are connected to the test equipment with coaxial cables. Cable routings should be chosen to
minimize interference pickup from bus work and grounding connections in the test area. Verify proper operation of
the monitoring system.
An operational test should be followed in order to assure the same sensitivity of all sensors. Many users verify
transducer sensitivity by breaking the lead of a Number 2 pencil against the tank close to the transducer. Users
advise this is limited to tanks with 19 mm (3/4") maximum wall thickness. Another technique is to activate an
acoustic transducer to create a signal into the tank and measure the output of the other sensors. The signals recorded
by the various transducers should be compared to see if they are reasonable and consistent.
8.3 Sensor placement and initial scan
Unless on-line PD monitoring is being used, there is usually no indication of where to look for the noise source.
Therefore, a scan covering the complete transformer is the first step.
a) For a three-phase core form transformer, install one sensor in the general area of each bushing bottom
connection. Place additional sensors at approximately the center of each winding limb on the high and
low voltage sides of the tank. If extra sensors are available, place them on the tank ends. See 7.2 m.
b) Similarly, for a single-phase core form transformer, install one sensor in the general area of each bushing
bottom connection. Place additional sensors at approximately the center of each limb of the windings on
each of the four sides of the transformer tank. See 7.2 m.
c) If the transformer has a preventive autotransformer inside, consideration should be given to placing one

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
or two transducers close to its location.
d) Using the same sensor locations and software settings when testing identical transformers permits
establishing ambient baseline data for that particular design. The sensors may have to be moved to
improve reception of signals from a specific source.
e) Sufficient couplant gel is to be applied to the face of the transducer to ensure efficient transmission of the
AE signal from the tank wall to the sensing crystal. Too much couplant will not be harmful (though
wasteful), whereas too little couplant can seriously inhibit the transducer’s sensing capabilities.
f) Magnetic shielding blocks the signal from the sensors. The location where shielding is installed is usually
obtained by referring to pictures or notes from past experience with the transformer or from the
manufacturer.
g) In the case of transformers indicating PD, a high frequency split-core CT or ammeter (Rogowsky coil
type) around the transformer case ground can be used as a direct signal to the digitizer. This can be used
as the trigger transducer to indicate time zero.
The time period for the initial scan is dependent on the acoustic activity rate. Some users monitor for about four
hours before changing transducer placement. This basically assures the emission patterns are consistent and
repeatable. If activity rates are low or erratic overnight monitoring may be required.
The face of the transducer with its film of couplant should be brought into contact with the transformer tank wall
with only sufficient pressure applied in order to get a good signal and hold it in position. It is only necessary to hold
the sensor steady so that no signals are generated due to relative movement between the sensor and tank wall. This
can be achieved by means of a magnetic clamp, adhesive tape or epoxy.
8.4 Monitoring techniques
When the transformer is energized from the power system, voltage levels are fairly constant making inception and
extinction levels of acoustic activity very difficult to determine.
Techniques for varying system conditions to help characterize the acoustic emission source include:
a) Varying transformer loading to see if the acoustic activity is load related
b) Raising or lowering the bus voltage several kV by tap-changing and/or capacitor/reactor switching
c) Moving the transformer on-load tap-changer(s) up or down a step at a time to see the impact on the acoustic
activity
If the transformer is energized from a test power supply, the test voltage can be raised and lowered at will for
determination of acoustic activity inception and extinction levels.
Signal sensitivity is unique to each particular acoustic emission monitoring system. Trigger level settings depend on
the normal operating noise on the transformer to be tested (this depends on core type, pump/fan operation noise,
etc.). The best initial settings are the least sensitive settings that give a clear AE pattern (avoiding the noise coming
from the core, pumps/fans or other sources). The settings can then be optimized during the signal location process.
A three dimensional layout can be constructed, for instance, using a convenient corner of the tank for zero
coordinates. For tanks with rounded corners, consider squaring them off for reference. After sensor locations are
plotted, the time delay in each transducer signal can be used to estimate the source location. Using the maximum
number of sensors possible improves the accuracy and usability of this approach.
8.5 Locating the source of the signal
An approximate source location can be estimated based on relative timing of signal arrivals at the various

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
transducers and assumptions about the speed of sound in oil. This is not a foolproof method because of the different
types of material (insulation, steel, copper, oil, etc.) in the paths between the signal source and the various
transducers. Also, there may be more than one signal source in the transformer.
Reposition transducers to focus on the area of the transformer tank where the suspected source is located and
continue the monitoring process. The sensors can be arbitrarily close as long as a time difference between them can
be measured.
Sometimes, even when transducers have been relocated to a suspected area, only one sensor detects the acoustic
activity. This can happen either because the source detected is very low in intensity or highly attenuated or because
there is a problem with the instrumentation. Care should be taken not to automatically disregard this activity as
noise.
The signal source location can be confirmed by a set of consistent signal timings. A clear consistent picture of the
signal characteristic helps to identify the source type.
8.6 Reporting and follow-up
Comparison of actual problems and the predictions from acoustic monitoring are important for building the
knowledge base on the response of a particular monitoring system. This greatly enhances the usefulness of acoustic
monitoring as a diagnostic tool.
The investigation report should include information on the test setup, test procedures, test waveforms (if any), and
predicted signal sources based on experience, internal assembly drawings and/or photographs of the transformer
under test.
Follow-up reporting may include comparison of the actual problem and the predictions from the investigation.
Useful information includes:
a) What was found

b) Where was it located
c) Differences between predicted and real locations
d) How the problem was corrected
Acoustic monitoring after repair allows comparison of before and after acoustic signatures and allows establishing
the new baseline data of the transformer.
9. Factory test procedure using an electrical trigger
9.1 Introduction
An important difference between the factory test and the in-field test is the advantage of being able to use an
electrical partial discharge signal to trigger the acoustic data acquisition. This electrical trigger, occurring virtually
instantaneously as the partial discharge emissions leave their source, provides a convenient "time-zero" mark to use
to measure the time differential between this signal and the acoustic signals, and hence calculate the distance from
the acoustic sensors to the PD source.
The input of the electrical PD detector is typically connected to the bushing capacitance tap. The output is
connected to one of the channels of the acoustic location system. It is recommended to use an electrical apparent
charge detector rather than a radio-influence voltage meter since the frequency range of the former is much closer to
that of the acoustic emissions than the latter. However, either can be used for the trigger. The acoustic emission
sensors are connected to the transformer tank wall. The outputs of the sensors are connected to the acoustic location
system for viewing the acoustic signal and its time delay from the electrical signal.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
9.2 Initial sensor placement
The initial placement of the acoustic emission sensors onto the tank wall can make the difference between an
efficient location of the PD source and a more time consuming one. Guidance in making an informed estimate of
where to initially place the sensors can come from the Induced Voltage Test. This test, in most cases, will indicate
which phase of the transformer contains the PD source. If so, the sensors should then of course be placed in the area
of the problem phase. Caution should be exercised because there has been at least one experience [B49] where the
induced voltage test indicated the PD to be located in one phase and the acoustic test located it on a different phase,
the latter being verified through internal inspection. A typical example would be a delta winding where each bushing
is connected to two phases.
Another source of information is to examine the transformer internal assembly drawings and photographs if
available. They may show likely areas of PD sources, and indicate whether the problem may be on the LV or HV
side, or an end wall, and whether it is towards the top, middle, or bottom of the tank. An example of a simplified
HV-Side transformer assembly is shown in Figure 4. A search for the problem PD source within such an assembly
can include placing sensors along the windings, over each de-energized tap-changer, and/or along the high-voltage
leads connecting each HV winding to its respective bushing.
Figure 4 - Example of HV-side of three-phase transformer assembly
Ideally, initial placement of sensors would resemble one of the three arrangements shown in Figures 5a, 5b, and 5c.
Figures 5a and 5b are for the case when the problem phase is known; Figure 5c for when it is not known.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Figure 5a - Sensor locations with PD source in center phase. Typically sensors are located on
each side wall.
Figure 5b - Sensor locations with PD source in outer phase. Typically sensors are located on each
side wall and on the end wall.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Figure 5c - Sensor locations when phase of PD source is not known. Sensors are located initially
on one side wall.
In the above figures, the top, middle, and bottom of the suspect phases are tested, in an effort to obtain general
overall coverage of each phase. In actual practice, however, often the most convenient placement of the sensors is
not possible due to obstructions such as radiators, tank stiffeners, on-load tap changers, and control cabinets. Figure
6 shows the plan view of an actual transformer tank having all of the aforementioned obstructions.
Figure 6 - Transformer tank – plan view
Some creativity is therefore required, and the actual sensor placement may be significantly different from the
arrangements shown in the previous figures. For example, due to the presence of radiators or internal wiring trays,
the sensors for one phase might need to be placed on the opposite side-wall than the other two phases.
Mounting the sensors on manhole or other covers may provide an AE signal path that is clear of tank wall - carried
signal if the cover is isolated from the tank by flexible gaskets. The transformer oil must be in contact with the inside
surface of the cover for the sensor to be effective.
Shell form type transformer arrangement requires special mention owing to the shielding used inside the tank walls.
It may only be possible to place sensors on the top of the tank or in areas where there is no shielding.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
9.3 Measurements and changing of sensor placement
With the sensors in place, a simple check may be performed to ensure that they are indeed operational. Using low
signal amplification setting, this check can be accomplished by gently tapping your fingertip on the tank wall
immediately beside one of the sensors. This will create an acoustic signal, which should be detected by the sensor
and displayed on the oscilloscope. Use this procedure to check each sensor in turn.
Now, the first set of acoustic emission measurements is ready to be taken. To do so, energize the transformer in the
same manner as during the routine Induced Voltage Test. Increase the voltage slowly until the electrical apparent
charge detector measures sustained partial discharge activity, or until the full test voltage level is reached that can be
safely sustained continuously. (Do not raise the voltage level beyond this amount, as a higher voltage level, though
possibly producing greater PD activity, unduly stresses the transformer insulation). At this voltage level, and with a
medium acoustic signal amplification setting, the oscilloscope trigger sensitivity level must be calibrated to the
corresponding electrical PD detector signal. Now, for every half-cycle of the voltage wave, the oscilloscope will be
triggered to begin data acquisition from both the electrical PD detector and the acoustic emission PD sensors. "Time-
zero" will be the instant in time that the data acquisition is triggered to begin. As many sensors as the oscilloscope
will allow should be displayed at once. Data that invites analysis can be "frozen" on-screen and stored in memory
using the digital oscilloscope.
The interpretation of the acoustic signals displayed on the oscilloscope is done according to Clause 10.1 of this
guide. If none of the sensors indicate PD activity, increase their signal amplification slightly and repeat the test. If
there are still no clear signs of activity, the sensors will have to be moved manually, perhaps by a displacement of
half a meter either vertically or horizontally, and retested again. Another suggestion is to move some of the sensors
to the opposite side of the tank. This is a trial-and-error process that continues until at least one of the sensors
indicates the presence of PD activity. Again, this process can be expedited with the examination of the transformer
internal assembly drawings and photographs.
When one or more of the sensors shows activity, assuming in the simplest case that only one problem PD source is
present; the rest of the sensors may be manually moved into the vicinity of the active area. The objective is to obtain
acoustic emission signals from all sensors, and to position them so as to minimize the time differential between
"time-zero" and the beginning of the acoustically detected PD signal. Ideally, this minimum time difference will
correspond to a maximum number of individual oscillations in the signal as measured by the counting circuit,
however this may not necessarily be so (refer to Clauses 4.2 and 5 for calculation of the distance from the sensors to
the PD source).
Using this procedure for sensor placement and acoustic emission measurement, the PD source can often be located to
within 25 cm or less.
10. Characterization of acoustic emission signals
10.1 Introduction
Characterizing whether an AE signal is PD is usually done by considering factors such as length of the burst,
movement of the AE signal relative to the excitation frequency and rise time of the first oscillation to cross the
threshold.
Partial discharges obtained by conventional electrical methods use a threshold to predict severe activity. This level
is generally about 300 pC to 500 pC. Because of variations in the acoustic signal caused by distance and interfering
materials, there is no similar threshold for acoustic systems. A strong signal buried deep within a winding may be
very weak by the time it reaches the acoustic sensor. Also, differences in amplifier gain settings cause differences in
magnitude.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
10.2 General – alternating current systems
In general, two types of PD activity (other than zero) may be encountered: continuous and sporadic.
By continuous, it is meant that PD bursts are present all the time, though they may have varying AE amplitude. This
type of signal is typical of that produced by an energetic PD source.
Sporadic activity can be further subdivided into two types.
a. Sporadic AE from a continuous PD source: this is characterized by activity that is present most of the time,
but short quiescent periods are also encountered. This type of signal may be produced by exposed sources
on conductors and connectors, defects in insulation, worn tap changers, foreign objects or ungrounded
hardware.
b. Sporadic PD with lengthy quiescent periods (perhaps minutes) followed by short periods of very high
activity: this type of signal has been found to be associated with floating static shields, streaming
electrification or other types of static discharges (see Clause 10.7) and bad contacts in tank wall shielding.
Often short-lived arcs are associated with this type of fault, and these produce very energetic AE signals
during active periods.
As previously described, it is often possible to determine the position on the tank wall where the transducer is closest
to the PD source. This does not give information as to the distance into the tank (from that location) to the source.
However, observing the signal on an oscilloscope (a digital transient recorder is recommended), it is possible to form
an opinion regarding this. For example, the pulse shown in Figure 1a has suffered very little attenuation. This is
evidenced by the high rise rate of the leading edge of the burst envelope, resulting in the characteristic "arrow head"
shape. To achieve this, the propagation path is almost entirely in oil with little solid insulation involved.
If the PD signal had propagated through layers of solid materials (iron, copper, insulation, etc.) the resulting
attenuation would not only have affected the overall amplitude, but also modified the burst envelope by "rounding
off" the leading edge. In the extreme, the burst envelope becomes "egg-shaped" or "ellipsoid-shaped" as shown in
Figure 7 [B38]. By utilizing this phenomenon, it may be possible to estimate whether the source lies close to the
surface or is buried well within the insulation system.
Figure 7 – Typical AE burst showing effect of attenuation

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
The attenuation shown in the Figure 7 AE burst can also be caused by the location of the sensor on the wall of the
transformer in a position that is beyond the critical angle. If the sensor is placed in a position beyond the critical
angle, the signal goes into the plane of the tank wall as a pressure wave instead of directly through the tank wall as a
shear wave. In Figure 7 the pressure wave reaches the sensor first. This is between -100 microseconds and 0
microseconds. This occurs because the velocity of the signal through steel is faster than through the oil. This is
followed shortly by the shear wave between 0 microseconds and 200 microseconds. The combination of the pressure
and shear waves causes the ellipsoid-shaped AE burst. The waveform beyond 200 microseconds is from reflections
of the signal.
The user should always be aware that the responding characteristics of the sensor may at times be more in evidence
than the forcing characteristics of the PD signal.
Some experts use signal length of 40 microseconds to 220 microseconds as an identification criterion for PD.
PD usually has a correlation to the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz, waveform, but is not synchronized to this
frequency. Typically, there is a slight "jitter" back and forth from a constant position on the waveform.
10.3 Acoustic systems that record single events
The frequency range of a signal is between 50 kHz and 350 kHz. In [B7] the main frequency for an approximate
150pC discharge is about 100 kHz with the expectation that for larger discharges, frequencies will decrease.
The amplitude and time duration depend on the physical size of the transformer tank and the location of the sensors
and their actual separation from the estimated PD source.
The subsequent attenuation of the signals is due to the heterogeneous structure of the transformer core/coil assembly.
Attenuation of the signal inside the tank affects high frequencies more than low. The attenuation of the signal also
creates a lack of correlation of scaling factor between the acoustic signal and electrically measured apparent charge.
Some examples of signals are shown in the figures below.
0.3
0. 0.2E+06 0.3E+06 0.4E+06
0.2
0.1
FFT:direct PD signal
0.3
0.2
0. 0.1E-03 0.1 0.3E-03 0.4E-03 0.5E-03 0.6E-03 0.7E-03 0.8E-03
0.
-0.1
-0.2
direct PD signal
Figure 8 - A laboratory recorded direct PD signal (bottom) and its power spectrum (top)
For the signal in the time frame of Figure 8, the x-scale is in seconds, while the frequency frame x-scale is Hz. The
sensor used has its main sensitivity in the range 20 kHz to 120 kHz, which is clearly visible in the spectrum. Note
the sharp initial rise in the time frame; maximum amplitude is reached in the first oscillation. The second, more
dilute, burst at about 0.7 ms is due to reflection.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
1.
0. 0.2E+06 0.3E+06
0.5
FFT:ttd1
0.5
0.7E-03 -0.6E-03 -0.4E-03 -0.3E-03 -0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03 0.2E-0
0.
ttd1
Figure 9 - A laboratory recorded signal with clear signs of propagation in the tank wall, together
with its power spectrum
The time frame signal in Figure 9 shows a typical two-step behavior. The longitudinal wave arrives first with lower
amplitude than the transversal wave that comes about 0.04 ms later. The frequency content will be slightly
dependent on the wall thickness, length of wall path etc., but is mainly unchanged from a direct signal.
0. 0.5E+05 0.1E+06
0.1
0.05
FFT noise
0. 0.5E+05 0.1E+06
0.1
0.05
FFT entire signal

0.05
-0.001 -0.5E-03 0. 0.5E-03
0.
time domain
Figure 10 - A weak time domain PD signal together with power spectra for entire signal (middle)
and for the noise part (top)
Comparison of the two spectra in Figure 10 reveals that the PD signal main amplitude is around 50 kHz. This is
because the source is under paper insulation, which attenuates higher frequencies. The signal is just slightly larger
than acquisition system noise.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
0.01
-0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03
0.
Signal 256 averages
0.01
-0.4E-03 -0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03 0.2E-0
0.
Signal
Figure 11 - A clear signal with indications of wall propagation (bottom). These indications are
confirmed by averaging (top)
Averaging can be a very effective method to reduce noise, as illustrated in Figure 11. The trigger was in this case set
on the high amplitude oscillation in the acoustic signal. A stable trigger and a high sample rate are required for
averaging. Several independent averages should always be performed to avoid chance coincidences. If applicable,
averaging is often the most effective method to reduce noise. Note, for example, the very weak indications of a
signal appearing around -0.3 ms in the upper trace. Such observations are often the key to a successful localization.
0.3
0. 0.1E+06 0.15E+06
0.2
0.1
FFT:signal
0.1
-0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.
0.
signal
Figure 12 - A PD signal that has passed from the high-voltage side to the low-voltage side of a
transformer
The wave front in Figure 12 is not sharply rising; it grows slowly (note time scale) and starts roughly at -1.5 ms in
the figure. The power spectrum shows a strong peak around 35 kHz, indicating the passage of the signal through
considerable amounts of attenuating material.
10.4 DSP workstations that record acoustic data over extended periods
Transportable DSP workstation systems process and graphically display the bursts from AE sensors and a number of
signal characteristics vs. time, cumulative time or each other in two and three dimensional formats. This is done for
multiple sensors simultaneously. Signal characteristics include amplitude, signal energy, PD hits, signal duration
(microseconds), PD hits vs. power phase where phase information is available and rise time.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Software in these systems may take advantage of known PD characteristics in order to reduce false indications of
PD. Characteristics include:
a) Signal may be asynchronous relative to the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz. If the signal is synchronous
with the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz, it is often noise
b) Length of the burst
c) Rise time of the first oscillation that crosses the threshold.
Software with a PD locator algorithm uses data collected by the system and three dimensional details of the
transformer tank to generate the best estimate of the PD location. This software may use wavelet transform methods
to estimate the PD location (Annex C).
10.5 On-line (continuous) acoustic partial discharge monitoring systems
Monitoring systems that send information to remote locations are usually intended to alert maintenance and
engineering personnel to possible problems, which can then be followed by more extensive field tests. The systems
often have less processing capability than DSP workstation systems and may not be able to characterize whether the
AE signal is PD. The information transmitted is usually limited to number of counts per unit time and a measure of
energy that is undefined.
10.6 HVDC transformers and reactors
PD detection and location devices are used in the same way during high voltage direct current (HVDC) transformer
and reactor factory and field measurements as they are with normal ac equipment tests. If the transformers are
energized without having the converter operating, there is no extra background noise and PD measurements are the
same as ac equipment. However, in field measurements:
a) EMI interference may be higher in an HVDC substation, requiring additional shielding of instrumentation,
cables and wires. Due to commutation transients there is significant high frequency voltage difference in
different parts of the ground system.
b) The background noise level in HVDC transformers in operation is much higher than in normal ac
transformers and reactors due to the fast transients at converter operation (e.g. valve commutation). Higher
trigger thresholds may compensate for this. If noise levels are too high, acoustic monitoring for PD is not
useful.
c) Acoustic monitoring during inverter operation may be more difficult than rectifier operation because of the
fast transients from high capacitive currents at valve firing.
d) A sensor of 150 kHz resonant frequency may reduce the noise level compared to one of 60 kHz resonant
frequency, but it will also reduce the sensitivity to PD sources under paper.
Sensor location notes cited in other parts of this Guide should be observed. In addition, the acoustic signal may be
attenuated in the area around the valve winding bushing turrets, possibly caused by the extra insulation barriers used
around the bushing connection for resistivity grading. Better results in this location may be obtained by looking
down into the turret by mounting the sensor on the bushing flange mounting surface.
10.7 Characteristics of PD from static electrification
The failures of a number of large power transformers have been attributed to accumulation of charge and subsequent
flashover discharge. Field tests have indicated a correlation of the charge buildup, accompanied by an increasing
level of PD activity, with oil temperatures below approximately 40° C and relatively high oil velocity [B14, B44].
This phenomenon is called static electrification.
It was expected that gases consistent with PD and flashover discharge would be formed; however, DGAs taken

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
during the field tests [B44] did not indicate any increase in levels of hydrogen or other gases. This was probably
because of the relatively short period of time and sporadic occurrences of the static electrification.
External sensor placement is mostly toward the top of the transformer using care to avoid internal shielding.
However, the high energy discharges of advanced static electrification can be detected by sensors located at almost
any location clear of shielding. And these discharges can sometimes be heard as loud bangs by persons standing near
the transformer.
Static electrification discharges can be detected by acoustic methods well before they become damaging [B20]. Field
test experiences [B20, B49] have shown that the most critical situations where static electrification can occur is
during start-up or lightly loaded operation in cold weather. Acoustic activity due to static electrification is gradually
reduced as oil temperature is increased. It practically stops after reaching 50 °C.
10.8 Acoustic activity from thermal faults, the core, mechanical noises and other sources
Acoustic emission techniques have typically been used only for the detection and location of PD/arcing in power
transformers when an indication of a problem is pointed out by other techniques (usually gas-in-oil). However, it has
been observed through the years that transformers without gassing history and/or no indication of an electrical
problem produce acoustic activity when monitored over a fixed period of time [B49]. These signals must be
differentiated from PD signals for the results to be effective. Some examples and their characteristics follow.
a) Core magnetostriction noise (Barkhausen effect): the primary frequency occurs at twice the power
frequency; the amplitude of this signal in both half cycles is about the same. Over fluxing may create
considerable noise, which may have harmonics that reach to the 30 kHz to 40 kHz frequency range or above.
b) Pumped liquid noise: the discharge from oil circulating pumps may interfere with PD signals with
transducers placed low on the transformer tank. They usually have no correlation with the 50 Hz or 60 Hz
waveform.
c) Loose nameplates, pipes hitting each other, fan noise, etc. may sometimes have repeatable waveforms close
to PD signals. The length of the signal is often much longer than the PD signal, which is characteristically
under 150µs.
d) Loose shielding connections in the transformer tank may cause large PD indications, but not be detrimental
to transformer operation. The location of the signals should be considered and correlated with transformer
design drawings.
e) Wiring from the sensors to the amplifiers, if not properly shielded, will pick up spurious PD signals. Look at
every possible source before concluding there are major problems inside the transformer.
f) Trucks, environmental noises (thunderstorms, rain, snow, hail, wind, etc.), and miscellaneous events near the
transformer tank may activate the acoustic sensors. These are random signals lasting longer than 1 ms.
g) Switching and load tap changer movement are random signals.
h) Thermal faults may cause random signals [B19, B43]
The correlation of additional parameters of the transformer during the test (current, voltage, pump/fan current, oil
temperature, winding temperature, phase angle, etc.) with the acoustic emission data may assist in identification and
separation of the different acoustic sources detected during a test [B42]. A sensor isolated from the transformer tank
may be used as a reference for some environmental noises. If possible, a correlation with electrical PD detection can
aid in distinguishing between PD and noise signals.
10.9 Comparison between electrical and acoustic signals

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
A partial discharge exhibits, besides other phenomena, a fast transient electrical pulse and an acoustic "bang".
Depending of the location of the PD and the coupling path between the event and the detector, the electric or
acoustic signal can be used to detect the PD. Both methods have different detection ways and sensitivities for
unwanted signals (noise).
The acoustic PD detection is most useful for events within the line-of-sight of the acoustic transducers. This limits
the detection range, but also the amount of noise.
The electric PD detection covers a wider area, including e.g. bushing and tap changer. External noise will also be
detected and is difficult to remove. The correlation between instrument reading and actual discharge magnitude is
better than with the acoustic method. Several international standards exist that define the instrument response, which
is the readout in pico-Coulomb or micro-Volt, allowing a better comparison between manufacturer and in-field
measurements.
Table 4 gives a rough overview of the comparison of electrical and acoustic PD signals.
Table 4 - Comparison of electrical and acoustic PD signals
Source Electrical Acoustic Remark

Detection Detection
PD generated within the transformer
PD on the outside of the winding Yes Yes Best use for acoustic detector, location
(triangulation)
PD within the winding Yes unlikely Strong acoustic attenuation inside the
winding.
RIV-detector signal affected by circuit L-C
resonance
PD between winding and core Yes difficult acoustic signal reflection at the core
required
Arcing / tracking of the oil surface Yes Yes
Arcing / tracking of the bushing Yes Yes
surface in the oil
a
PD in the bushing Yes possible
PD in the de-energized tap changer Yes Yes
b
PD in the on-load tap changer Yes Yes sensor placement on LTC compartment
Noise sources
c
PD outside the transformer, (e.g. Yes No
corona on busbar, PD in switchgear)
c, d
Strong tracking / leader discharge Yes possible
c, d
Nearby lightning strokes Yes possible unlikely single events
c
Nearby car ignition Yes No no relation to phase angle
c
Switched electronic power supplies Yes No
Radio stations, transmitter Yes No Electrical noise filter (band-stop) or shift in
RIV frequency required
Weather (rain, sleet, snow, hail) No Yes
Other events
Moisture / Degradation in the oil No No Use other diagnostic methods to supplement
the PD detection (PF, DGA etc.)
a
Field tests have proven [B39] that acoustic detection of PD in the bushing can be achieved if acoustic sensors are
placed on the lower part of the bushing, close to the capacitance tap. See SAFETY WARNING Subclause 1.3.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
b
Several cases have been reported [B38, B48] where PD/Arcing and/or tracking (carbon paths) have been detected
inside LTC compartments, either on the insulating support bars or on the diverter switch cylinder.
c
Successful electrical PD detection requires noise suppression (e.g. gating together with an external noise antenna)
and observation of the PD - phase pattern (fingerprint)
d
Very strong electrical signals can couple into the transducer or amplifier if the detector is not sufficiently screened
11. Integrating AE results with data from oil analysis

Although AE data is useful in its own right, it becomes even more so when used in conjunction with dissolved gas-
in-oil data. For example, if the problem has been present for some time, as is typical of situations that develop in the
field, good correlation should be expected between gas analysis and AE data. As with any diagnostic tool, a baseline
reading should be established before or at the start of monitoring AE signals. The increase and rate of increase of
combustible gases from the baseline dissolved gas analysis (DGA) reading, in combination with events that occur on
the transformer, then become relevant diagnostic data.
Partial discharge PD and/or arcing in the presence of oil produce hydrogen (H2) and other gases. PD and the
generation of H2 due to PD, are the earliest (first) warning signals of most incipient faults known to the industry.
If DGAs show a continuing increase of H2 in combination with AE signals emanating from a source determined to
be in a specific area, there is a good possibility that the partial discharge is taking place in the specific area. Refer to
International Standard IEC 60599 Mineral Oil-impregnated Equipment in Service- Interpretation of Dissolved and
Free Gases Analysis [B34] and IEEE Standard C57.104 Guide for the Interpretation of Gasses Generated in Oil
Immersed Transformers [B32] for more information.
The two sources of data can often supplement each other in yet other ways. For instance, sometimes the breakdown
of constituents in the gas analysis is so complex that, although it is obvious that a significant problem is involved, it
is not possible to determine whether the cause is due to partial discharges or is thermal in origin. The AE system
responds to internal signals produced by partial discharges, arcs or gas bubbles. Thermal phenomena that are below
the threshold of causing gas bubbles can produce acoustic signals [B19], but with different characteristics than the
signals produced by partial discharge. Therefore, the existence of any AE signal having the characteristics
associated with partial discharge together with the continuing increase or acceleration of hydrogen gas, verify the
existence of PD in oil. The absence of acoustic emission activity in this case may indicate that the problem is
located in an area where the signal is highly attenuated. If AE signals continue and/or increase, with no further
increase or acceleration of H2 or other combustible gases, the AE signals may be due to components external to the
transformer tank. As the combination of information produced by these two techniques is so advantageous, it is
particularly recommended that gas analysis results be taken into account when interpreting AE data.
When evaluating transformers on the shop floor, the same good correlation between dissolved gas and partial
discharge is normally obtained after HV dielectric tests and temperature test. Acoustic emission technique provides
essentially real time data relative to activity occurring at that instant. Oil analysis on the other hand is to some extent
historical in nature. Depending on the location of the source and the activity level of PD, there may be a delay of
seconds to much longer time periods before gassing is observed. It cannot be assumed that because there is gas there
is PD and vice versa. Normally, "RIV" or "Apparent Charge" detection is carried out in the factory and this provides
an alternate database for correlation with acoustic emission data in the signal interpretation process.
12. Acoustic activity interpretation
In the laboratory it may be possible to correlate AE characteristics with electrical partial discharge (pico-Coulomb)
levels. However, this correlation can not be used in the field due to the external disturbances and effects of
attenuation in both the acoustic and electrical signals. This means that no absolute value of partial discharge activity
can be determined from AE measurements made in the field.
It is important to verify whether the acoustic signal is due to internal partial discharges or if it is caused by some
other source such as mechanical noise. To make this verification requires expertise of the investigator and other

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
evidences such as the presence of indicating combustible gasses or electrical PD. Data processing technology may
also be helpful. This can be performed by separating the acoustic signals based on the particular characteristics of
each individual source (amplitude, duration, energy, counts, etc.).
In general, a more intense PD source will typically produce a higher AE magnitude and count rate than a weak
source. This is because at the site of an intense discharge there may be multiple locations or perturbations that are
producing higher energy PD and AE. It is necessary to consider the transformer design when making acoustic
measurements on transformers.
a) Some transformers do not have tank wall shielding or directed flow barriers and have tank wall thickness 6
mm or less. A given partial discharge will probably produce more acoustic energy at the transducer location
if the transformer has 6 mm tank wall thickness or less than if the transformer has 10 mm tank wall
thickness and tank wall shielding.
b) The locations of the partial discharges that are likely to lead to failure may be in areas where the attenuation
of the PD signal is great. These would include areas within the windings and in the high-low spaces. The
attenuation is caused by the acoustic signal not having a clear path out of the winding, thicker tank walls,
tank wall shielding, the presence of more insulation barriers, directed oil wraps, etc. A source that is likely
to lead to failure may be attenuated to the point that the PD count rate is low or nonexistent.
c) The acoustic energy at the sensor reflects a combination of magnitude and repetition rate of the PD, the
distance it is away from the transducer and the effect of intervening materials. The AE characteristic that
warrants the need for further investigation varies depending on the size of the transformer as well as the
magnitude and type of PD. The data obtained from acoustic tests is not sufficiently definitive to warrant its
use as either acceptance or go/no-go criteria and should not be used for such.
Since the value of many power transformers is high and the cost of a catastrophic failure is great, the detection of
any internal partial discharges in such transformers should be a cause for further investigation. By taking into
account the type of signal obtained, the behavior of the discharge with time, the approximate location of the emitting
source and an estimate of the level of the activity involved, acoustic measurements can be used as a means of
identifying the potential source, cause and severity of partial discharge problems.
The acoustic measurement alone does not provide an estimate of the severity of the problem. A database and grading
system based on case histories of similar problems may help with this analysis. Also, it can indicate the need for
more frequent samples of oil for combustible gas measurements or other advanced diagnostic measurements which,
when combined with the acoustic data, will often provide the means for identifying the cause and severity of the
problem.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Annex A (Informative)
Bibliography
Since the early 1950’s, there has been much activity in the area of ultrasonic/acoustic emission detection of partial
discharges. The following bibliography is intended to give a broad overview of the subject and provide references
for further study.
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Acoustic Detection of Partial Discharge in Liquids and Implications for Continuous Data Recording," IEEE
ISEI, Vol. 1, pp. 69-74, 1996.
[B66] Wood, J.W., Hickling, G.H., Hindmarch, R.T. and Raju, B.P., "Electrical and Ultrasonic Characteristics of
Partial Discharges in Oil Immersed Insulation," IEEE Conference on Dielectric Materials, Measurements and
Applications, Cambridge, England, 1975.
[B67] Young, R.K., "Wavelet Theory and Its Applications," Kluwer Academic Publishers, MA 1994.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Annex B (Informative)
Signal processing
To evaluate the source of a PD signal, it is necessary to establish its physical disposition or location within the
confines of the transformer. A technique [B48] that is sometimes utilized is based on the presumption that the sensor
location resulting in the highest AE oscillation or count rate would be closest to the source. This is not always true
because of the attenuation that can be caused due to passage of the sound wave through different insulation materials
and copper. Even under most favorable circumstances this technique can only indicate the general zone wherein the
source may probably lie. For more accurate location more precise solutions need to be used. Some of the techniques
are:
a) Time domain: finding the start of a candidate signal in the time domain is the simplest and most reliable
approach.
b) Cross-Correlation: this requires two channels of data from two acoustic sensor locations, with the data in
one channel artificially delayed with respect to the other channel of data. One then attempts to evaluate the
Cross-Correlation of these data by multiplying the corresponding data points. When the artificial time delay
is equivalent to the real time delay between the two data channels a maximum occurs which indicates the
possibility of source location after corresponding mathematical manipulations are conducted. This method
is hampered by the necessarily different wave forms recorded at different locations.
c) Signal Enhancement: averaging is a very powerful technique for recovering repetitive signals from random
noise when there is a stable trigger. In this method, randomness in the signal is reduced to almost zero
amplitude while the true repetitive portion of the signal remains unaffected. However, as AE signals vary in
amplitude, the degree of enhancement obtained is usually less than that predicted by theory.
d) Fast Fourier Transform: the signal can be analyzed in the frequency domain by using suitable Fourier
techniques [B46, B54]. This can result in corresponding power spectral densities which can be manipulated
mathematically to get the estimate of the time delay and then correspondingly the source location.
e) Wavelet Transform: the signal can be analyzed in the frequency as well as the time domain using suitable
wavelet transform techniques [B59, B60, B67]. This can result in corresponding wide band cross ambiguity
functions with better estimation of the time delay and correspondingly better source location accuracy.
These estimated time delays in conjunction with proper signal characteristics (amplitude, signal-to-noise
ratio and shape) yield better PD source location accuracy. Use of suitable location algorithms is illustrated
in Annex C.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Annex C (Informative)
Wavelet signal processing theory
Incipient faults generally occur due to the breakdown of a small part of the transformer insulation, generally caused
by the inclusion of moisture or a cavity. This activity results in an instantaneous shunting of a small partial
capacitance of the entire insulation. The discharge of this partial capacitance reconfigures the distribution of charges
within the insulation instantaneously causing a short current pulse. This activity can continue in a sequence for a
while setting up a train of pulses. These pulses can have a particular shape, size and frequency depending upon the
spatial arrangement of the inclusion.
In the following analysis, wavelet transform techniques are used with data from external sensors to estimate the
spatial location of the incipient fault.
sensor 2
r2 (t)
sensor 1
r1 (t)
τ2,s2
sensor3
r3 (t)
τ3, s3 τ1, s1
x(t) τ0 , s0
PD SOURCE
sensor i
ri(t) sensor 0
τn, sn r0 (t)
sensor n
rn (t)
Figure C.1 – PD source with sensors located on the external surface of the transformer tank
Let the PD source be located as shown in Figure C.1. The different sensors are located at different positions on the
transformer tank. Let ri(t) be the measurements received at the n sensors consisting of the signal corrupted by
Gaussian noise, independent and identically distributed, with mean zero and variance
αi ⎛ t − τi ⎞
ri (t ) = x⎜ ⎟ + ni (t )
si ⎝ si ⎠
= xi (t ) + ni (t ) (1)
where
2
x (t ) = e −αt e
jwt
(2)
Then the wavelet transform of the reference measurement received at sensor 0 and the measurement at sensor i is
given by
1 ⎛ t −τ ⎞
Wr0 ri ( s, τ ) =
s ∫ ri (t )r0 ⎜
⎝ s ⎠
⎟dt (3)
1 ⎛ t −τ ⎞
Wx0 xi ( s,τ ) =
s ∫ xi ( t ) x 0 ⎜
⎝ s ⎠
⎟dt (4)

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
α 0α i ⎛ s τ + sτ 0 − τ i ⎞
Wx0 xi ( s, τ ) = Wx x⎜ s 0 , ⎟ (5)
s0 si ⎝ si si ⎠
Since Wx x will have a maximum value at (s,τ) = (1, 0), equation (5) will have a peak when
si si
s= and τ = τ i − τ (6)
s0 s0 0
⎛ t − τi ⎞ ⎛ t − τ0 ⎞
xi ( t ) = x ⎜ ⎟ and x 0 ( t ) = x ⎜ ⎟ (7)
⎝ si ⎠ ⎝ s0 ⎠
If t ′ = t − τ0 (8)
then t − τ i = t ′ − (τ i − τ0 ) (9)
⎛ t ′ − (τ i − τ 0 ) ⎞
Hence xi (t ) = xi ( t ′ + τ 0 ) = x⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (10)
⎝ si ⎠
⎛ t′⎞
(
and x 0 ( t ) = x 0 t ′ + τ 0 = x ⎜ ) ⎟
⎝ s0 ⎠
(11)
Now x 0 ( t ) and xi ( t ) are scaled and delayed versions of x( t ′ ) . In the new time domain, using the scale/delay
property of WT, equation 5 will have a peak when

si
s= and τ = τi − τ0 (12)
s0
sensor 1
(x1,y1,z1)
(x,y,z) sensor 0
sensor 2 (x0,y0,z0)
PD
(x2,y2,z2)
z
y sensor n
(xn,yn,zn)
x (0,0,0)
Figure C.2 – Representation of 3-D transformer tank with sensor locations for calculation of PD
source location coordinates
If the speed of sound in oil is C feet / sec, then, in Figure C.2,
( x − x i ) 2 + ( y − y i ) 2 + ( z − zi ) 2 = C 2 . τ i 2 (13)
From the above equation the location of the PD source (x, y, z) can be easily estimated.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Annex D (Informative)
Tutorial: detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial discharge
D.1 Introduction
Acoustic detection systems can be used to detect and/or locate partial discharges in transformers.
a) Acoustic emissions are transient elastic waves in the range of ultrasound, usually between 20 kHz and 1
MHz, generated by the rapid release of energy from a source
b) Partial discharges are pulse-like and cause mechanical stress waves (acoustic waves) to propagate within
the transformer
c) If the stress waves propagate to the transformer tank wall, they may be detected with a transducer that is
tuned to the right frequency
d) PD sources can be located by measuring the relative time of arrival of acoustic waves at multiple transducer
locations
As shown in Figure D.1, sensors, generally attached to the outside of the transformer tank, detect the stress waves
caused by PD. This acoustic wave is converted to a voltage signal by the sensor, which is processed and displayed,
and combined with other signals or otherwise processed to aid in interpretation of the acoustic disturbance.
Figure D.1 – A PD source emits stress waves that are detected by a sensor on the tank wall. This
signal is processed to validate that it is PD and to determine the location.
The advantages of the acoustic system are:
a) It can be used when the transformer is on-line

b) It can be used during transformer applied voltage or induced voltage tests
c) It is non-invasive

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
d) Some commercial systems can differentiate between actual PD and other acoustic noises
Problems in interpretation of signals can be caused by the different velocities of propagation in steel, oil and
insulation. Blocking of signals may be caused by magnetic shields and other obstructions.
D.2 Types of systems

Many different types of acoustic PD systems are in use to detect and/or locate PD. These generic systems include:
a) Digital oscilloscopes with the ability to display multiple channels of waveforms

b) Automated workstations with or without electrical PD triggers
c) On-line continuous monitoring systems
D.3 Sensors
The sensors most often used in AE applications have a sensitive range centered at about 60 kHz or 150 kHz. The
higher frequency sensor is often chosen for field work because of fewer potentially interfering noises.
D.4 Acoustic PD systems are often used in the following situations:

a) When DGA indicates the possible presence of PD
b) When static electrification is suspected
c) When electrical PD is detected, for confirmation and source location
d) As a diagnostic warning tool for suspect or very important transformers
e) For PD detection during factory impulse testing
D.5 Case Studies

Case 1
During induced voltage test in the lab, PD activity in a 3-phase 250 MVA 400/121/10.5 kV auto transformer was
measured by the analog electrical method. Location was carried out using the acoustic method with a workstation-
type automated instrument as shown in Figure D.2. After partial dismantling of the transformer, an internal flashover
was located in phase A; see Figure D.3. Insulation between the upper stress ring of the 110 KV winding and the
upper yoke was broken. The accuracy of the three-dimensional location was in the range of 0.3 – 0.5 meters.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Figure D.2 – Views of the workstation screen showing PD hits vs. time and the location of the
source of PD in the transformer tank
Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharge
Figure D.3 – Internal flashover
Case 2
DGA results recorded in Figure D.4 showed high hydrogen levels in a three-phase 330 MVA, 400/115/35 kV
autotransformer manufactured in 1976. Unstable PD activity was detected during a 14-hour acoustic testing period.
A workstation-type automated instrument indicated location as shown in Figure D.5. Using design drawings, the
fault was located near the core cooling duct of phase A. After consideration of DGA results and PD signals, it was

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
decided to keep the transformer in service.
Table D.1 – DGA history of the transformer with PD activity
DGA history
3D location
Figure D.4 – Acoustic activity and three-dimensional PD source location in a 330 MVA,
400/115/35 kV transformer

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Case 3
Single phase Autotransformer: 500/230/13.8 kV, ONAN/ONAF/ONAF, 146/194/243 MVA, core form.
After two years in operation of three sister units that are part of the same bank, Phase C started gassing. A steady
increase in hydrogen started being detected in February 2005. The other two phases remained stable.
Representative dissolved gas analysis values, shown in Table D.2 below, indicate the existence of partial discharge
activity.
Table D.2 - Dissolved gas analysis values
DATE H2 CO CO2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 TDCG
05/31/ 192 187 728 17 5 3 0 404

0 28
The utility Asset Management Engineers decided to perform an acoustic emission test in order to determine the
location of the gassing site. This test was performed in May 2005.
The autotransformer was monitored continuously for five days. During this period of time it was observed that
significant acoustic activity was detected. This activity was sporadic (only active at certain periods of time); see
Figure D.5.
1 hr 13 1 hr 29
Fault
2
2 hr 59 3 hr 25
Figure D.5 - Plot showing the time (horizontal) when the acoustic activity produces locatable events (vertical)
for a portion of the test.
As can be observed on the above figure, if the test had been done with fewer sensors or for a shorter period of time,
the fault might have not been detected. On the other hand, an on-line continuous monitoring system might have
allowed detection of this fault earlier and provided more information about its trends.
When analyzing the other data collected during the test, it was observed that the acoustic emissions were detected
when load was at its minimum value; see Figure D.6. This behavior suggested a source only active when the voltage
was at its maximum value.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Load current
Line indicates when acoustic

activity produced locatable
events
Figure D.6 - Load current versus acoustic activity.
In order to verify that hypothesis, the voltage profile of the transformer was requested from the utility. It was
observed that the fault was active when the system reached the maximum voltage values; see Figure D.7.
AE starts AE
Secondary voltage
Values for
May 23
Figure D.7 - Voltage profile
After five days of continuous monitoring, two areas where the acoustic activity occurred inside the transformer were
obtained. These areas are presented as three dimensional plots. From the average coordinates and correlation to pre-
tanking photographs, the possible areas of concern were at the bottom and top core yokes; see Figure D.8.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
HV
Bushing/control Tertiary
bushings
side
Cluster
1
X1 Bushing
Left side
Cluster
HV
2 Tertiary
Bushing/control bushings
side
X1
Left Bushing
id side
Figure D.8 - Three dimensional plots vs. construction photographs showing two clusters of acoustic activity
Additional tests were planned and an overhaul was being planned after the summer. The transformer failed on July 2,
2005.
Internal inspection indicated that the predicted locations were right on the areas where the degradation was observed;
see Figure D.9.

IEEE PC57.127/D8.0, June 26, 2006
Core damage at bottom of center limb (cluster1) Upper core damage

(cluster 2)
Figure D.9 - Internal inspection findings after unit failed.
D.6 Conclusions
Detection and location of PD using acoustic measurements is not a perfect science. All PD systems require
knowledge of how the system is recording and processing data in order to interpret data correctly. Remote operation
of these systems is difficult.
a) High level PD can be detected and located. It is difficult to detect low PD levels.
b) PD sources in outer parts (leads, etc.) can be detected and located more easily than PD in inner parts. PD
within the winding block might be impossible to detect or location might be false even at high levels of
activity.
c) The correlation is weak between measured and real PD level due to attenuation
d) For exact location, detailed design drawings are needed
e) Correlation to on-site operating parameters is needed to separate PD from other acoustic sources, e.g.
mechanical noises, rain, hail.


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IEEE PC57.127/D8.

0, June 26, 2006

Draft Guide for the Detection and Location of

Copyright © 2006 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

IEEE Standards Activities Department

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved.

John W. Harley, Chair

Donald Ayers Robert Ganser Tamyres Luiz Machado

Others who were active in the writing of this guide are:

Michel Duval D avid Goodwin Stanley Lindgren

The following persons were on the balloting committee:

(To be supplied by IEEE Standards Project Editor at time of publication)

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 2

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 3

3. Detection and measurement of partial discharge – background information 8

4. Introduction to acoustic partial discharge systems ………………………………... 9

5. Acoustic signal transmission characteristics ………………………………………. 10

6. AE systems: equipment specifications …………………………………………….. 14

7. Acoustic emission testing ………………………………………………………….. 16

8. Acoustic emission field test procedure ……………………………………………. 18

9. Factory test procedure using an electrical trigger ……………………………….. 20

10. Characterization of acoustic emission signals …………………………………….. 24

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 4

10.3 Acoustic systems that record single events ……………………………….. 26

11. Integrating AE results with data from oil analysis ……………………………….. 32

12. Acoustic activity interpretation …………………………………………………….. 32

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ………………………………………………………… 34

Annex B (informative) Signal processing ……………………………………………………. 38

Annex C (informative) Wavelet signal processing theory …………………………………….. 39

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 5

IEEE Guide for the Detection and Location of

1.3 Safety warnings

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 6

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 7

3. Detection and measurement of partial discharge – background information

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 8

4. Introduction to acoustic partial discharge systems

4.1 The all-acoustic system

4.2 The acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger

Table 1 - Time lag in electrical PD detectors

Type of detector Time-lag to t0 Signal rise time Approximate location

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 9

Integrator (100-400 kHz)

4.3 The on-line (continuous) acoustic monitoring system

5. Acoustic signal and transmission characteristics

5.1 Acoustic signal

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 10

Figure 1a - Typical acoustic emission burst

Oscillations: 1 2 3 4 5 6789-10 11-12-13-14 15-16

Figure 1b – Oscillations in an acoustic emission burst

5.2 Acoustic signal propagation from source to tank wall

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 11

distance traveled = acoustic wave speed x travel time

5.3 Acoustic signal propagation within the tank wall

Copyright © 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved 12

Critica l a ngle for:

Pressure (Longitudinal) Waves

Shear (Transversal) Waves

NOTE: the wavelengths in Figure 3 are not to scale.

5.4 Velocity of sound in oil

Table 2 - Velocity of sound in transformer oil vs. temperature

Temperature of oil - °C Velocity – m/s

6. AE systems: equipment specifications